how to write theory in thesis

How It Works
PhD thesis writing
Master thesis writing
Bachelor thesis writing
Dissertation writing service
Dissertation abstract writing
Thesis proposal writing
Thesis editing service
Thesis proofreading service
Thesis formatting service
Coursework writing service
Research paper writing service
Architecture thesis writing
Computer science thesis writing
Engineering thesis writing
History thesis writing
MBA thesis writing
Nursing dissertation writing
Psychology dissertation writing
Sociology thesis writing
Statistics dissertation writing
Buy dissertation online
Write my dissertation
Cheap thesis
Cheap dissertation
Custom dissertation
Dissertation help
Pay for thesis
Pay for dissertation
Senior thesis
Write my thesis

Theoretical Framework: Research Writing Guide

In a thesis or dissertation, a theoretical framework is a section where the writer evaluates or discusses the most relevant theories to their study.

The purpose of this section is to:

Define the key concepts
Combine and evaluate relevant models and theories
Explain expectations and assumptions that guide the project

The proper presentation of this information frames the research while justifying the approach taken by the writer. This section does this by showing the established ideas on which you ground your work.

Essentially, this section of a dissertation a foundation that supports the analysis that follows. It also allows the author to convincingly interpret their results and state or explain their relevance in a larger context.

When properly written, this section works like the software or buildings that provide critical support to the other aspects of the study. Writing a strong framework with a strong theoretical basis enhances investigations that lead to the achievement of specific study goals.

A well-written framework reduces a dreadful research topic into two basic concepts. These are:

The study problem
The rationale behind its investigation

When writing the framework section, focus on creating a piece that connects you with the existing knowledge via the guidance of relevant theories. Also, provide the basis of your hypothesis and your chosen research methods. A professional dissertation writer will help, if you’re in trouble.

What Is a Theoretical Framework?

The Length of a Theoretical Framework

Theoretical or Conceptual Framework?

Types of theoretical framework, how to write a theoretical framework.

Summary of a Theoretical Framework Sample

Just like the name suggests, this part of a dissertation or thesis is about theories. Researchers develop theories to draw connections, explain phenomena, and make predictions.

The simplest theoretical framework definition describes it as a collection of theories or interrelated concepts. It comprises concepts and their definitions, as well as, a reference to existing theory and scholarly literature that will be used in a particular study. Your content in this section of a thesis or dissertation must show your understanding of concepts and theories relevant to your research topic. It must also relate them to the considered broader field of knowledge.

Some students confuse conceptual vs. theoretical framework. In some cases, learners use these terms interchangeably. But though these terms help readers understand the research problem while guiding the collection, as well as, analysis of information, they are different.
According to the above definition of theoretical framework, it comprises concepts or theories relevant to a study. It highlights how the author will understand and investigate the research problem.
On the other hand, a conceptual framework can include several formal theories partly or entirely, and other empirical findings and concepts from the field’s literature. The main difference between theoretical and conceptual framework is that the latter demonstrates the relationships among ideas and their relationship with the study.
A conceptual framework is commonly used in qualitative research. Although some researchers use a theoretical framework in qualitative research, it is common in quantitative research. A conceptual framework is commonly used in qualitative research, especially in behavioral and social science studies.

The Length of a Theoretical Framework

The complexity and length of this section depend on the topic and study field. Some fields and topics have an obvious and well-established theoretical basis. Others need a more detailed justification and explanation.

Maybe you already know that you will apply a specific theory or several theories to your specific context. For instance, you may intend to use the social impact theory when conducting your market research. In that case, the main task is to discuss the main aspects of this theory and then convince the readers that it offers a solid basis that will enable you to answer the research question. It’s also crucial that you evaluate more theories, as long as, they are relevant to your study. Also, tell your readers why you’ve chosen that specific approach.

In some cases, authors draw on different theories and then combine ideas. This approach can lead to strong research. However, it may require more work because you have to implement the theories in your work.

Most theoretical framework examples range between three and five pages. However, no rules govern the length of this section of a dissertation. Nevertheless, try to keep yours within the range of 3-5 pages. This length is adequate for providing all the relevant information your reader wants to know about your chosen theories and assumptions.

Perhaps, you are torn between a theoretical and conceptual framework. Well, the best approach for deciding what to use in your paper is determining the kind of study you want to conduct. If you must use a theoretical framework in qualitative research, determine the theories you intend to use.

That’s because most types of theoretical framework in qualitative research are found in studies based on existing theories. For instance, you can use this framework when your study is based on motivation theory.

On the other hand, a conceptual framework is ideal for something you will develop based on a theory. Thus, you can use some or all concepts of this theory. Thus, you develop a conceptual framework to solve a problem for which you’re doing the study to find a solution.

At this point, you’re no longer asking, ‘what is theoretical framework?’ But, you most likely want to know the types of frameworks that you can consider for your research. Well, this framework provides a lens or a perspective via which you will examine your topic. And this perspective can be from any study field depending on your academic paper.

For instance, a nursing student can use a theoretical framework in nursing research as long as it defines the concepts while explaining the phenomena in question. However, learners can consider other categories and types of theoretical framework in research.

They include:

Dynamic and sustainability framework
Implementation results framework
Theoretical domains validation framework
Consolidated implementation research and theoretical domains framework
Active research implementation framework
Evaluation framework

The internet has many resources with examples of theoretical framework in qualitative research and quantitative research. Check them out before you use any framework in your research to know what it entails.

This article has already answered the question, ‘what is theoretical framework in research?’ It has also highlighted the types of this framework. But, how do you complete your theoretical framework research work?

Here is a guide for creating this framework for your research:

Identify the main concepts : Start by picking the main terms of your research problem or research questions. Some concepts can have several definitions. Your framework should define what each concept means clearly. For instance, if concepts like “customer satisfaction” and “customer loyalty” are central to your study, define them and discuss theories that explain their relationship.
Explain and evaluate relevant theories : Engage in an extensive literature review to find out the definition of the connections between theories and concepts by other researchers. As you compose your framework, focus on critically evaluating different approaches and comparing them. Establish the most appropriate definitions for your research after discussing different theories and models. Mention all important concepts that are connected to the theories that you discuss in your framework. Explain why you choose a well-established theory for your study and what makes it the most suitable for that purpose. If unsure about the best way to do this, check a theoretical framework example online first.
Demonstrate how your study fits in : In addition to discussing theories by other people, your framework should demonstrate how your project will implement these ideas. That means you have to test whether your chosen theory holds in your specific context. Also, use this theory to interpret the findings of your study. It’s also crucial to challenge or critique the theory. What’s more, combine various theories in a unique or new way. If possible and relevant, use your framework to come up with your research hypothesis.
Structure your framework : When writing a dissertation or a thesis paper, you can integrate your framework in the literature review chapter. However, you can have it as a separate section or chapter of your paper. If you will be dealing with several complex theories in your paper, have a separate chapter or section for the framework. Nevertheless, you don’t have to follow specific, fixed rules when it comes to structuring the research theoretical framework section. But, your framework should have a logical, clear structure. For instance, you can draw on your study problems or questions and then structure every section around a major concept or question.

These tips should guide you in writing a framework with the theories or concepts you intend to use in your thesis or dissertation. However, you can apply them differently depending on the nature of your study. For instance, a business paper framework may not be the same as a nursing theoretical framework because these are different study fields. However, the concept of creating this framework is the same.

Summary of a Theoretical Framework Sample

For some researchers, an ideal approach is to define theoretical framework. However, some researchers assume the reader already knows what this framework is all about. As such, they go straight to the details. Below is a summary of a theoretical framework in research example.

Company Y wants to resolve the problem of having many customers buy its products online without returning for subsequent purchases. As such, the company management is looking for ways to enhance customer loyalty, hoping that better customer satisfaction will lead to the achievement of this goal.

In your research, you have developed a problem statement, research question, and research question as follows:

Research problem : Most online buyers do not come back for subsequent purchases.
Objective : To boost customer loyalty hoping to increase revenue through online sales
Research questions : How can company Y improve the satisfaction of online customers to enhance customer loyalty?

Your framework should focus on answering these questions:

Is there a relationship between customer satisfaction and customer loyalty?
How loyal and satisfied are the online customers of company Y currently?
What are some of the factors affecting the loyalty and satisfaction of the online customers of company Y?

Customer satisfaction and customer loyalty are major concepts that play a role in such a research paper. Therefore, they should be investigated and measured using theories or concepts that should be featured in the framework.

The information contained in this framework could be different from that of a theoretical framework nursing educators expect. That’s because this framework is meant for a business-oriented research paper. Nevertheless, the approach for writing both frameworks is the same.

The framework section of a thesis or dissertation paper clarifies implicit theories or concepts in a clearly defined manner. It also shows how they connect to the current research and why they are suitable for it. Your academic supervisor will most likely check this section first. Therefore, understanding its purpose and how to write it properly is very important.

Eureka! When I learnt how to write a theoretical framework

Feb 6, 2019

how to structure a theoretical framework

Have you checked out the rest of The PhD Knowledge Base ? It’s home to hundreds more free resources and guides, written especially for PhD students.

Have you ever had a eureka moment? A moment where something that you’ve misunderstood for ages becomes crystal clear?

I did, about half way through my PhD.

Did I come up with a ground breaking discovery that would revolutionise my field? Did I develop a new theory that would change the way we think about the world?

I finally understood how to write a theoretical framework.

Sound silly? It isn’t.

During the one-on-one PhD coaching sessions I run, the issue of how to write a theory framework comes up more frequently than any other. The theoretical framework is important, but many people find it difficult. I know I struggled with it.

Then someone explained the theory framework to me in such a simple way. Here’s the eureka moment: The theoretical framework is like a toolbox.

Simple, right?

Let me explain. In the literature review you highlighted the problem that needs ‘fixing’. The theoretical framework – the ’toolbox’ – details the theories, propositions, hypotheses (if you’re using them) and concepts – the ’tools’ – that you will use to address or make sense of this problem.

So, your job in a theoretical framework chapter is to discuss in detail what the tools look like, how they behave, how they have been used before, how they relate to one another, how they are relevant to your aims and objectives and what the drawbacks are from using them. The methods chapter then discusses how you will use (operationalise) those tools.

Hello, Doctor…

Sounds good, doesn’t it? Be able to call yourself Doctor sooner with our five-star rated How to Write A PhD email-course. Learn everything your supervisor should have taught you about planning and completing a PhD.

Now half price. Join hundreds of other students and become a better thesis writer, or your money back.

What is a theoretical framework?

In the literature review you highlighted the problem that needs ‘fixing’. The theoretical framework – the ’toolbox’ – details the theories, propositions, hypotheses (if you’re using them) and concepts – the ’tools’ – that you will use to address or make sense of this problem.

The list of potential explanations for why responses differ is enormous.

You could approach this question with a focus on, say, psychology, power, gender, economics, and so on. The best we can typically hope for – and this is particularly true in much of the social sciences – is an interpretation of the truth.

So – and this is important – we use theory to focus our attention on a small sub-set of all potential explanations, on one particular viewpoint.

Now I know I’m getting into messy epistemological and ontological waters here. I am an interpretivist, so I see theory as a ‘lens’ that you apply to make sense of the world. That’s the shape of my toolbox.

But, even if you’re a positivist you still pick and choose theoretical concepts and hypotheses from a range of available options; you just use them in a different way (rather than a lens, they become testable propositions, or measurement tools).

Without a theoretical framework we are left with a potentially endless choice of potential viewpoints, which would make our data collection and analysis and our discussion hugely chaotic.

PhD Literature Review & Theory Framework Survival Pack

Master your lit review & theory framework.

Learn what goes where (and why), and how it all fit together with this free, interactive guide to the PhD literature review and theory framework.

In other words, if we don’t know how to focus our attention, how we can present a coherent explanation?

The theoretical framework is a natural extension of the literature review. The purpose of the literature review, amongst other things, is to highlight gaps and shortcomings with the existing work in your field.

The theoretical framework details the perspective you will take to address that gap and shortcoming.

For example, in my doctoral research, my literature review focused on government responses to climate change and pointed out that there hadn’t been much discussion on local government.

The theoretical framework then made an informed decision to come at it from a particular theoretical perspective (institutional theory, if you’re interested) and then discussed what that theory looks like, highlighting the key concepts and ideas.

In your own research you will also need to make an informed decision about the particular theory you will employ to guide you through the rest of the research.

The theoretical framework is a natural extension of the literature review. The purpose of the literature review, amongst other things, is to highlight gaps and shortcomings with the existing work in your field. The theoretical framework details the perspective you will take to address that gap and shortcoming.

So, the job of the theoretical framework isn’t to repeat the literature review . Instead, think of it as a separate, mini literature review , this time focusing on the theory you will employ. You don’t have to discuss every particular use and discussion of the theoretical position you employ. If you did, you’d quickly run out of space and time.

Remember, your examiners are likely to already be familiar with the theory, meaning that rather than discuss every possible thing that there is to discuss about it, you instead need to discuss how and why the theory has been adapted and adopted to the context of your research.

How to structure a theoretical framework

You need to have a solid grasp of your aims and objectives. These define the space in which your research will sit and your goals when conducting it. You will need to briefly recap these when you start writing your theoretical framework, both to remind the reader and so that you can relate your theory to these overarching aims.
What theory/theories are you using? Here you need to define and explain each theory you draw upon and, in doing so, discuss the leading proponents and applications. This shows that you understand the theory you are going to adopt.
You then need to spend time critically arguing why you are adopting this particular theory. There are a lot of potential theories you could use. Why this one? Importantly, you should relate your choice to the discussions in the literature review and your aims and objectives.
Can the theory/theories be broken down into different schools? Which one are you siding with and why?
A theory contains a number of concepts. Which will you be drawing upon? Why these ones? Have you defined them properly? The way you approach this section will be influenced by your epistemological and ontological perspective and, thus, whether you use hypotheses or not. If you are using hypotheses, you need to state them as such.
How do the concepts relate to your aims and objectives?
Have you clearly stated your ontological and epistemological perspective?
Are you the first to use this particular theory in this particular way? What benefits or drawbacks does that bring?
Can you spot any drawbacks with applying this theory? Does it fail to account for a particular dimension of a phenomenon? Is it difficult to operationalize?
How are your concepts related? Are you using them as hypotheses? Or as a model to make sense of the data? Somewhere in between? Be explicit about how they are all related and what you plan on doing with them.

The goal of writing up a theoretical framework is to tell the reader why you have chosen particular theories, how they relate to the gap in the literature, and how they relate to your aims and objectives.

A short (but necessary) note on ontology and epistemology

How do i choose theories and create my framework.

Unless you are using an inductive methodological approach (where you generate theory from the data), you will likely approach your fieldwork with a theoretical framework in mind. Which theory or theories you choose is, in part, down to your aims and objectives and whether there is a relevant theory available ‘off-the-shelf’ that is appropriate for your needs.

There are generally three strategies that researchers use to develop their theoretical frameworks:

There may be theories in your field that have arisen on the basis of repeated observation and testing and which are widely accepted.
Or, you might find that you need to select concepts from multiple theories and create a novel framework that is unique to your particular context.
A growing and important trend in social research is to adopt an interdisciplinary perspective when trying to understand the social world. This can be achieved by looking beyond the dominant, well-established theories and thinking about how other theories, particularly those from other disciplines or sub-disciplines, can be used.

In any case, you must consider the following when selecting a theory:

Identify your ontological and epistemological beliefs.
List several theories that align with your epistemological position and which can aid your understanding of the phenomenon under investigation.
Engage in literature review around those theories, both to familiarise yourself with them but also to understand their relevance to your study.
Ask yourself how each theory connects to your problem, aims & objectives.
Select the theory or theories that provide more relevant tools for your thesis.

I have more than one theory. What do I do?

Often, you need to combine concepts, hypotheses or ideas from more than one theoretical school. Employing more than one theory is entirely legitimate. I did so in my PhD.

However, you need to consider a few key questions :

Are the theories you are bringing together epistemologically compatible?

Have you discussed each theory in the same level of detail to adequately explain the theory, your justification for its inclusion, its relation to the literature and its potential drawbacks?

What benefits does focusing on more than one theory bring? Perhaps one theory has shortcomings that the other addresses?

What downsides are there to employing more than one theory?

Has anyone else used this combination of theories before you?

The theoretical framework is a tricky section to write, largely because the choice available to you is huge.

But keep that toolbox metaphor in mind.

Each theory contains a number of tools. Your job in the theory framework is to take the tools you need for your project from the most relevant theory/theories and package them up into your own toolbox.

When you’re done, you should see that the theory framework offers:

Structure, by detailing the key concepts, tools and, where relevant, hypotheses
A way to connect to other research
A coherent, joined up set of ideas that structure the writing and help to create an argumentative streak that can run throughout your thesis
An approach that can be reused in additional contexts once you’re done

Along the way, you need to convince the reader that you’ve picked and applied the most appropriate tools possible, given your aims and objectives.

The theoretical framework frames the research. If you build that frame right, your research will shine. If you don’t then you’ll struggle.

If you need expert guidance to structure, plan or write your theory framework you can get in touch for a one-on-one coaching session . It’s like having a personal trainer, but for your PhD.

Submit a Comment Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Search The PhD Knowledge Base

Most popular articles from the phd knowlege base.

Staff Directory
Library Policies
Hege Research Award
Quaker Archives
Art Gallery
Student Support
Teaching & Learning
Reserving spaces
Technology Lending
Interlibrary Loan
Course Reserves
Copyright & Fair Use
Poster Printing
Virtual Reference
Research Guides
Off-campus access
Digital Scholarship
Guilford Sources
Open Educational Resources
Quaker Collections
Digital Collections
College Archives
Underground Railroad
Universities Studying Slavery
Images & Exhibitions

Service Alert

Hege Library & Learning Technologies

Guide for Thesis Research

Introduction to the Thesis Process
Project Planning
Literature Review
Theoretical Frameworks
Research Methodology
GC Honors Program Theses
Thesis Submission Instructions This link opens in a new window
Accessing Guilford Theses from 1898 to 2020 This link opens in a new window

Some Articles About Theory

The following are articles that may help you understand the importance of theory as a fundamental aspect of academic research.

It's Just a Theory
Literature Reviews, Conceptual Frameworks, and Theoretical Frameworks: Terms, Functions, and Distinctions
Use of Theoretical Frameworks in Research

Why is theory important?

Theories reflect previous study and analysis that has been conducted in your field. They propose explanations for phenomena that occur in an area of study. Over time, theories are reexamined, refined, and sometimes discarded in favor of new ones, always with the purpose of providing ever more accurate explanations for the dynamics that operate in our world.

The following quote, taken from John Kuada's book Research Methodology: A Project Guide for University Students , helps to explain the importance of theory when developing a research project:

“Theory provides the language, the concepts, and assumptions that help researchers to make sense of the phenomenon that they seek to investigate. It enables researchers to connect the issues they are investigating to the existing body of knowledge in the area” (Kuada, 2012, p. 64).

A theory can help researchers make predictions about the phenomena they are setting out to study. They can be informative in terms of determining what variables should be observed, as well as how data should be collected, analyzed, and interpreted on the way to presenting and justifying conclusions.

As a researcher working on a project, it is essential that you be aware of theories that have gained prominence in your field. Think of scholarship as an ongoing conversation. As people publish ideas and develop theories, they help shape that conversation. When you do research and present your findings and ideas, you are joining in on those discussions. You become a contributor. Therefore, it is good to have a sense of what has been said before.

Identify major theories in your field. Be conscious of the fundamental concepts that have guided scholars in your area, and be aware of emerging perspectives and trends. Try to identify a theoretical base from which you can develop your arguments. This will greatly strengthen your positions when the time comes to present your thesis.

Resources About Theory and Theoretical Frameworks

<< Previous: Literature Review
Next: Research Methodology >>
Last Updated: Jan 23, 2024 4:31 PM
URL: https://library.guilford.edu/thesis-guide

Translators
Graphic Designers
Editing Services
Academic Editing Services
Admissions Editing Services
Admissions Essay Editing Services
AI Content Editing Services
APA Style Editing Services
Application Essay Editing Services
Book Editing Services
Business Editing Services
Capstone Paper Editing Services
Children's Book Editing Services
College Application Editing Services
College Essay Editing Services
Copy Editing Services
Developmental Editing Services
Dissertation Editing Services
eBook Editing Services
English Editing Services
Horror Story Editing Services
Legal Editing Services
Line Editing Services
Manuscript Editing Services
MLA Style Editing Services
Novel Editing Services
Paper Editing Services
Personal Statement Editing Services
Research Paper Editing Services
Résumé Editing Services
Scientific Editing Services
Short Story Editing Services
Statement of Purpose Editing Services
Substantive Editing Services
Thesis Editing Services

Proofreading

Proofreading Services
Admissions Essay Proofreading Services
Children's Book Proofreading Services
Legal Proofreading Services
Novel Proofreading Services
Personal Statement Proofreading Services
Research Proposal Proofreading Services
Statement of Purpose Proofreading Services

Translation

Translation Services

Graphic Design

Graphic Design Services
Dungeons & Dragons Design Services
Sticker Design Services
Writing Services

Please enter the email address you used for your account. Your sign in information will be sent to your email address after it has been verified.

6 Steps to Mastering the Theoretical Framework of a Dissertation

As the pivotal section of your dissertation, the theoretical framework will be the lens through which your readers should evaluate your research. It's also a necessary part of your writing and research processes from which every written section will be built.

In their journal article titled Understanding, selecting, and integrating a theoretical framework in dissertation research: Creating the blueprint for your "house" , authors Cynthia Grant and Azadeh Osanloo write:

The theoretical framework is one of the most important aspects in the research process, yet is often misunderstood by doctoral candidates as they prepare their dissertation research study. The importance of theory-driven thinking and acting is emphasized in relation to the selection of a topic, the development of research questions, the conceptualization of the literature review, the design approach, and the analysis plan for the dissertation study. Using a metaphor of the "blueprint" of a house, this article explains the application of a theoretical framework in a dissertation. Administrative Issues Journal

They continue in their paper to discuss how architects and contractors understand that prior to building a house, there must be a blueprint created. This blueprint will then serve as a guide for everyone involved in the construction of the home, including those building the foundation, installing the plumbing and electrical systems, etc. They then state, We believe the blueprint is an appropriate analogy of the theoretical framework of the dissertation.

As with drawing and creating any blueprint, it is often the most difficult part of the building process. Many potential conflicts must be considered and mitigated, and much thought must be put into how the foundation will support the rest of the home. Without proper consideration on the front end, the entire structure could be at risk.

Your theoretical framework is the blueprint for your entire dissertation.

With this in mind, I'm going to discuss six steps to mastering the theoretical framework section—the "blueprint" for your dissertation. If you follow these steps and complete the checklist included, your blueprint is guaranteed to be a solid one.

Complete your review of literature first

In order to identify the scope of your theoretical framework, you'll need to address research that has already been completed by others, as well as gaps in the research. Understanding this, it's clear why you'll need to complete your review of literature before you can adequately write a theoretical framework for your dissertation or thesis.

Simply put, before conducting any extensive research on a topic or hypothesis, you need to understand where the gaps are and how they can be filled. As will be mentioned in a later step, it's important to note within your theoretical framework if you have closed any gaps in the literature through your research. It's also important to know the research that has laid a foundation for the current knowledge, including any theories, assumptions, or studies that have been done that you can draw on for your own. Without performing this necessary step, you're likely to produce research that is redundant, and therefore not likely to be published.

Understand the purpose of a theoretical framework

When you present a research problem, an important step in doing so is to provide context and background to that specific problem. This allows your reader to understand both the scope and the purpose of your research, while giving you a direction in your writing. Just as a blueprint for a home needs to provide needed context to all of the builders and professionals involved in the building process, so does the theoretical framework of your dissertation.

So, in building your theoretical framework, there are several details that need to be considered and explained, including:

The definition of any concepts or theories you're building on or exploring (this is especially important if it is a theory that is taken from another discipline or is relatively new).
The context in which this concept has been explored in the past.
The important literature that has already been published on the concept or theory, including citations.
The context in which you plan to explore the concept or theory. You can briefly mention your intended methods used, along with methods that have been used in the past—but keep in mind that there will be a separate section of your dissertation to present these in detail.
Any gaps that you hope to fill in the research
Any limitations encountered by past researchers and any that you encountered in your own exploration of the topic.
Basically, your theoretical framework helps to give your reader a general understanding of the research problem, how it has already been explored, and where your research falls in the scope of it. In such, be sure to keep it written in present tense, since it is research that is presently being done. When you refer to past research by others, you can do so in past tense, but anything related to your own research should be written in the present.

Use your theoretical framework to justify your research

In your literature review, you'll focus on finding research that has been conducted that is pertinent to your own study. This could be literature that establishes theories connected with your research, or provides pertinent analytic models. You will then mention these theories or models in your own theoretical framework and justify why they are the basis of—or relevant to—your research.

Basically, think of your theoretical framework as a quick, powerful way to justify to your reader why this research is important. If you are expanding upon past research by other scholars, your theoretical framework should mention the foundation they've laid and why it is important to build on that, or how it needs to be applied to a more modern concept. If there are gaps in the research on certain topics or theories, and your research fills these gaps, mention that in your theoretical framework, as well. It is your opportunity to justify the work you've done in a scientific context—both to your dissertation committee and to any publications interested in publishing your work.

Keep it within three to five pages

While there are usually no hard and fast rules related to the length of your theoretical framework, it is most common to keep it within three to five pages. This length should be enough to provide all of the relevant information to your reader without going into depth about the theories or assumptions mentioned. If you find yourself needing many more pages to write your theoretical framework, it is likely that you've failed to provide a succinct explanation for a theory, concept, or past study. Remember—you'll have ample opportunity throughout the course of writing your dissertation to expand and expound on these concepts, past studies, methods, and hypotheses. Your theoretical framework is not the place for these details.

If you've written an abstract, consider your theoretical framework to be somewhat of an extended abstract. It should offer a glimpse of the entirety of your research without going into a detailed explanation of the methods or background of it. In many cases, chiseling the theoretical framework down to the three to five-page length is a process of determining whether detail is needed in establishing understanding for your reader.

Reducing your theoretical framework to three to five pages is a process of chiseling down the excess details that should be included in the separate sections of your dissertation

Use models and other graphics

Since your theoretical framework should clarify complicated theories or assumptions related to your research, it's often a good idea to include models and other helpful graphics to achieve this aim. If space is an issue, most formats allow you to include these illustrations or models in the appendix of your paper and refer to them within the main text.

Use a checklist after completing your first draft

You should consider the following questions as you draft your theoretical framework and check them off as a checklist after completing your first draft:

Have the main theories and models related to your research been presented and briefly explained? In other words, does it offer an explicit statement of assumptions and/or theories that allows the reader to make a critical evaluation of them?
Have you correctly cited the main scientific articles on the subject?
Does it tell the reader about current knowledge related to the assumptions/theories and any gaps in that knowledge?
Does it offer information related to notable connections between concepts?
Does it include a relevant theory that forms the basis of your hypotheses and methods?
Does it answer the question of "why" your research is valid and important? In other words, does it provide scientific justification for your research?
If your research fills a gap in the literature, does your theoretical framework state this explicitly?
Does it include the constructs and variables (both independent and dependent) that are relevant to your study?
Does it state assumptions and propositions that are relevant to your research (along with the guiding theories related to these)?
Does it "frame" your entire research, giving it direction and a backbone to support your hypotheses?
Are your research questions answered?
Is it logical?
Is it free of grammar, punctuation, spelling, and syntax errors?

A final note

In conclusion, I would like to leave you with a quote from Grant and Osanloo:

The importance of utilizing a theoretical framework in a dissertation study cannot be stressed enough. The theoretical framework is the foundation from which all knowledge is constructed (metaphorically and literally) for a research study. It serves as the structure and support for the rationale for the study, the problem statement, the purpose, the significance, and the research questions. The theoretical framework provides a grounding base, or an anchor, for the literature review, and most importantly, the methods and analysis. Administrative Issues Journal

How Does a Hypothesis Differ From a Research Question?

How to Make a Strong Thesis Statement

Academic Writing Advice
All Blog Posts
Writing Advice
Admissions Writing Advice
Book Writing Advice
Short Story Advice
Employment Writing Advice
Business Writing Advice
Web Content Advice
Article Writing Advice
Magazine Writing Advice
Grammar Advice
Dialect Advice
Editing Advice
Freelance Advice
Legal Writing Advice
Poetry Advice
Graphic Design Advice
Logo Design Advice
Translation Advice
Blog Reviews
Short Story Award Winners
Scholarship Winners

Need an academic editor before submitting your work?

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, automatically generate references for free.

Knowledge Base
Dissertation

Example Theoretical Framework of a Dissertation or Thesis

Published on 8 July 2022 by Sarah Vinz . Revised on 10 October 2022.

Your theoretical framework defines the key concepts in your research, suggests relationships between them, and discusses relevant theories based on your literature review .

A strong theoretical framework gives your research direction, allowing you to convincingly interpret, explain, and generalise from your findings.

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Be assured that you'll submit flawless writing. Upload your document to correct all your mistakes.

Sample problem statement and research questions, sample theoretical framework, your theoretical framework, frequently asked questions about sample theoretical frameworks.

Your theoretical framework is based on:

Your problem statement
Your research questions
Your literature review

To investigate this problem, you have zeroed in on the following problem statement, objective, and research questions:

Problem : Many online customers do not return to make subsequent purchases.
Objective : To increase the quantity of return customers.
Research question : How can the satisfaction of the boutique’s online customers be improved in order to increase the quantity of return customers?

The concepts of ‘customer loyalty’ and ‘customer satisfaction’ are clearly central to this study, along with their relationship to the likelihood that a customer will return. Your theoretical framework should define these concepts and discuss theories about the relationship between these variables.

Some sub-questions could include:

What is the relationship between customer loyalty and customer satisfaction?
How satisfied and loyal are the boutique’s online customers currently?
What factors affect the satisfaction and loyalty of the boutique’s online customers?

As the concepts of ‘loyalty’ and ‘customer satisfaction’ play a major role in the investigation and will later be measured, they are essential concepts to define within your theoretical framework .

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Below is a simplified example showing how you can describe and compare theories. In this example, we focus on the concept of customer satisfaction introduced above.

Customer satisfaction

Thomassen (2003, p. 69) defines customer satisfaction as ‘the perception of the customer as a result of consciously or unconsciously comparing their experiences with their expectations’. Kotler and Keller (2008, p. 80) build on this definition, stating that customer satisfaction is determined by ‘the degree to which someone is happy or disappointed with the observed performance of a product in relation to his or her expectations’.

Performance that is below expectations leads to a dissatisfied customer, while performance that satisfies expectations produces satisfied customers (Kotler & Keller, 2003, p. 80).

The definition of Zeithaml and Bitner (2003, p. 86) is slightly different from that of Thomassen. They posit that ‘satisfaction is the consumer fulfillment response. It is a judgement that a product or service feature, or the product of service itself, provides a pleasurable level of consumption-related fulfillment.’ Zeithaml and Bitner’s emphasis is thus on obtaining a certain satisfaction in relation to purchasing.

Thomassen’s definition is the most relevant to the aims of this study, given the emphasis it places on unconscious perception. Although Zeithaml and Bitner, like Thomassen, say that customer satisfaction is a reaction to the experience gained, there is no distinction between conscious and unconscious comparisons in their definition.

The boutique claims in its mission statement that it wants to sell not only a product, but also a feeling. As a result, unconscious comparison will play an important role in the satisfaction of its customers. Thomassen’s definition is therefore more relevant.

Thomassen’s Customer Satisfaction Model

According to Thomassen, both the so-called ‘value proposition’ and other influences have an impact on final customer satisfaction. In his satisfaction model (Fig. 1), Thomassen shows that word-of-mouth, personal needs, past experiences, and marketing and public relations determine customers’ needs and expectations.

These factors are compared to their experiences, with the interplay between expectations and experiences determining a customer’s satisfaction level. Thomassen’s model is important for this study as it allows us to determine both the extent to which the boutique’s customers are satisfied, as well as where improvements can be made.

Figure 1 Customer satisfaction creation

Of course, you could analyse the concepts more thoroughly and compare additional definitions to each other. You could also discuss the theories and ideas of key authors in greater detail and provide several models to illustrate different concepts.

A theoretical framework can sometimes be integrated into a literature review chapter , but it can also be included as its own chapter or section in your dissertation . As a rule of thumb, if your research involves dealing with a lot of complex theories, it’s a good idea to include a separate theoretical framework chapter.

While a theoretical framework describes the theoretical underpinnings of your work based on existing research, a conceptual framework allows you to draw your own conclusions, mapping out the variables you may use in your study and the interplay between them.

A literature review and a theoretical framework are not the same thing and cannot be used interchangeably. While a theoretical framework describes the theoretical underpinnings of your work, a literature review critically evaluates existing research relating to your topic. You’ll likely need both in your dissertation .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Vinz, S. (2022, October 10). Example Theoretical Framework of a Dissertation or Thesis. Scribbr. Retrieved 20 March 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/thesis-dissertation/example-theoretical-framework/

Is this article helpful?

Sarah's academic background includes a Master of Arts in English, a Master of International Affairs degree, and a Bachelor of Arts in Political Science. She loves the challenge of finding the perfect formulation or wording and derives much satisfaction from helping students take their academic writing up a notch.

Other students also liked

What is a theoretical framework | a step-by-step guide, dissertation & thesis outline | example & free templates, what is a research methodology | steps & tips.

Conceptual and Theoretical Frameworks for Thesis Studies: What you must know

A theoretical framework is a conceptual model that provides a systematic and structured way of thinking about a research problem or question. It helps to identify key variables and the relationships between them and to guide the selection and interpretation of data. Theoretical frameworks draw on existing theories and research and can be used to develop new hypotheses or test existing ones. They provide a foundation for research design, data collection, and analysis and can help to ensure that research is relevant, rigorous, and coherent. Theoretical frameworks are common in many disciplines, including social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities, and are essential for building knowledge and advancing understanding in a field.

This article explains the importance of frameworks in a thesis study and the differences between conceptual frameworks and theoretical frameworks. It provides guidelines on how to write a thesis framework, definitions of variable types, and examples of framework types.

What is a research framework and why do I need one?

When planning your thesis study, you need to justify your research and explain its design to your readers. This is called the research framework.

When planning your thesis study, you need to justify your research and explain its design to your readers. This is called the research framework. Think of it as the foundation of a building. A good building needs a strong foundation. Similarly, your research needs to be supported by reviewing and explaining the existing knowledge in the field, describing how your research study will fit within or contribute to the existing literature (e.g., it could challenge or test an existing theory or address a knowledge gap), and informing the reader how your study design aligns with your thesis question or hypothesis.

Important components of the framework are a literature review of recent studies associated with your thesis topic as well as theories/models used in your field of research. The literature review acts as a filtering tool to select appropriate thesis questions and guide data collection, analysis, and interpretation of your findings. Think broadly! Apart from reviewing relevant published papers in your field of research, also explore theories that you have come across in your undergraduate courses, other published thesis studies, encyclopedias, and handbooks.

There are two types of research frameworks: theoretical and conceptual .

What is a conceptual framework?

A conceptual framework is a written or visual representation that explains the study variables and their relationships with each other. The starting point is a literature review of existing studies and theories about your topic.

Steps to develop a conceptual framework

Clarify your study topic by identifying and defining key concepts in your thesis problem statement and thesis question. Essentially, your thesis should address a knowledge gap.
Perform a literature review to provide a background to interpret and explain the study findings. Also, draw on empirical knowledge that you have gained from personal experience.
Identify crucial variables from the literature review and your empirical knowledge, classify them as dependent or independent variables, and define them.
Brainstorm all the possible factors that could affect each dependent variable.
Propose relationships among the variables and determine any associations that exist between all variables.
Use a flowchart or tree diagram to present your conceptual framework.

Types of variables

When developing a conceptual framework, you will need to identify the following:

Independent variables
Dependent variables
Moderating variables
Mediating variables
Control variables

First, identify the independent (cause) and dependent (effect) variables in your study. Then, identify variables that influence this relationship, such as moderating variables, mediating variables, and control variables. A moderating variable changes the relationship between independent and dependent variables when its value increases or decreases. A mediating variable links independent and dependent variables to better explain the relationship between them. A control variable could potentially impact the cause-and-effect relationship but is kept constant throughout the study so that its effects on the findings/outcomes can be ruled out.

Example of a conceptual framework

You want to investigate the hours spent exercising (cause) on childhood obesity (effect).

Now, you need to consider moderating variables that affect the cause-and-effect relationship. In our example, the amount of junk food eaten would affect the level of obesity.

Next, you need to consider mediating variables. In our example, the maximum heart rate during exercise would affect the child’s weight.

Finally, you need to consider control variables. In this example, because we do not want to investigate the role of age in obesity, we can use this as a control variable. Thus, the study subjects would be children of a specific age (e.g., aged 6–10 years).

What is a theoretical framework?

A theoretical framework provides a general framework for data analysis. It defines the concepts used and explains existing theories and models in your field of research.

A theoretical framework provides a general framework for data analysis. It defines the concepts used and explains existing theories and models in your field of research. It also explains any assumptions that were used to inform your approach and your choice of specific rationales. Theoretical frameworks are often used in the fields of social sciences.

Purpose of a theoretical framework

Test and challenge existing theories
Establish orderly connections between observations and facts
Predict and control situations
Develop hypotheses

Steps to develop a theoretical framework

Identify and define key concepts in your thesis problem statement and thesis question.
Explain and evaluate existing theories by writing a literature review that describes the concepts, models, and theories that support your study.
Choose the theory that best explains the relationships between the key variables in your study.
Explain how your research study fills a knowledge gap or fits into existing studies (e.g., testing if an established theory applies to your thesis context).
Discuss the relevance of any theoretical assumptions and limitations.

A thesis topic can be approached from a variety of angles, depending on the theories used.

In psychology, a behavioral approach would use different methods and assumptions compared with a cognitive approach when treating anxiety.
In literature, a book could be analyzed using different literary theories, such as Marxism or poststructuralism.

Structuring a theoretical framework

The structure of a theoretical framework is fluid, and there are no specific rules that need to be followed, as long as it is clearly and logically presented.

The theoretical framework is a natural extension of your literature review. The literature review should identify gaps in the field of your research, and reviewing existing theories will help to determine how these can be addressed. The structure of a theoretical framework is fluid, and there are no specific rules that need to be followed, as long as it is clearly and logically presented. The theoretical framework is sometimes integrated into the literature review chapter of a thesis, but it can also be included as a separate chapter, depending on the complexity of the theories.

Example of a theoretical framework

The sales staff at Company X are unmotivated and struggling to meet their monthly targets. Some members of the management team believe that this could be achieved by implementing a comprehensive product-training program, but others believe that introducing a sales commission structure will help.

Company X is not achieving their monthly sales targets

To increase monthly sales.

Research question:

How can Company X motivate their sales team to achieve its monthly sales targets?

Sub-questions:

Why do the sales staff feel unmotivated?
What is the relationship between motivation and monetary rewards?
Do the sales staff feel that they have sufficient product knowledge?

Theoretical framework:

A literature search will need to be performed to understand the background of the many different theories of motivation in psychology. For example, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (basic human needs—physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization—have to be fulfilled before one can live up to their true potential), Vroom’s Theory of Expectancy (people decide upon their actions based on the outcomes they expect), and Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory (goals are a key driver of one’s behavior). These theories would need to be investigated to determine which would be the best approach to increase the motivation of the sales staff in Company X so that the monthly sales targets are met.

A robust conceptual or theoretical framework is crucial when writing a thesis/dissertation. It defines your research gap, identifies your approach, and guides the interpretation of your results.

A thesis is the most important document you will write during your academic studies. For professional thesis editing and thesis proofreading services, check out Enago's Thesis Editing service s for more information.

Editor’s pick

Get free updates.

Subscribe to our newsletter for regular insights from the research and publishing industry!

What type of framework is used in the Humanities and Social Sciences (HSS) domain? +

Theoretical frameworks are typically used in the HSS domain, while conceptual frameworks are used in the Sciences domain.

What is the difference between mediating versus moderating variables? +

The difference between mediators and moderators can be confusing. A moderating variable is unaffected by the independent variable and can increase or decrease the strength of the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. A mediating variable is affected by the independent variable and can explain the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. T he statistical correlation between the independent and dependent variables is higher when the mediating variable is excluded.

What software should I use to present my conceptual framework? +

The software program Creately provides some useful templates that can help you get started. Other recommended programs are SmartDraw , Inkscape , and diagrams.net .

USC Libraries
Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

Theoretical Framework
Purpose of Guide
Design Flaws to Avoid
Independent and Dependent Variables
Glossary of Research Terms
Reading Research Effectively
Narrowing a Topic Idea
Broadening a Topic Idea
Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
Academic Writing Style
Choosing a Title
Making an Outline
Paragraph Development
Research Process Video Series
Executive Summary
The C.A.R.S. Model
Background Information
The Research Problem/Question
Citation Tracking
Content Alert Services
Evaluating Sources
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tiertiary Sources
Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods
Insiderness
Using Non-Textual Elements
Limitations of the Study
Common Grammar Mistakes
Writing Concisely
Avoiding Plagiarism
Footnotes or Endnotes?
Further Readings
Generative AI and Writing
USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
Bibliography

Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena and, in many cases, to challenge and extend existing knowledge within the limits of critical bounded assumptions or predictions of behavior. The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study. The theoretical framework encompasses not just the theory, but the narrative explanation about how the researcher engages in using the theory and its underlying assumptions to investigate the research problem. It is the structure of your paper that summarizes concepts, ideas, and theories derived from prior research studies and which was synthesized in order to form a conceptual basis for your analysis and interpretation of meaning found within your research.

Abend, Gabriel. "The Meaning of Theory." Sociological Theory 26 (June 2008): 173–199; Kivunja, Charles. "Distinguishing between Theory, Theoretical Framework, and Conceptual Framework: A Systematic Review of Lessons from the Field." International Journal of Higher Education 7 (December 2018): 44-53; Swanson, Richard A. Theory Building in Applied Disciplines . San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers 2013; Varpio, Lara, Elise Paradis, Sebastian Uijtdehaage, and Meredith Young. "The Distinctions between Theory, Theoretical Framework, and Conceptual Framework." Academic Medicine 95 (July 2020): 989-994.

Importance of Theory and a Theoretical Framework

Theories can be unfamiliar to the beginning researcher because they are rarely applied in high school social studies curriculum and, as a result, can come across as unfamiliar and imprecise when first introduced as part of a writing assignment. However, in their most simplified form, a theory is simply a set of assumptions or predictions about something you think will happen based on existing evidence and that can be tested to see if those outcomes turn out to be true. Of course, it is slightly more deliberate than that, therefore, summarized from Kivunja (2018, p. 46), here are the essential characteristics of a theory.

It is logical and coherent
It has clear definitions of terms or variables, and has boundary conditions [i.e., it is not an open-ended statement]
It has a domain where it applies
It has clearly described relationships among variables
It describes, explains, and makes specific predictions
It comprises of concepts, themes, principles, and constructs
It must have been based on empirical data [i.e., it is not a guess]
It must have made claims that are subject to testing, been tested and verified
It must be clear and concise
Its assertions or predictions must be different and better than those in existing theories
Its predictions must be general enough to be applicable to and understood within multiple contexts
Its assertions or predictions are relevant, and if applied as predicted, will result in the predicted outcome
The assertions and predictions are not immutable, but subject to revision and improvement as researchers use the theory to make sense of phenomena
Its concepts and principles explain what is going on and why
Its concepts and principles are substantive enough to enable us to predict a future

Given these characteristics, a theory can best be understood as the foundation from which you investigate assumptions or predictions derived from previous studies about the research problem, but in a way that leads to new knowledge and understanding as well as, in some cases, discovering how to improve the relevance of the theory itself or to argue that the theory is outdated and a new theory needs to be formulated based on new evidence.

A theoretical framework consists of concepts and, together with their definitions and reference to relevant scholarly literature, existing theory that is used for your particular study. The theoretical framework must demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to the topic of your research paper and that relate to the broader areas of knowledge being considered.

The theoretical framework is most often not something readily found within the literature . You must review course readings and pertinent research studies for theories and analytic models that are relevant to the research problem you are investigating. The selection of a theory should depend on its appropriateness, ease of application, and explanatory power.

The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following ways :

An explicit statement of theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them critically.
The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge. Guided by a relevant theory, you are given a basis for your hypotheses and choice of research methods.
Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces you to address questions of why and how. It permits you to intellectually transition from simply describing a phenomenon you have observed to generalizing about various aspects of that phenomenon.
Having a theory helps you identify the limits to those generalizations. A theoretical framework specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of interest and highlights the need to examine how those key variables might differ and under what circumstances.
The theoretical framework adds context around the theory itself based on how scholars had previously tested the theory in relation their overall research design [i.e., purpose of the study, methods of collecting data or information, methods of analysis, the time frame in which information is collected, study setting, and the methodological strategy used to conduct the research].

By virtue of its applicative nature, good theory in the social sciences is of value precisely because it fulfills one primary purpose: to explain the meaning, nature, and challenges associated with a phenomenon, often experienced but unexplained in the world in which we live, so that we may use that knowledge and understanding to act in more informed and effective ways.

The Conceptual Framework. College of Education. Alabama State University; Corvellec, Hervé, ed. What is Theory?: Answers from the Social and Cultural Sciences . Stockholm: Copenhagen Business School Press, 2013; Asher, Herbert B. Theory-Building and Data Analysis in the Social Sciences . Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1984; Drafting an Argument. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Kivunja, Charles. "Distinguishing between Theory, Theoretical Framework, and Conceptual Framework: A Systematic Review of Lessons from the Field." International Journal of Higher Education 7 (2018): 44-53; Omodan, Bunmi Isaiah. "A Model for Selecting Theoretical Framework through Epistemology of Research Paradigms." African Journal of Inter/Multidisciplinary Studies 4 (2022): 275-285; Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks Guide Research . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2017; Trochim, William M.K. Philosophy of Research. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006; Jarvis, Peter. The Practitioner-Researcher. Developing Theory from Practice . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1999.

Strategies for Developing the Theoretical Framework

I. Developing the Framework

Here are some strategies to develop of an effective theoretical framework:

Examine your thesis title and research problem . The research problem anchors your entire study and forms the basis from which you construct your theoretical framework.
Brainstorm about what you consider to be the key variables in your research . Answer the question, "What factors contribute to the presumed effect?"
Review related literature to find how scholars have addressed your research problem. Identify the assumptions from which the author(s) addressed the problem.
List the constructs and variables that might be relevant to your study. Group these variables into independent and dependent categories.
Review key social science theories that are introduced to you in your course readings and choose the theory that can best explain the relationships between the key variables in your study [note the Writing Tip on this page].
Discuss the assumptions or propositions of this theory and point out their relevance to your research.

A theoretical framework is used to limit the scope of the relevant data by focusing on specific variables and defining the specific viewpoint [framework] that the researcher will take in analyzing and interpreting the data to be gathered. It also facilitates the understanding of concepts and variables according to given definitions and builds new knowledge by validating or challenging theoretical assumptions.

II. Purpose

Think of theories as the conceptual basis for understanding, analyzing, and designing ways to investigate relationships within social systems. To that end, the following roles served by a theory can help guide the development of your framework.

Means by which new research data can be interpreted and coded for future use,
Response to new problems that have no previously identified solutions strategy,
Means for identifying and defining research problems,
Means for prescribing or evaluating solutions to research problems,
Ways of discerning certain facts among the accumulated knowledge that are important and which facts are not,
Means of giving old data new interpretations and new meaning,
Means by which to identify important new issues and prescribe the most critical research questions that need to be answered to maximize understanding of the issue,
Means of providing members of a professional discipline with a common language and a frame of reference for defining the boundaries of their profession, and
Means to guide and inform research so that it can, in turn, guide research efforts and improve professional practice.

Adapted from: Torraco, R. J. “Theory-Building Research Methods.” In Swanson R. A. and E. F. Holton III , editors. Human Resource Development Handbook: Linking Research and Practice . (San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 1997): pp. 114-137; Jacard, James and Jacob Jacoby. Theory Construction and Model-Building Skills: A Practical Guide for Social Scientists . New York: Guilford, 2010; Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks Guide Research . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2017; Sutton, Robert I. and Barry M. Staw. “What Theory is Not.” Administrative Science Quarterly 40 (September 1995): 371-384.

Structure and Writing Style

The theoretical framework may be rooted in a specific theory , in which case, your work is expected to test the validity of that existing theory in relation to specific events, issues, or phenomena. Many social science research papers fit into this rubric. For example, Peripheral Realism Theory, which categorizes perceived differences among nation-states as those that give orders, those that obey, and those that rebel, could be used as a means for understanding conflicted relationships among countries in Africa. A test of this theory could be the following: Does Peripheral Realism Theory help explain intra-state actions, such as, the disputed split between southern and northern Sudan that led to the creation of two nations?

However, you may not always be asked by your professor to test a specific theory in your paper, but to develop your own framework from which your analysis of the research problem is derived . Based upon the above example, it is perhaps easiest to understand the nature and function of a theoretical framework if it is viewed as an answer to two basic questions:

What is the research problem/question? [e.g., "How should the individual and the state relate during periods of conflict?"]
Why is your approach a feasible solution? [i.e., justify the application of your choice of a particular theory and explain why alternative constructs were rejected. I could choose instead to test Instrumentalist or Circumstantialists models developed among ethnic conflict theorists that rely upon socio-economic-political factors to explain individual-state relations and to apply this theoretical model to periods of war between nations].

The answers to these questions come from a thorough review of the literature and your course readings [summarized and analyzed in the next section of your paper] and the gaps in the research that emerge from the review process. With this in mind, a complete theoretical framework will likely not emerge until after you have completed a thorough review of the literature .

Just as a research problem in your paper requires contextualization and background information, a theory requires a framework for understanding its application to the topic being investigated. When writing and revising this part of your research paper, keep in mind the following:

Clearly describe the framework, concepts, models, or specific theories that underpin your study . This includes noting who the key theorists are in the field who have conducted research on the problem you are investigating and, when necessary, the historical context that supports the formulation of that theory. This latter element is particularly important if the theory is relatively unknown or it is borrowed from another discipline.
Position your theoretical framework within a broader context of related frameworks, concepts, models, or theories . As noted in the example above, there will likely be several concepts, theories, or models that can be used to help develop a framework for understanding the research problem. Therefore, note why the theory you've chosen is the appropriate one.
The present tense is used when writing about theory. Although the past tense can be used to describe the history of a theory or the role of key theorists, the construction of your theoretical framework is happening now.
You should make your theoretical assumptions as explicit as possible . Later, your discussion of methodology should be linked back to this theoretical framework.
Don’t just take what the theory says as a given! Reality is never accurately represented in such a simplistic way; if you imply that it can be, you fundamentally distort a reader's ability to understand the findings that emerge. Given this, always note the limitations of the theoretical framework you've chosen [i.e., what parts of the research problem require further investigation because the theory inadequately explains a certain phenomena].

The Conceptual Framework. College of Education. Alabama State University; Conceptual Framework: What Do You Think is Going On? College of Engineering. University of Michigan; Drafting an Argument. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Lynham, Susan A. “The General Method of Theory-Building Research in Applied Disciplines.” Advances in Developing Human Resources 4 (August 2002): 221-241; Tavallaei, Mehdi and Mansor Abu Talib. "A General Perspective on the Role of Theory in Qualitative Research." Journal of International Social Research 3 (Spring 2010); Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks Guide Research . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2017; Reyes, Victoria. Demystifying the Journal Article. Inside Higher Education; Trochim, William M.K. Philosophy of Research. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006; Weick, Karl E. “The Work of Theorizing.” In Theorizing in Social Science: The Context of Discovery . Richard Swedberg, editor. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2014), pp. 177-194.

Writing Tip

Borrowing Theoretical Constructs from Other Disciplines

An increasingly important trend in the social and behavioral sciences is to think about and attempt to understand research problems from an interdisciplinary perspective. One way to do this is to not rely exclusively on the theories developed within your particular discipline, but to think about how an issue might be informed by theories developed in other disciplines. For example, if you are a political science student studying the rhetorical strategies used by female incumbents in state legislature campaigns, theories about the use of language could be derived, not only from political science, but linguistics, communication studies, philosophy, psychology, and, in this particular case, feminist studies. Building theoretical frameworks based on the postulates and hypotheses developed in other disciplinary contexts can be both enlightening and an effective way to be more engaged in the research topic.

CohenMiller, A. S. and P. Elizabeth Pate. "A Model for Developing Interdisciplinary Research Theoretical Frameworks." The Qualitative Researcher 24 (2019): 1211-1226; Frodeman, Robert. The Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity . New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.

Another Writing Tip

Don't Undertheorize!

Do not leave the theory hanging out there in the introduction never to be mentioned again. Undertheorizing weakens your paper. The theoretical framework you describe should guide your study throughout the paper. Be sure to always connect theory to the review of pertinent literature and to explain in the discussion part of your paper how the theoretical framework you chose supports analysis of the research problem or, if appropriate, how the theoretical framework was found to be inadequate in explaining the phenomenon you were investigating. In that case, don't be afraid to propose your own theory based on your findings.

Yet Another Writing Tip

What's a Theory? What's a Hypothesis?

The terms theory and hypothesis are often used interchangeably in newspapers and popular magazines and in non-academic settings. However, the difference between theory and hypothesis in scholarly research is important, particularly when using an experimental design. A theory is a well-established principle that has been developed to explain some aspect of the natural world. Theories arise from repeated observation and testing and incorporates facts, laws, predictions, and tested assumptions that are widely accepted [e.g., rational choice theory; grounded theory; critical race theory].

A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study. For example, an experiment designed to look at the relationship between study habits and test anxiety might have a hypothesis that states, "We predict that students with better study habits will suffer less test anxiety." Unless your study is exploratory in nature, your hypothesis should always explain what you expect to happen during the course of your research.

The key distinctions are:

A theory predicts events in a broad, general context; a hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a specified set of circumstances.
A theory has been extensively tested and is generally accepted among a set of scholars; a hypothesis is a speculative guess that has yet to be tested.

Cherry, Kendra. Introduction to Research Methods: Theory and Hypothesis. About.com Psychology; Gezae, Michael et al. Welcome Presentation on Hypothesis. Slideshare presentation.

Still Yet Another Writing Tip

Be Prepared to Challenge the Validity of an Existing Theory

Theories are meant to be tested and their underlying assumptions challenged; they are not rigid or intransigent, but are meant to set forth general principles for explaining phenomena or predicting outcomes. Given this, testing theoretical assumptions is an important way that knowledge in any discipline develops and grows. If you're asked to apply an existing theory to a research problem, the analysis will likely include the expectation by your professor that you should offer modifications to the theory based on your research findings.

Indications that theoretical assumptions may need to be modified can include the following:

Your findings suggest that the theory does not explain or account for current conditions or circumstances or the passage of time,
The study reveals a finding that is incompatible with what the theory attempts to explain or predict, or
Your analysis reveals that the theory overly generalizes behaviors or actions without taking into consideration specific factors revealed from your analysis [e.g., factors related to culture, nationality, history, gender, ethnicity, age, geographic location, legal norms or customs , religion, social class, socioeconomic status, etc.].

Philipsen, Kristian. "Theory Building: Using Abductive Search Strategies." In Collaborative Research Design: Working with Business for Meaningful Findings . Per Vagn Freytag and Louise Young, editors. (Singapore: Springer Nature, 2018), pp. 45-71; Shepherd, Dean A. and Roy Suddaby. "Theory Building: A Review and Integration." Journal of Management 43 (2017): 59-86.

<< Previous: The Research Problem/Question
Next: 5. The Literature Review >>
Last Updated: Mar 21, 2024 9:59 AM
URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide

my research
contributions and comments

writing the thesis – the theoretical framework

Please note that I write my blog on weekends. It is not part of my workload or job description. I support the #USSstrike and “teach out” online.

Not every thesis has a section or chapter devoted to a theoretical framework. But a lot do. (It’s the Ph in PhD after all.) And these ‘theory chapters’ can be very tricky to write – and are often tricky for the examiner to read.

Before starting to write your theory section/chapter it can be good to think about what the examiner wants to see.

The examiners have likely been appointed because they know, and possibly use, the same theoretical framing as you. And this means that you have to assume that they don’t need a basic introduction or a run-through of every possible thing there is to say about the theory. The examiner doesn’t want a general essay, the kind of here’s-the-lot that you wrote for doctoral course-work (or even your masters’ degree).

The purpose of the theory section/chapter in the doctoral thesis is to set the examiner up to make sense of what you’ve done and what you claim to have ‘found’. The examiner therefore expects – and needs – to see something particular to your work. Something that isn’t so general it could apply to any project anywhere, anytime. Something that is bespoke to what they are about to encounter.

The examiner wants to know:

How you understand your chosen theory – there are usually multiple ways that theories are interpreted. Which have you opted for and why? What are the advantages of the approach you have taken?
Why you’ve chosen this approach – what is it about this particular framing that gives you a way to conceive and design your project, and/or that gives your results real explanatory heft?
That you know the ways in which the theory is already used in the field. Who else has used this approach in ways similar to you? What can you build on from their work? Or perhaps, how does your use of this theory differ from the way it is usually put to work?
How you have used the theory – how and where have you brought the theory into conversation with your research? Are some aspects of the theory more important than others to your research? Which and why?
What are the potential down-sides to using this theory and approach – what doesn’t it do? What have you done about these potential problems?

And if you have brought two or more theoretical approaches together in your research, then you need to provide the answers to these questions for them both/all. But you also need to say why and how it is possible to use more than one approach. Does one theoretical framing fill in a gap left by the other? Are these theories (epistemologically) compatible? What tensions are there between them? Has anyone else done this? What potential issues are there that you need to draw the examiner’s attention to?

Once you’re clear on the audience and purpose for your theory chapter/section then it’s also important to consider the way you’re going to write it.

The examiner wants to know you are on top of the theory. That you know your stuff. That you have expertise. That you can speak with authority about it. So they don’t expect to read quote after quote after quote after quote. Assume that the examiners have read the original, so what they want is something other than a cut and paste of the stuff they’ve already encountered.

The examiner wants your theoretical explication – your approach to the theory and how it’s used – largely in your own words. Of course, the judicious juicy quote can be used for a few key points, those occasions where the theorist makes a point, just so. But it’s best if you can explain the key points about the theory in your own way.

And the examiner really doesn’t want to see you quoting large slabs of “introductions to”, that is, other people’s interpretations of key ideas, unless you are actually discussing how the theory has been interpreted in the field. They want to see that you have read the texts for yourself.

The examiner gets pretty worried if they can’t see you and your research in the theoretical chapter. They want to see you summarising, evaluating, managing a discussion, stating your take on the theory, explaining your use of it. If they can’t find you, then they’ll approach the viva wondering whether you really do grasp the framework you claim as the basis of your work. They’ll have a set of viva questions in mind to try to find this out. You don’t want that!

So in sum – you need to have a deep and meaningful relationship with your chosen theory long before you put hand to mouse to write the relevant chapter. You need to know how to explain it. And you need to be very clear about how and why and where you’ve used it.

But there is no doubt that writing the theoretical section/chapter will also enhance your understanding and your subsequent use of the theory throughout the rest of the thesis text.

About pat thomson

11 responses to writing the thesis – the theoretical framework.

Reblogged this on Digital learning PD Dr Ann Lawless and commented: for my doctoral stduents

This is SO helpful: thank you. For my writing, and my teaching. Very best wishes, ever Colin M

Reblogged this on Parts That Make Me Whole and commented: Here is a blog post worth referring to, while sorting out theory matters

. Thanks for the elegant description of what’s needed for a theoretical framework. I needed that.

Pat thank you once again for your insight. Again I find myself printing this blog off and using your guidance above almost as a check list whilst in the discovery phase of my theory. I am at the Literature Review stage and had a supervisory meeting whereby all we talked about was theory and themes. As always food for thought and development.. My gratitude and thanks Eileen

This piece is very resourceful; it hits the nail on the head on what is expected of a thesis on theoretical framework!

This is so useful! I am working on my first year transfer report and this post was so very helpful. Thank you Pat!

Thank you very much. It is excellent advice!

Thank you for such a simple, clear and precise explanation regarding writing a theory.

Thank you for a simple yet detailed explanation of the theoretical framework. The highlighted ideas will surely sharpen my concepts

Many thanks. You are a star. Thanks for your unqualified support. Take care.

Follow Blog via Email

Enter your email address to follow this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email.

Email Address:

patter on facebook

SEE MY CURATED POSTS ON WAKELET

How to use a theory to frame your research study or dissertation

Research frameworks are important for any academic project or study that university faculties approve, especially for doctoral or Master’s level papers. Students need to organize their ideas and findings in a specific format. The work starts with a formal theoretical framework because it describes your dissertation and its basic purpose or other research studies.

It should provide a good model to conduct your research, analyze its results, interpret your data, and report on relevant information. You should understand how to use a theory to frame research questions. This general guide will help you prepare a theoretical framework after considering your project and choosing the structure that suit specific needs perfectly.

What is it all about?

Find the right definition . People formulate all theories to predict, explain, identify, and understand phenomena or extend and challenge their key knowledge within the limits of related critical assumptions. It’s a structure to support a theory of your research study. It describes and introduces your theory to explain the importance of your research problem.

Any theoretical framework consists of different concepts, their definitions, and references to existing theories that you use for a particular study. Its nature is to demonstrate your understanding of concepts and theories in terms of your chosen topic and based on broader areas of knowledge. It’s not always something you can readily find in literature. Review pertinent studies or your course reading and search for suitable factors because a final choice depends on the ease of application, appropriateness, and explanatory power of your theory.

How does it strengthen your study?

A theoretical framework can strengthen your research study in many ways, including:

Allowing readers to evaluate your assumptions critically;
Forcing you to address basic questions and intellectually transit from describing to generalizing;
Connecting researchers to existing knowledge because they have a basis for hypotheses and different investigation methods to choose from;
Identifying the limits of generalizations.

A theoretical framework specifies the key variables that have an impact on your phenomenon and highlights the necessity to examine how they differ.

Is it different from a conceptual framework?

There’s a difference between conceptual and theoretical frameworks, though many students keep confusing them, but these terms are neither synonymous nor interchangeable. They lead to confusion because they can be vague. How to distinguish these terms correctly? A theoretical framework comes from any existing theory, while the conceptual one if your understanding how you will explore a research problem, its specific direction, and relationships between different variables in your study. Use this approach for any research type, including qualitative.

How to prepare it?

Start with checking the title because you should identify a research problem or topic to prepare your theoretical framework and achieve excellent results in your education. Without a topic, you can’t design it. Evaluate your project based on a central question to find the right focus, approach, and relationship to start your research. Brainstorm all key points of your research project. Write a mind map of different aspects of your topic to narrow it down to certain factors that contribute to its development and help you answer search questions.

Write a literature review of relevant projects because you aren’t the only person who likes a particular subject and you can adapt a theoretical framework to your paper. Examining other works can help you choose the right path to take. Point out key assumptions for your project to see any possible limitations of your chosen theoretical framework and identify the main points to focus on.

How to choose the best one?

To choose the most suitable and appropriate theoretical framework for your dissertation or any other paper, follow these helpful guidelines:

Start with identifying your beliefs;
Think about a few theories that intersect with your values and broaden your way of thinking about study concepts;
Improve your knowledge of these theories and determine why each one matters;
Review literature to support them;
Find out how other people applied the same theories;
Consider strong arguments to may oppose your beliefs;
Identify how theories connect to your research problems, purposes, design, and significance;
Choose the theoretical framework that can offer a descriptive and solid blueprint to readers.

Good theories offer a floor plan (concepts and purposes) and an elevation blueprint (structure for your paper) to help you focus your analysis plan and study design to build your research.

What to do next?

There are some useful methods that can help you write the best theoretical framework and apply it to different parts of your research paper, including the discussion section:

Evaluating your project;
Reviewing related projects;
Comparing available theories;
Outlining your assumptions.

Evaluate your research project

Consider a research problem from central questions to all early hypotheses and source materials that your paper will focus on. A strong theoretical framework must align with these aspects.

Review relevant projects

Compare your paper with similar works. If you understand that it’s their extension, feel free to adopt their theoretical framework to save your time and achieve good results. If you see that your paper is contradicting or challenging many of them, you need to use an alternative one.

Compare available theories

Contrast different approaches available for your project. Each one has its unique detriments and benefits, so your final choice depends on how you’re planning to use them to frame your piece of writing.

Outline your theoretical assumptions

Describe and identify key assumptions and how they can control your way to analyze a research subject. This simple technique reveals your knowledge of possible limitations. That’s why you shouldn’t neglect it.

Basic steps to creating the best one

Write an introduction to your research to create readers’ interest in your chosen topic. A theoretical framework must mention any previous research and point out unstudied areas and existing problems while identifying the purpose of your work by discussing the existing knowledge of this topic.

Explain the foundation for existing problems in broad terms. Describe how your proposed study leads to investigating them successfully or mention any gaps in previous research studies to address them in your paper.

Describe the case for your study and build its theoretical framework by giving references to prior research projects because a literature review matters to any thesis or dissertation. It should introduce a valuable literature review by mentioning major themes.

Connect all dots between your chosen problem, research, and targeted audience. After closing your theoretical framework, readers need to understand the context and content of your problem, its impact on the field, who participates in your project, and who will benefit from it.

The importance of your theoretical framework

Creating an appropriate theoretical framework for your study or project is an important process. How to complete it successfully? It requires a thoughtful and deep understanding of your research question, purpose, problem and significance, so you need to rightly align and connect all of these elements to let it be the best foundation for your work and guide your choice of data analysis and research design.

Imagine a theoretical framework as the electrical system running through your house. Your purpose, problem, research question, significance, data analysis, and methods must flow through each room to connect all elements together and deliver power. Every room in this house requires electricity and every aspect of your piece of writing must connect to a theoretical framework.

Why do significance, purpose, and problem matter?

It’s necessary to briefly discuss the importance of these elements for the purpose of consistency and review when creating your theoretical framework.

Research problem

It’s one of the most important parts of your research. That’s because your problem statement establishes a relationship of different factors that produce a dilemma that causes a further examination. It determines a root problem or other variables and offers an inherent. It identifies the area that requires your further research and helps you address existing issues, and you need to know how your theoretical framework connects to it.

It defines the main purpose of your study. There are certain questions that you should answer to describe how your chosen theoretical framework relates to this purpose:

What are the outcomes or aims of your research problem?
What do you hope to do with your study?

Significance

Describe the importance of your exploration. You need to determine why your chosen topic matters and who considers it to be important, explain the potential value of your project and how it will add to existing knowledge, describe why readers should care about it, etc. This section can help you detect the targeted audience. Don’t forget to explain why you choose a specific theoretical framework. Aligning it with significance, purpose, and problem is a major part of writing a strong research paper because you’re establishing different levels and parts of the knowledge that you want to build.

How to use a concept map to align it?

You need to use a special concept map to align your literature review and a theoretical framework easily and fast. This effective method will help you write a literature review in the best and most organized manner and ensure that you align it with your theoretical framework. What are the things you need to include and root in theories?

A brief statement of your chosen subject or topic;
Your introduction to a literature review organization;
Identification to let readers know a particular theory, its history, and key theorists;
Your specification of important theoretical principles that you will apply to your topic (organize them all around relevant conceptual subheadings);
Identification of existing controversies and conflicts in literature;
Identification of existing gaps or problems;
Explanation of how your research study connects to existing works.

A checklist for using a theoretical framework successfully

All students can use this brief checklist before, during, and after writing their research projects to guarantee high grades. Take these points into account to succeed.

Determine the discipline that your chosen theory will apply to;
Consider whether it will be a good fit in your methodological plan;
Decide if your study methodology relates to the concepts, principles, and ideas of your theoretical framework;
Think how big your chosen theory is and determine whether it’s well-developed (it has many theoretical constructs that you should investigate) or its scope is too small to fit your research question;
Ensure that your theory has different concepts and principles that can meet the objectives of your project;
Identify whether the significance, purpose, and problem of your study along with a theoretical framework;
Decide if you can use your theory in conjunction with developed research questions;
Think whether you need to modify these questions to reflect and incorporate your theory;
Evaluate if your theoretical framework informs a literature review;
Consider if your data analysis plan uses codes based on it and whether it allows you to develop grounded codes to connect them to a new one;
It also needs to undergird all of your implications, conclusions, and recommendations according to a data analysis.

When to get help?

This detailed guide can help you create the best theoretical framework for your dissertation or any other important academic paper. If you still experience certain difficulties, don’t hesitate to get assistance. Use our online services to solve any problem. That’s because our team of trained and qualified writers can help you with any assignment, no matter of its deadlines. You can always count on high-quality assistance at competitive rates. Our services are at your disposal 24 hours per day, so you can always contact our specialists and get help.

Organizing Academic Research Papers: Theoretical Framework

Purpose of Guide
Design Flaws to Avoid
Glossary of Research Terms
Narrowing a Topic Idea
Broadening a Topic Idea
Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
Academic Writing Style
Choosing a Title
Making an Outline
Paragraph Development
Executive Summary
Background Information
The Research Problem/Question
Theoretical Framework
Citation Tracking
Content Alert Services
Evaluating Sources
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tertiary Sources
What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods
Using Non-Textual Elements
Limitations of the Study
Common Grammar Mistakes
Avoiding Plagiarism
Footnotes or Endnotes?
Further Readings
Annotated Bibliography
Dealing with Nervousness
Using Visual Aids
Grading Someone Else's Paper
How to Manage Group Projects
Multiple Book Review Essay
Reviewing Collected Essays
About Informed Consent
Writing Field Notes
Writing a Policy Memo
Writing a Research Proposal
Acknowledgements

Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena and, in many cases, to challenge and extend existing knowledge, within the limits of the critical bounding assumptions. The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study. The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory which explains why the research problem under study exists.

Importance of Theory

A theoretical framework consists of concepts, together with their definitions, and existing theory/theories that are used for your particular study. The theoretical framework must demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to the topic of your research paper and that will relate it to the broader fields of knowledge in the class you are taking.

The theoretical framework is not something that is found readily available in the literature . You must review course readings and pertinent research literature for theories and analytic models that are relevant to the research problem you are investigating. The selection of a theory should depend on its appropriateness, ease of application, and explanatory power.

The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following ways .

An explicit statement of theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them critically.
The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge. Guided by a relevant theory, you are given a basis for your hypotheses and choice of research methods.
Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces you to address questions of why and how. It permits you to move from simply describing a phenomenon observed to generalizing about various aspects of that phenomenon.
Having a theory helps you to identify the limits to those generalizations. A theoretical framework specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of interest. It alerts you to examine how those key variables might differ and under what circumstances.

By virtue of its application nature, good theory in the social sciences is of value precisely because it fulfills one primary purpose: to explain the meaning, nature, and challenges of a phenomenon, often experienced but unexplained in the world in which we live, so that we may use that knowledge and understanding to act in more informed and effective ways.

The Conceptual Framework. College of Education. Alabama State University; Drafting an Argument . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Trochim, William M.K. Philosophy of Research. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006.

Strategies for Developing the Theoretical Framework

I. Developing the Framework

Here are some strategies to develop of an effective theoretical framework:

Examine your thesis title and research problem . The research problem anchors your entire study and forms the basis from which you construct your theoretical framework.
Brainstorm on what you consider to be the key variables in your research . Answer the question, what factors contribute to the presumed effect?
Review related literature to find answers to your research question.
List the constructs and variables that might be relevant to your study. Group these variables into independent and dependent categories.
Review the key social science theories that are introduced to you in your course readings and choose the theory or theories that can best explain the relationships between the key variables in your study [note the Writing Tip on this page].
Discuss the assumptions or propositions of this theory and point out their relevance to your research.

A theoretical framework is used to limit the scope of the relevant data by focusing on specific variables and defining the specific viewpoint (framework) that the researcher will take in analyzing and interpreting the data to be gathered, understanding concepts and variables according to the given definitions, and building knowledge by validating or challenging theoretical assumptions.

II. Purpose

Think of theories as the conceptual basis for understanding, analyzing, and designing ways to investigate relationships within social systems. To the end, the following roles served by a theory can help guide the development of your framework.*

Means by which new research data can be interpreted and coded for future use,
Response to new problems that have no previously identified solutions strategy,
Means for identifying and defining research problems,
Means for prescribing or evaluating solutions to research problems,
Way of telling us that certain facts among the accumulated knowledge are important and which facts are not,
Means of giving old data new interpretations and new meaning,
Means by which to identify important new issues and prescribe the most critical research questions that need to be answered to maximize understanding of the issue,
Means of providing members of a professional discipline with a common language and a frame of reference for defining boundaries of their profession, and
Means to guide and inform research so that it can, in turn, guide research efforts and improve professional practice.

*Adapted from: Torraco, R. J. “Theory-Building Research Methods.” In Swanson R. A. and E. F. Holton III , editors. Human Resource Development Handbook: Linking Research and Practice . (San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 1997): pp. 114-137; Sutton, Robert I. and Barry M. Staw. “What Theory is Not.” Administrative Science Quarterly 40 (September 1995): 371-384.

Structure and Writing Style

The theoretical framework may be rooted in a specific theory , in which case, you are expected to test the validity of an existing theory in relation to specific events, issues, or phenomena. Many social science research papers fit into this rubric. For example, Peripheral Realism theory, which categorizes perceived differences between nation-states as those that give orders, those that obey, and those that rebel, could be used as a means for understanding conflicted relationships among countries in Africa. A test of this theory could be the following: Does Peripheral Realism theory help explain intra-state actions, such as, the growing split between southern and northern Sudan that may likely lead to the creation of two nations?

However, you may not always be asked by your professor to test a specific theory in your paper, but to develop your own framework from which your analysis of the research problem is derived . Given this, it is perhaps easiest to understand the nature and function of a theoretical framework if it is viewed as the answer to two basic questions:

What is the research problem/question? [e.g., "How should the individual and the state relate during periods of conflict?"]
Why is your approach a feasible solution? [I could choose to test Instrumentalist or Circumstantialists models developed among Ethnic Conflict Theorists that rely upon socio-economic-political factors to explain individual-state relations and to apply this theoretical model to periods of war between nations].

In writing this part of your research paper, keep in mind the following:

Clearly describe the framework, concepts, models, or specific theories that underpin your study . This includes noting who the key theorists are in the field who have conducted research on the problem you are investigating and, when necessary, the historical context that supports the formulation of that theory. This latter element is particularly important if the theory is relatively unknown or it is borrowed from another discipline.
Position your theoretical framework within a broader context of related frameworks , concepts, models, or theories . There will likely be several concepts, theories, or models that can be used to help develop a framework for understanding the research problem. Therefore, note why the framework you've chosen is the appropriate one.
The present tense is used when writing about theory.
You should make your theoretical assumptions as explicit as possible . Later, your discussion of methodology should be linked back to this theoretical framework.
Don’t just take what the theory says as a given! Reality is never accurately represented in such a simplistic way; if you imply that it can be, you fundamentally distort a reader's ability to understand the findings that emerge. Given this, always note the limitiations of the theoretical framework you've chosen [i.e., what parts of the research problem require further investigation because the theory does not explain a certain phenomena].

Writing Tip

Borrowing Theoretical Constructs from Elsewhere

A growing and increasingly important trend in the social sciences is to think about and attempt to understand specific research problems from an interdisciplinary perspective. One way to do this is to not rely exclusively on the theories you've read about in a particular class, but to think about how an issue might be informed by theories developed in other disciplines. For example, if you are a political science student studying the rhetorical strategies used by female incumbants in state legislature campaigns, theories about the use of language could be derived, not only from political science, but linguistics, communication studies, philosophy, psychology, and, in this particular case, feminist studies. Building theoretical frameworks based on the postulates and hypotheses developed in other disciplinary contexts can be both enlightening and an effective way to be fully engaged in the research topic.

Another Writing Tip

Don't Undertheorize!

Never leave the theory hanging out there in the Introduction never to be mentioned again. Undertheorizing weakens your paper. The theoretical framework you introduce should guide your study throughout the paper. Be sure to always connect theory to the analysis and to explain in the discussion part of your paper how the theoretical framework you chose fit the research problem, or if appropriate, was inadequate in explaining the phenomenon you were investigating. In that case, don't be afraid to propose your own theory based on your findings.

Still Another Writing Tip

What's a Theory? What's a Hypothesis?

The terms theory and hypothesis are often used interchangeably in everyday use. However, the difference between them in scholarly research is important, particularly when using an experimental design. A theory is a well-established principle that has been developed to explain some aspect of the natural world. Theories arise from repeated observation and testing and incorporates facts, laws, predictions, and tested hypotheses that are widely accepted [e.g., rational choice theory; grounded theory].

The key distinctions are:

A theory predicts events in a broad, general context; a hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a specified set of circumstances.
A theory has been extensively tested and is generally accepted among scholars; a hypothesis is a speculative guess that has yet to be tested.

Cherry, Kendra. Introduction to Research Methods: Theory and Hypothesis . About.com Psychology; Gezae, Michael et al. Welcome Presentation on Hypothesis . Slideshare presentation.

<< Previous: The Research Problem/Question
Next: 5. The Literature Review >>
Last Updated: Jul 18, 2023 11:58 AM
URL: https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803
QuickSearch
Library Catalog
Databases A-Z
Publication Finder
Course Reserves
Citation Linker
Digital Commons
Our Website

Research Support

Ask a Librarian
Appointments
Interlibrary Loan (ILL)
Research Guides
Databases by Subject
Citation Help

Using the Library

Reserve a Group Study Room
Renew Books
Honors Study Rooms
Off-Campus Access
Library Policies
Library Technology

User Information

Grad Students
Online Students
COVID-19 Updates
Staff Directory
News & Announcements
Library Newsletter

My Accounts

Interlibrary Loan
Staff Site Login

FIND US ON

While Sandel argues that pursuing perfection through genetic engineering would decrease our sense of humility, he claims that the sense of solidarity we would lose is also important.

This thesis summarizes several points in Sandel’s argument, but it does not make a claim about how we should understand his argument. A reader who read Sandel’s argument would not also need to read an essay based on this descriptive thesis.

Broad thesis (arguable, but difficult to support with evidence)

Michael Sandel’s arguments about genetic engineering do not take into consideration all the relevant issues.

This is an arguable claim because it would be possible to argue against it by saying that Michael Sandel’s arguments do take all of the relevant issues into consideration. But the claim is too broad. Because the thesis does not specify which “issues” it is focused on—or why it matters if they are considered—readers won’t know what the rest of the essay will argue, and the writer won’t know what to focus on. If there is a particular issue that Sandel does not address, then a more specific version of the thesis would include that issue—hand an explanation of why it is important.

Arguable thesis with analytical claim

While Sandel argues persuasively that our instinct to “remake” (54) ourselves into something ever more perfect is a problem, his belief that we can always draw a line between what is medically necessary and what makes us simply “better than well” (51) is less convincing.

This is an arguable analytical claim. To argue for this claim, the essay writer will need to show how evidence from the article itself points to this interpretation. It’s also a reasonable scope for a thesis because it can be supported with evidence available in the text and is neither too broad nor too narrow.

Arguable thesis with normative claim

Given Sandel’s argument against genetic enhancement, we should not allow parents to decide on using Human Growth Hormone for their children.

This thesis tells us what we should do about a particular issue discussed in Sandel’s article, but it does not tell us how we should understand Sandel’s argument.

Questions to ask about your thesis

Is the thesis truly arguable? Does it speak to a genuine dilemma in the source, or would most readers automatically agree with it?
Is the thesis too obvious? Again, would most or all readers agree with it without needing to see your argument?
Is the thesis complex enough to require a whole essay's worth of argument?
Is the thesis supportable with evidence from the text rather than with generalizations or outside research?
Would anyone want to read a paper in which this thesis was developed? That is, can you explain what this paper is adding to our understanding of a problem, question, or topic?
picture_as_pdf Thesis

share this!

March 20, 2024

This article has been reviewed according to Science X's editorial process and policies . Editors have highlighted the following attributes while ensuring the content's credibility:

fact-checked

trusted source

Motivated supervision increases motivation when writing a thesis, study finds

by Gunnar Bartsch, Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg

Students working on their Bachelor's or Master's thesis usually have supervisors at their side who guide, accompany and possibly also correct them during this time. If students have the impression that their supervisor is passionate and motivated, this also increases their own motivation. Grade pressure, on the other hand, has no direct influence on student motivation during this time.

These are the key findings of a study conducted by psychologists at Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg (JMU). Dr. Anand Krishna, research associate at the Chair of Psychology II: Emotion and Motivation, was responsible for the study. The team has now published the results of its research in the journal Psychology Learning & Teaching .

The pinnacle of learning

"We surveyed a total of 217 psychology students across Germany who were writing their final thesis or had written it in the previous two years," says Krishna, describing the approach. For many students, this thesis represents an important milestone; after all, it can be seen "as the culmination of learning and an expression of the skills acquired during their studies." Accordingly, it is important to keep motivation as high as possible during the work.

The theoretical basis of this study lies in so-called Expectancy-Value Theory. Put simply, it assumes that people multiply the attractiveness of the respective goal, i.e., the value, with the probability of achieving it in their work.

The result of this calculation then determines the respective motivation. Or, in concrete terms: a good grade in the thesis is a prerequisite for an attractive job—so the value is high. However, those who feel overwhelmed by their work will see their chances of a good grade decrease. Accordingly, motivation is also low.

"The close correlation between students' motivation and their assessment of their supervisor's motivation is not really surprising," says Anand Krishna. However, there have been no scientific studies on this to date. What he finds more interesting is the finding that the pressure of grades in the final thesis is not directly related to student motivation.

Grade pressure increases stress and motivation

"Viewed in isolation, our analysis shows a positive correlation between grade pressure and the value aspect of motivation. The greater the pressure that students feel, the higher their motivation ultimately is," says Krishna. At the same time, however, more pressure always means more stress, which in turn lowers motivation.

"Based on this data, we believe it is plausible that grade pressure boosts motivation through the value of the grade, but also increases student stress and therefore ultimately does not contribute to motivation," Krishna concludes. It is important for him to point out that the results of this survey only indicate correlations, not causal relationships. However, the patterns in the data would not contradict the theoretical causal explanation.

Given that motivated supervisors play an important role where the grade is of great importance for future prospects, Anand Krishna and his co-author Julia Grund therefore consider it important to motivate and incentivize supervisors especially. After all, such measures will most likely be reflected in the perception of their students and ultimately lead to a better grade.

Provided by Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg

Explore further

Feedback to editors

Prestigious journals make it hard for scientists who don't speak English to get published, study finds

4 hours ago

Scientists develop ultra-thin semiconductor fibers that turn fabrics into wearable electronics

5 hours ago

Saturday Citations: An anemic galaxy and a black hole with no influence. Also: A really cute bug

6 hours ago

Research team proposes a novel type of acoustic crystal with smooth, continuous changes in elastic properties

7 hours ago

New findings shed light on finding valuable 'green' metals

12 hours ago

No 'human era' in Earth's geological history, scientists say

20 hours ago

Research uncovers a rare resin fossil find: A spider that aspires to be an ant

23 hours ago

Using physics principles to understand how cells self-sort in development

Mar 22, 2024

Astronomers find evidence that blue supergiant stars can be formed by the merger of two stars

Water persisted in Mars' Gale crater for longer than previously thought, study finds

Relevant physicsforums posts, the changing physics curriculum in 1961.

3 hours ago

Why are Physicists so informal with mathematics?

Suggestions for using math puzzles to stimulate my math students.

Mar 21, 2024

The New California Math Framework: Another Step Backwards?

Mar 14, 2024

Rant about working in the tutoring lab: How should I deal with this?

Feb 25, 2024

Are Degree Apprenticeships a Good idea

Feb 23, 2024

Children's positive attitude toward mathematics fades during the early school years, finds study

Feb 12, 2024

High school students tend to grow more motivated over time

Mar 1, 2021

University students' experiences of remote teaching and learning during the pandemic differ

Nov 17, 2022

How to motivate yourself to learn a language

Jul 31, 2023

Learning is easier with a positive attitude, finds meta-study

Oct 4, 2023

Study examines tax compliance behavior in small business owners

May 30, 2018

Recommended for you

Using Twitter/X to promote research findings found to have little impact on number of citations

Gender and racial discrimination uncovered in leadership positions at Australia's leading universities

Mar 15, 2024

Study finds children in Flint experienced educational declines even if they did not have lead pipes

Could iPhones replace microscopes in early STEM education?

Research finds a college degree remains a sound investment despite rising tuition

Mar 12, 2024

Let us know if there is a problem with our content

Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page. For general inquiries, please use our contact form . For general feedback, use the public comments section below (please adhere to guidelines ).

Please select the most appropriate category to facilitate processing of your request

Thank you for taking time to provide your feedback to the editors.

Your feedback is important to us. However, we do not guarantee individual replies due to the high volume of messages.

E-mail the story

Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Phys.org in any form.

Newsletter sign up

Get weekly and/or daily updates delivered to your inbox. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties.

More information Privacy policy

Donate and enjoy an ad-free experience

We keep our content available to everyone. Consider supporting Science X's mission by getting a premium account.

E-mail newsletter

Tips for Writing an Effective Application Essay

How to Write an Effective Essay

Writing an essay for college admission gives you a chance to use your authentic voice and show your personality. It's an excellent opportunity to personalize your application beyond your academic credentials, and a well-written essay can have a positive influence come decision time.

Want to know how to draft an essay for your college application ? Here are some tips to keep in mind when writing.

Tips for Essay Writing

A typical college application essay, also known as a personal statement, is 400-600 words. Although that may seem short, writing about yourself can be challenging. It's not something you want to rush or put off at the last moment. Think of it as a critical piece of the application process. Follow these tips to write an impactful essay that can work in your favor.

1. Start Early.

Few people write well under pressure. Try to complete your first draft a few weeks before you have to turn it in. Many advisers recommend starting as early as the summer before your senior year in high school. That way, you have ample time to think about the prompt and craft the best personal statement possible.

You don't have to work on your essay every day, but you'll want to give yourself time to revise and edit. You may discover that you want to change your topic or think of a better way to frame it. Either way, the sooner you start, the better.

2. Understand the Prompt and Instructions.

Before you begin the writing process, take time to understand what the college wants from you. The worst thing you can do is skim through the instructions and submit a piece that doesn't even fit the bare minimum requirements or address the essay topic. Look at the prompt, consider the required word count, and note any unique details each school wants.

3. Create a Strong Opener.

Students seeking help for their application essays often have trouble getting things started. It's a challenging writing process. Finding the right words to start can be the hardest part.

Spending more time working on your opener is always a good idea. The opening sentence sets the stage for the rest of your piece. The introductory paragraph is what piques the interest of the reader, and it can immediately set your essay apart from the others.

4. Stay on Topic.

One of the most important things to remember is to keep to the essay topic. If you're applying to 10 or more colleges, it's easy to veer off course with so many application essays.

A common mistake many students make is trying to fit previously written essays into the mold of another college's requirements. This seems like a time-saving way to avoid writing new pieces entirely, but it often backfires. The result is usually a final piece that's generic, unfocused, or confusing. Always write a new essay for every application, no matter how long it takes.

5. Think About Your Response.

Don't try to guess what the admissions officials want to read. Your essay will be easier to write─and more exciting to read─if you’re genuinely enthusiastic about your subject. Here’s an example: If all your friends are writing application essays about covid-19, it may be a good idea to avoid that topic, unless during the pandemic you had a vivid, life-changing experience you're burning to share. Whatever topic you choose, avoid canned responses. Be creative.

6. Focus on You.

Essay prompts typically give you plenty of latitude, but panel members expect you to focus on a subject that is personal (although not overly intimate) and particular to you. Admissions counselors say the best essays help them learn something about the candidate that they would never know from reading the rest of the application.

7. Stay True to Your Voice.

Use your usual vocabulary. Avoid fancy language you wouldn't use in real life. Imagine yourself reading this essay aloud to a classroom full of people who have never met you. Keep a confident tone. Be wary of words and phrases that undercut that tone.

8. Be Specific and Factual.

Capitalize on real-life experiences. Your essay may give you the time and space to explain why a particular achievement meant so much to you. But resist the urge to exaggerate and embellish. Admissions counselors read thousands of essays each year. They can easily spot a fake.

9. Edit and Proofread.

When you finish the final draft, run it through the spell checker on your computer. Then don’t read your essay for a few days. You'll be more apt to spot typos and awkward grammar when you reread it. After that, ask a teacher, parent, or college student (preferably an English or communications major) to give it a quick read. While you're at it, double-check your word count.

Writing essays for college admission can be daunting, but it doesn't have to be. A well-crafted essay could be the deciding factor─in your favor. Keep these tips in mind, and you'll have no problem creating memorable pieces for every application.

What is the format of a college application essay?

Generally, essays for college admission follow a simple format that includes an opening paragraph, a lengthier body section, and a closing paragraph. You don't need to include a title, which will only take up extra space. Keep in mind that the exact format can vary from one college application to the next. Read the instructions and prompt for more guidance.

Most online applications will include a text box for your essay. If you're attaching it as a document, however, be sure to use a standard, 12-point font and use 1.5-spaced or double-spaced lines, unless the application specifies different font and spacing.

How do you start an essay?

The goal here is to use an attention grabber. Think of it as a way to reel the reader in and interest an admissions officer in what you have to say. There's no trick on how to start a college application essay. The best way you can approach this task is to flex your creative muscles and think outside the box.

You can start with openers such as relevant quotes, exciting anecdotes, or questions. Either way, the first sentence should be unique and intrigue the reader.

What should an essay include?

Every application essay you write should include details about yourself and past experiences. It's another opportunity to make yourself look like a fantastic applicant. Leverage your experiences. Tell a riveting story that fulfills the prompt.

What shouldn’t be included in an essay?

When writing a college application essay, it's usually best to avoid overly personal details and controversial topics. Although these topics might make for an intriguing essay, they can be tricky to express well. If you’re unsure if a topic is appropriate for your essay, check with your school counselor. An essay for college admission shouldn't include a list of achievements or academic accolades either. Your essay isn’t meant to be a rehashing of information the admissions panel can find elsewhere in your application.

How can you make your essay personal and interesting?

The best way to make your essay interesting is to write about something genuinely important to you. That could be an experience that changed your life or a valuable lesson that had an enormous impact on you. Whatever the case, speak from the heart, and be honest.

Is it OK to discuss mental health in an essay?

Mental health struggles can create challenges you must overcome during your education and could be an opportunity for you to show how you’ve handled challenges and overcome obstacles. If you’re considering writing your essay for college admission on this topic, consider talking to your school counselor or with an English teacher on how to frame the essay.

Several men in blue jackets holding American flags outside a building with Corinthian columns and a seated statue.

What is the ‘great replacement theory’? A scholar of race relations explains

Professor of Critical Race and Ethnic Studies, Miami University

Disclosure statement

Rodney Coates does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

Miami University provides funding as a member of The Conversation US.

View all partners

The “great replacement theory ,” whose origins date back to the late 19th century, argues that Jews and some Western elites are conspiring to replace white Americans and Europeans with people of non-European descent, particularly Asians and Africans.

The conspiracy evolved from a series of false ideas that, over time, stoked the fears of white people: In 1892, British-Australian author and politician Charles Pearson warned that white people would “wake to find ourselves elbowed and hustled, and perhaps even thrust aside by people whom we looked down.” The massive influx of immigrants into Europe at the time fostered some of these fears and resulted in “white extinction anxiety.” In the U.S., it resulted in policies targeting immigration in the late 19th and early 20th century.

In France, journalist Édouard Drumont, leader of an antisemitic movement, wrote articles in the late 19th century imagining how Jews would destroy French culture . In 1909, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, an Italian poet and supporter of Benito Mussolini, argued that war and fascism were the only cure for the world . Fascism , then and now, worked to ensure white dominance.

This was followed by the eugenics movement , an erroneous and racist theory that supported forced sterilization of Black people, the mentally ill and other marginalized groups, who were all deemed “unfit.”

The 1978 book entitled “ The Turner Diaries ,” a fictional futuristic account of the overthrow of the United States government, further contributed to white nationalist ideas.

Collectively, these gave rise to a global movement that attracted a wide range of white supremacist, xenophobic and anti-immigration conspiracy theories . These theories were formally codified in the work of Frenchman Renaud Camus , first in his 2010 book “L'Abécédaire de l'in-nocence” and elaborated in his 2011 book “ Le Grand Remplacement .”

Camus argued that ethnic French and white Europeans were being replaced physically, culturally and politically by nonwhite people. He believed that liberal immigration policies and the dramatic decline in white birth rates were threatening European civilization and traditions.

Why this conspiracy theory matters

These false ideas promulgated the spread of white supremacy, which has contributed to terrorist attacks , state violence and propaganda campaigns in the U.S and parts of Europe.

On Aug. 11, 2017, during a “Unite the Right” rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, white nationalists chanted “You will not replace us” and “ Jews will not replace us .” In spring 2019, Belgian politician Dries Van Langenhove repeatedly posted on social media, “ We are being replaced .”

In recent years, nonwhite immigrants have been the target of xenophobia. Migrants, especially from Mexico, are accused of bringing criminal activities to American cities. Immigrants have also been falsely accused of smuggling fentanyl into the U.S. The reality is that immigrants commit far fewer crimes than those born in the U.S .

Impact of the theory and spread of hate

In less than two decades, the theory has become a major idea, with as many as 60% of the French population believing some aspects of it. According to that survey, they are worried or at least concerned that they might be replaced. In the U.K. and the U.S. , close to one-third of those polled believe that white people are systematically being replaced by nonwhite immigrants. Some in the U.S. fear that America might lose its culture and identity as a result.

Being aware of conspiracy theories and standing up to hatred, I argue, can help societies deal with the continuing fallout of extreme xenophobia, racist rants, the rise of white supremacy and the victimization of innocent people.

Conspiracy theories
Religion and politics
Quick reads
Antisemitic
Significant Terms
Great Replacement Theory

School of Social Sciences – Public Policy and International Relations opportunities

Partner, Senior Talent Acquisition

Deputy Editor - Technology

Sydney Horizon Educators (Identified)

Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Academic and Student Life)

Advisory Board
Guest Authors
NEW: Podcast
Afghanistan
Climate Change
Congressional Oversight
Coronavirus
Counterterrorism
Cybersecurity
Disinformation
Human Rights
Immigration
Intelligence activities
International Criminal Law
Israel-Hamas War
January 6th Attack on US Capitol
Law of Armed Conflict
Local Voices
Racial Justice
Social Media Platforms
United Nations
Use of Force
Russia-Ukraine War
Trump Trials Clearinghouse

A Conspiracy Theory Goes to the Supreme Court: How Did Murthy v Missouri Get This Far?

by Justin Hendrix and Ryan Goodman

March 17, 2024

Filed under:

Censorship , content moderation , Coronavirus , courts , Disinformation , Facebook , Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) , Murthy v Missouri , Social Media Platforms , Solicitor General , Supreme Court , White House

Cross-published with Tech Policy Press

To be sure, there are important questions about the relationship between social media companies and the U.S. government, particularly when it comes to any governmental involvement in content moderation. Those questions should be addressed on a foundation of facts. The Supreme Court is instead about to address them on the basis of a concocted conspiracy theory.

On Monday, the Supreme Court will hear oral argument in Murthy v Missouri , a case that requires the justices to consider whether the government coerced or “significantly encouraged” social media executives to remove disfavored speech in violation of the First Amendment.

While the legal questions presented are legitimate, a substantial amount of the underlying evidence now before the Court in this case is problematic or factually incorrect. Snippets of various communications between the government, social media executives, and other parties appear to be stitched together – nay, manufactured – more to support a culture war conspiracy theory than to create a credible factual record. How such claims made their way to the highest court is as worthy of consideration as the underlying legal questions on which the court must now rule.

Murthy v Missouri may become a landmark Supreme Court case in which the justices are led astray on the basis of a disinformation-laden record. The early signs are that some of the justices are already swept up in it.

I. Sorting Fact From Fiction

Murthy v Missouri started out as Missouri v Biden , a complaint filed with the US District Court for the Western District of Louisiana against President Joe Biden, several federal agencies, and government officials. On July 4, 2023, the district court granted a preliminary injunction , relying in significant part on a number of mischaracterizations and false claims in issuing a wide-ranging order limiting government communication with social media platforms and independent researchers.

The case eventually made its way to the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals, which issued a modified injunction last October. But when the Supreme Court stayed the modified injunction later that month, Justices Samuel Alito, Neil Gorsuch, and Clarence Thomas issued a dissent, referring to the District Court’s “extensive findings of fact” and stating that “the Court of Appeals agreed with the District Court’s assessment of the evidence, which, in its words, showed the existence of ‘a coordinated campaign’ of unprecedented ‘magnitude orchestrated by federal officials that jeopardized a fundamental aspect of American life.’”

Heading into the oral argument, it would appear that at least three justices view the evidence presented of a conspiracy should be regarded as an accurate record (so much so that they would have upheld the injunction before even hearing argument).

Some conspiracies are, of course, true. But ample public reporting and filings in the case suggest this is hardly the case here. Here are a few examples:

1. Distortions/falsehoods about health officials’ statements

TechDirt’s Mike Masnick unpacked why claims in the district court about communications between Dr. Francis Collins, former director of the National Human Genome Research Institute, and Dr. Anthony Fauci, former chief media advisor to the President and director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, were misleading at best.

Ripping facts out of context, the court took an email exchange by Dr. Collins to Dr. Fauci to mean that the two were plotting to have social media companies “take down” certain speech. The truth is the email exchange very clearly shows the two were discussing debunking it by publishing medical information (i.e., rebutting the speech with speech).

Judge Terry Doughty’s opinion:

“Various emails show Plaintiffs are likely to succeed on the merits through evidence that the motivation of the NIAID Defendants was a ‘take down’ of protected free speech. Dr. Francis Collins, in an email to Dr. Fauci told Fauci there needed to be a “quick and devastating take down” of the GBD—the result was exactly that.”

Judge Doughty – outrageously – omitted the word “published” from the phrase “quick and devastating published take down” as well as the rest of the context. The actual email message:

Another example of problems in the record on health officials’ statements is presented in the Solicitor General’s reply in support of an application for a stay. The government notes that the respondents assert that “CDC officials requested and obtained ‘changes to the platforms’ moderation policies,’” but points out this “overlooks unrebutted testimony that ‘[CDC] did not discuss the development of [Facebook’s] policies, or the enforcement of their policies’ and instead merely provided ‘scientific information’ that Facebook ‘might use to do those things.’”

2. Distortions/falsehoods about FBI practices

The Solicitor General identifies “factual inaccuracies” in the record, including that the “[r]espondents claim that ‘in a single incident, the FBI pushed platforms to remove ‘929,000 tweets that were political speech by American citizens.’” Indeed, the district court also referred favorably to plaintiffs having, in the court’s view, “indicated that 929,000 tweets were political speech by American citizens.” But the Solicitor General notes the underlying document referenced makes clear the tweets referenced were actually sent by 422 accounts controlled by the Russian Internet Research Agency.

Former Twitter Trust & Safety head Yoel Roth, in an essay titled “Getting the Facts Straight,” detailed how the district court’s characterization of Twitter’s interactions with the FBI is not consistent with his own experience of the relationship. Roth notes that “[t]he Fifth Circuit asserts that the FBI’s interactions with platforms went beyond merely understanding what platform policies were, and extended to proactively shaping them,” but notes that “[c]laims in Missouri v. Biden that meetings with the government coerced platforms to change their rules don’t withstand scrutiny.”

3. Distortions/falsehoods about White House officials’ statements

The US Solicitor General, in a brief filed earlier this month, shows that many of the petitioners’ facts are flimsy or drawn from statements that are taken out of context. For instance, the district court gives the strong impression that then-White House Press Secretary Jen Psaki used the words “legal consequences” in purportedly threatening social media companies. The court wrote:

“At a White House Press Conference, Psaki publicly reminded Facebook and other social-media platforms of the threat of ‘legal consequences’ if they do not censor misinformation more aggressively.”

As the government points out “the Press Secretary never uttered the words ‘legal consequences’” (you can check the transcript ).

The government’s brief also points out that one of the more “supposedly ‘ominous and coercive’ ‘threats’” to Facebook from White House digital director Rob Flaherty in 2021 (‘Are you guys fucking serious? I want an answer on what happened here and I want it today.’) was in fact “asking for an answer about a ‘technical’ problem affecting the President’s own Instagram account—it had nothing to do with moderating other users’ content.”

Here is the email exchange :

For more on this, we recommend reading Dean Jackson, “First Amendment Defenders and the Supreme Court Should Reject the Jawboning Bogeyman,” Tech Policy Press, Feb. 22, 2024.

4. Distortions/falsehoods about academic researchers’ statements and practices

The district court engaged in such serious distortions of the facts involving academic researchers that it may explain why the Fifth Circuit omitted that part in its analysis and did not uphold the part of the injunction related to those actors. The fact that the Fifth Circuit could pass by such gross distortions and continue on without questioning the pattern of other similar distortions by the district court is a stain on the judicial system.

Stanford University, in its amicus brief to the Court, notes that “the Fifth Circuit did not accept any of the district court’s factual findings” related to projects its researchers were involved in, including the Election Integrity Partnership and the Virality Project. It goes on to detail why a number of the claims in the district court “were clearly erroneous when issued,” ranging from misquotations to outright fabrications.

One of many such claims the brief rebuts is that posts by Jill Hines of an organization called Health Freedom Louisiana was “flagged” by the Virality Project. “There is no evidence—not in the record, not anywhere—that anyone involved with [the Virality Project] ever ‘flagged’ Jill Hines or Health Freedom Louisiana, ever shared any of their posts with a social media platform, or even read their posts,” the brief states.

Another canard Stanford dispels relates to supposed statements by Renee DiResta, research manager at Stanford University (and a board member of Tech Policy Press). Stanford notes that four times in its opinion, the district court claims DiResta stated that “the EIP was designed to ‘get around unclear legal authorities, including very real First Amendment questions’ that would arise if CISA or other government agencies were to monitor and flag information for censorship on social media.” But, “the transcript that the district court cited to support its repeated misquotation contains no such language.”

Indeed. TechDirt’s Mike Masnick has an excellent analysis of how “[Judge] Doughty has put words in DiResta’s mouth” and “twists reality by viewing it through a distorted, conspiracy-laden prism.”

Facts Are Less Interesting Than Ideas

The risk that Supreme Court justices may reason on the basis of such a problematic record is substantial. But it is also the case that many law experts moved quickly from any consideration of the true nature of the underlying communications between the government and the social media platforms to consider the more theoretical legal issues at play, including what constitutional tests might apply to determine if the government is engaged in inappropriate coercion or where new guidance from the Court might be useful. The sequence of events around Murthy v Missouri demonstrates that once a federal court has issued an opinion, it can force people to argue in certain circumstances as if the facts are true, and can incentivize legal experts to pivot to an intellectual plane of legal reasoning that is a step further removed from the actual facts.

In that way, the plaintiffs may have succeeded in significant part no matter how the Supreme Court ultimately rules, though a ruling in favor of the plaintiffs would boost a broader political and socio-cultural strategy. Murthy v Missouri has already managed to further equate content moderation – and government and researcher collaboration with platforms – with “censorship.” The case will be argued in an environment in which “misinformation about the First Amendment itself distorts policy debates and legislative interventions,” according to Dr. Mary Anne Franks, a First Amendment scholar at the George Washington University School of Law. And as Lisa MacPherson, a senior policy analyst at Public Knowledge points out , documents brought into the public domain over the course of two years of legal proceedings “have been the basis of hearings and angry letters from legislators making the discredited point that informed platform content moderation represents targeted suppression of conservative political viewpoints.”

In a contentious election year, there are signs this broader effort has succeeded in chilling coordination between platforms, government, civil society groups, and independent researchers on efforts to combat mis- and disinformation. Senator Mark Warner (D-VA), chairman of the Senate Intelligence Committee, pointed out in an interview this week that information sharing between government agencies and platforms on threats such as foreign interference in elections has ground to a halt.

“In the past, we would share that information,” said Sen. Warner. “We are now in March 2024, months away from our next national election, and I feel we are less prepared today for the 2024 elections than we were at the corresponding time in the 2020 elections,” he said, situating the effects of this case amidst other factors, such as declining trust in elections in the United States, a retreat by social media companies on election integrity issues, and the uncertain effects of artificial intelligence on the information environment. That the Supreme Court may itself move forward in this case on the basis of flawed information should be of grave concern.

Image: The U.S. Supreme Court building at dawn in Washington, D.C (via Getty Images, Samuel Corum/Bloomberg)

About the author(s), justin hendrix.

Justin Hendrix ( @justinhendrix ) is cofounder and CEO of Tech Policy Press and associate research scientist and adjunct professor at NYU Tandon School of Engineering. Opinions expressed here are his own and do not necessarily reflect the views of any organization or institution.

Ryan Goodman

Ryan Goodman ( @rgoodlaw ) is co-editor-in-chief of Just Security and Anne and Joel Ehrenkranz Professor of Law at New York University School of Law.

Send A Letter To The Editor

Read these related stories next:

How trump valet’s testimony supports doj’s january 6th case.

by Tom Joscelyn

Mar 22nd, 2024

Clearinghouse: 14th Amendment Section 3 Litigation

by Norman L. Eisen , Ryan Goodman , Siven Watt and Francois Barrilleaux

Mar 21st, 2024

Tranche Warfare: What to Expect at the March 25 Trump Discovery Hearing

by Andrew Weissmann

Mar 20th, 2024

Judge’s Ruling Keeps Trump’s N.Y. Trial Mostly About Election Influence

by Adam Klasfeld

Mar 19th, 2024

Is the Biden Administration Reaching a New Consensus on What Constitutes Private Information?

by Justin Hendrix

The Supreme Court Cannot Ignore the National Security Implications of the So-Called ‘Jawboning’ Case

by Mary B. McCord

Mar 17th, 2024

7 Expert Takeaways As the Supreme Court Considers Government Influence on Content Moderation

by Don Chen

Mar 16th, 2024

Putin’s Staged Election Belies Resistance — Russian Court Data Tells the Real Story

by Roman Badanin

Mar 15th, 2024

Video: Director of National Intelligence Avril Haines Remarks and Fireside Chat on the 10-Year Anniversary of Just Security

by Just Security

Mar 13th, 2024

Video: Social Media, Government Jawboning, and the First Amendment at the Supreme Court

Anatomy of a conspiracy theory and a smear: still, no evidence of trump order for 10,000 guard on january 6th.

Mar 12th, 2024

The Just Security Podcast: Social Media, Government Jawboning, and the First Amendment at the Supreme Court

Mar 11th, 2024

More From Forbes

Wwe smackdown results, winners and grades on march 22, 2024.

Share to Facebook
Share to Twitter
Share to Linkedin

Cody Rhodes and Roman Reigns go face-to-face.

WWE SmackDown advertised Rey Mysterio’s return match against Santos Escobar and a face-to-face showdown between Cody Rhodes and Roman Reigns. On WWE Raw Paul Heyman vowed Reigns would come alone. Raw also advertised The O.C. vs. Grayson Waller and Austin Theory and The Street Profits vs. AOP.

Last week’s broadcast of SmackDown garnered a viewership of 2.340 million, the biggest viewership on all of television.

WWE SmackDown Results | March 22, 2024

Santos Escobar def. Rey Mysterio
Grayson Waller and Austin Theory def. The O.C. | Tag Team Title Qualifier
Iyo Sky def. Naomi
The Street Profits def. AOP | Tag Title Qualifier

WWE SmackDown Ratings

March 15, 2024 | 2.340 million
March 8, 2024 | 2.493 million
March 1, 2024 | 2.348 million
February 23, 2024 | 2.272 million
February 16, 2024 | 2.555 million

WWE SmackDown Ticket Sales

WWE SmackDown Venue: Fiserv Forum (Milwaukee, Wisc.)
WWE SmackDown Tickets Distributed: 11,068
Available Tickets: 235

The 10 Best Pillows For Stomach Sleepers That Won t Stress Your Spine

Coinbase revealed to be backing blackrock s 5 trillion by 2030 crypto game changer after bitcoin ethereum and xrp price pump, google suddenly reveals surprise android update that beats iphone, why triple h hates tony khan | pwb, santos escobar def. rey mysterio.

Rey Mysterio slipped early on, but was all-systems-go for the remainder of a wild match.

Every time WWE comes back from commercial with those wide camera shots, Kevin Dunn trends on Twitter. WWE Twitter has developed a pavlovian response to react to any production upgrade on WWE TV.

The finish came when Dominik Mysterio, wearing a Rey Mysterio mask, interfered. This led to Escobar hitting the 619 and Phantom Driver for the win.

Wade Barrett had the line of the show when he said being a deadbeat dad was a life sentence.

Santos Escobar vs. Rey Mysterio Grade: B+

Waller and theory def. the o.c..

Corey Graves said The O.C. would be getting back to “tipping elbows.” Not knowing what that meant, Wade Barrett said they should also drink beers, which is another way of saying “tipping elbows.”

Grayson Waller and Theory won as Theory rolled up Luke Gallows while Theory’s feet were on the ropes and Grayson Waller held on to his feet.

Waller and Theory will likely break up either at WrestleMania or the night after.

WWE aired a video vignette of Bron Breakker before going to break as big plans remain in his future.

Waller and Theory vs. The O.C. Grade: B-

Iyo sky def. naomi.

Bianca Belair continued to try to talk Naomi out of helping Bayley out, but Naomi may have convinced Bianca otherwise by saying Bianca couldn’t fight Damage CTRL either.

Before the match, Sky beat Bayley up all by herself right before her entrance. That was certainly a choice.

Naomi’s ring gear can only be described as Sparky Plugg meets Harlem Heat.

Iyo Sky defeated Naomi with help from Damage CTRL. Bianca Belair made the save, but Belair and Naomi were overpowered by Damage CTRL as Naomi blanketed Bianca. Fans chanted for Bayley. Clearly, they didn’t see Bayley being attacked backstage earlier.

In a positive update, Asuka was moving around just fine on what was thought to be an injured leg.

Jade Cargill officially signed her SmackDown contract and will debut next week. It’s likely she’ll team with Bianca and Naomi to take on Damage CTRL.

Backstage, Kevin Owens and Randy Orton booked a tag team match against Pretty Deadly. Expect a “can they coexist” moment heading into WrestleMania. Before the segment ended, Kevin Owens punched both members of Pretty Deadly and was so proud of it.

With The Rock back in the fold, LA Knight embraced his Stone Cold Steve Austin influence as he trespassed AJ Styles’ home and attacked him. WWE aired police footage of the attack after their broadcasted footage glitched out, leading to the question: Who called the police? The answer? Heel Wendy.

Iyo Sky vs. Naomi Grade: B-

Street profits def. aop.

This match seemed like it could go either way, especially because AOP could be the much-needed catchers in a tag team Ladder Match while The Street Profits could be the high-flyers.

After a great nearfall, The Street Profits scored the victory and advanced to the Undisputed Tag Team Championship Ladder Match.

Street Profits vs. AOP Grade: B

Roman reigns and cody rhodes come face-to-face.

Roman Reigns brought up The Shield, only for Cody Rhodes to ask if he remembers the first team who beat The Shield. The last name was Rhodes.

Cody Rhodes dropped a Bullet Club reference amid The Rock throwing up the gun sign every week.

In response to Reigns asking Rhodes if he could trust Seth Rollins, Rhodes asked Reigns if he could trust The Rock.

Rhodes conceded that the next generations of Rhodes and Reigns will grow up wanting to be the next Roman Reigns. Rhodes then said he is not the greatest No. 2, but is The One.

Reigns refused to shake Rhodes’ hand, but when he left the ring, he snapped his fingers and and along came Solo Sikoa and Jimmy Uso. Rhodes evened the odds with help from Rollins and Jey Uso as a six-man staredown ended the show.

Rhodes vs. Reigns Grade: B+

Editorial Standards
Reprints & Permissions

A cellphone seen up close in a woman’s hand. She has red finger nails and is wearing a star-and-stripes shirt.

How Trump’s Allies Are Winning the War Over Disinformation

Their claims of censorship have successfully stymied the effort to filter election lies online.

Three years after Mr. Trump spread falsehoods about his defeat online, social media platforms have fewer checks on the intentional spread of lies about elections. Credit... Emily Elconin for The New York Times

Supported by

Share full article

By Jim Rutenberg and Steven Lee Myers

March 17, 2024

In the wake of the riot on Capitol Hill on Jan. 6, 2021, a groundswell built in Washington to rein in the onslaught of lies that had fueled the assault on the peaceful transfer of power.

Social media companies suspended Donald J. Trump, then the president, and many of his allies from the platforms they had used to spread misinformation about his defeat and whip up the attempt to overturn it. The Biden administration, Democrats in Congress and even some Republicans sought to do more to hold the companies accountable. Academic researchers wrestled with how to strengthen efforts to monitor false posts.

Mr. Trump and his allies embarked instead on a counteroffensive, a coordinated effort to block what they viewed as a dangerous effort to censor conservatives.

They have unquestionably prevailed.

Waged in the courts, in Congress and in the seething precincts of the internet, that effort has eviscerated attempts to shield elections from disinformation in the social media era. It tapped into — and then, critics say, twisted — the fierce debate over free speech and the government’s role in policing content.

Projects that were once bipartisan, including one started by the Trump administration, have been recast as deep-state conspiracies to rig elections. Facing legal and political blowback, the Biden administration has largely abandoned moves that might be construed as stifling political speech.

While little noticed by most Americans, the effort has helped cut a path for Mr. Trump’s attempt to recapture the presidency. Disinformation about elections is once again coursing through news feeds, aiding Mr. Trump as he fuels his comeback with falsehoods about the 2020 election.

“The censorship cartel must be dismantled and destroyed, and it must happen immediately,” he thundered at the start of his 2024 campaign.

The counteroffensive was led by former Trump aides and allies who had also pushed to overturn the 2020 election. They include Stephen Miller, the White House policy adviser; the attorneys general of Missouri and Louisiana, both Republicans; and lawmakers in Congress like Representative Jim Jordan, Republican of Ohio, who since last year has led a House subcommittee to investigate what it calls “the weaponization of government.”

Those involved draw financial support from conservative donors who have backed groups that promoted lies about voting in 2020. They have worked alongside an eclectic cast of characters, including Elon Musk, the billionaire who bought Twitter and vowed to make it a bastion of free speech, and Mike Benz, a former Trump administration official who previously produced content for a social media account that trafficked in posts about “white ethnic displacement.” (More recently, Mr. Benz originated the false assertion that Taylor Swift was a “psychological operation” asset for the Pentagon.)

Three years after Mr. Trump’s posts about rigged voting machines and stuffed ballot boxes went viral, he and his allies have achieved a stunning reversal of online fortune. Social media platforms now provide fewer checks against the intentional spread of lies about elections.

“The people that benefit from the spread of disinformation have effectively silenced many of the people that would try to call them out,” said Kate Starbird, a professor at the University of Washington whose research on disinformation made her a target of the effort.

It took aim at a patchwork of systems, started in Mr. Trump’s administration, that were intended to protect U.S. democracy from foreign interference. As those systems evolved to address domestic sources of misinformation, federal officials and private researchers began urging social media companies to do more to enforce their policies against harmful content.

That work has led to some of the most important First Amendment cases of the internet age, including one to be argued on Monday at the Supreme Court. That lawsuit, filed by the attorneys general of Missouri and Louisiana, accuses federal officials of colluding with or coercing the platforms to censor content critical of the government. The court’s decision, expected by June, could curtail the government’s latitude in monitoring content online.

The arguments strike at the heart of an unsettled question in modern American political life: In a world of unlimited online communications, in which anyone can reach huge numbers of people with unverified and false information, where is the line between protecting democracy and trampling on the right to free speech?

Even before the court rules, Mr. Trump’s allies have succeeded in paralyzing the Biden administration and the network of researchers who monitor disinformation.

Officials at the Department of Homeland Security and the State Department continue to monitor foreign disinformation, but the government has suspended virtually all cooperation with the social media platforms to address posts that originate in the United States.

“There’s just a chilling effect on all of this,” said Nina Jankowicz, a researcher who in 2022 briefly served as the executive director of a short-lived D.H.S. advisory board on disinformation. “Nobody wants to be caught up in it.”

Donald Trump holds a copy of the New York Post. The headline reads “The Ministry of Tweet.”

Fighting the ‘interpretive battle’

For Mr. Trump, banishment from social media was debilitating. His posts had been central to his political success, as was the army of adherents who cheered his messages and rallied behind his effort to hold onto office after he lost.

“WE have to use TIKTOK!!” read a memo prepared for Mr. Trump’s lead lawyer, Rudolph W. Giuliani, referring to a strategy to use social media to promote false messages about dead voters and vote-stealing software. “Content goes VIRAL here like no other platform!!!!! And there are MILLIONS of Trump supporters!”

After the violence on Jan. 6, Trump aides started working on how to “win the interpretive battle of the Trump history,” as one of them, Vincent Haley, had said in a previously unreported message found in the archives of the House investigation into the Jan. 6 attack. That would be crucial “for success in 2022 and 2024,” he added.

Once out of office, Mr. Trump built his own social platform, Truth Social, and his aides created a network of new organizations to advance the Trump agenda — and to prepare for his return.

Mr. Miller, Mr. Trump’s top policy adviser , created America First Legal, a nonprofit, to take on, as its mission statement put it, “an unholy alliance of corrupt special interests, big tech titans, fake news media and liberal Washington politicians.”

He solicited funding from conservative donors, drawing on a $27 million contribution from the Bradley Impact Fund , which had financed a web of groups that pushed “voter fraud” conspiracies in 2020. Another $1.3 million came from the Conservative Partnership Institute, considered the nonprofit nerve center of the Trump movement.

A key focus would be what he perceived as bias against conservatives on social media. “When you see people being banned off of Twitter and Facebook and other platforms,” he said in January 2021, “what you are seeing is the fundamental erosion of the concept of liberty and freedom in America.”

Mr. Biden’s administration was moving in the other direction. He came into office determined to take a tougher line against misinformation online — in large part because it was seen as an obstacle to bringing the coronavirus pandemic under control. D.H.S. officials were focused on bolstering defenses against election lies, which clearly had failed ahead of Jan. 6.

In one respect, that was clearer cut than matters of public health. There have long been special legal protections against providing false information about where, when and how to vote or intentionally sowing public confusion , or fear, to suppress voting.

Social media, with its pipeline to tens of millions of voters, presented powerful new pathways for antidemocratic tactics, but with far fewer of the regulatory and legal limits that exist for television, radio and newspapers.

The pitfalls were also clear: During the 2020 campaign, platforms had rushed to bury a New York Post article about Hunter Biden’s laptop out of concern that it might be tied to Russian interference. Conservatives saw it as an attempt to tilt the scales to Mr. Biden.

Administration officials said they were seeking a delicate balance between the First Amendment and social media’s rising power over public opinion.

“We’re in the business of critical infrastructure, and the most critical infrastructure is our cognitive infrastructure,” said Jen Easterly, the director of the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency, whose responsibilities include protecting the national voting system. “Building that resilience to misinformation and disinformation, I think, is incredibly important.”

In early 2022, D.H.S. announced its first major answer to the conundrum: the Disinformation Governance Board. The board would serve as an advisory body and help coordinate anti-disinformation efforts across the department’s bureaucracy, officials said. Its director was Ms. Jankowicz, an expert in Russian disinformation.

The announcement ignited a political firestorm that killed the board only weeks after it began operating. Both liberals and conservatives raised questions about its reach and the potential for abuse.

The fury was most intense on the right. Mr. Miller, speaking on Fox News, slammed it as “something out of a dystopian sci-fi novel.”

Ms. Jankowicz said that such attacks were distorting but acknowledged that the announcement had struck a nerve.

“I think any American, when you hear, ‘Oh, the administration, the White House, is setting up something to censor Americans,’ even if that has no shred of evidence behind it, your ears are really going to prick up,” she said.

A legal assault

Among those who took note was Eric Schmitt, then the attorney general of Missouri.

He and other attorneys general had been a forceful part of Mr. Trump’s legal campaign to overturn his defeat. Now, they would lend legal firepower to block the fight against disinformation.

In May 2022, Mr. Schmitt and Jeff Landry, then the attorney general of Louisiana and now the governor, sued dozens of federal officials, including Dr. Anthony S. Fauci, the nation’s top expert on infectious diseases, who had become a villain to many conservatives.

The lawsuit picked up where others had failed. Mr. Trump and others had sued Facebook and Twitter, but those challenges stalled as courts effectively ruled that the companies had a right to ban content on their sites. The new case, known as Missouri v. Biden, argued that companies were not just barring users — they were being coerced into doing so by government officials.

The attorneys general filed the lawsuit in the Western District of Louisiana, where it fell to Judge Terry A. Doughty, a Trump appointee who had built a reputation for blocking Biden administration policies.

“A lot of these lawsuits against social media companies themselves were just dying in the graveyard in the Northern District of California,” Mr. Schmitt, who was elected to the U.S. Senate in 2022, said, referring to the liberal-leaning federal court in San Francisco. “And so our approach was a little bit different. We went directly at the government.”

The lawsuit was considered a long shot by experts, who noted that government officials were not issuing orders but urging the platforms to enforce their own policies. The decision to act was left to the companies, and more often than not, they did nothing.

Documents subpoenaed for the case showed extensive interactions between government officials and the platforms. In emails and text messages, people on both sides were alternately cooperative and confrontational. The platforms took seriously the administration’s complaints about content they said was misleading or false, but at the same time, they did not blindly carry out its bidding.

On Mr. Biden’s third day in office, a White House aide, Clarke Humphrey, wrote to Twitter flagging a post by Robert F. Kennedy Jr. falsely suggesting that the death of Hank Aaron, the baseball legend, had been caused by the Covid-19 vaccines. She asked an executive at the platform to begin the process of removing the post “as soon as possible.”

The post is still up.

Reframing the debate

In August 2022, a new organization, the Foundation for Freedom Online, posted a report on its website called “Department of Homeland Censorship: How D.H.S. Seized Power Over Online Speech.”

The group’s founder, a little-known former White House official named Mike Benz, claimed to have firsthand knowledge of how federal officials were “coordinating mass censorship of the internet.”

At the heart of Mr. Benz’s theory was the Election Integrity Partnership, a group created in the summer of 2020 to supplement government efforts to combat misinformation about the election that year.

The idea came from a group of college interns at the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency, known as CISA. The students suggested that research institutions could help track and flag posts that might violate the platforms’ standards, feeding the information into a portal open to the agency, state and local governments and the platforms.

The project ultimately involved Stanford University, the University of Washington, the National Conference on Citizenship, the Atlantic Council’s Digital Forensic Research Lab and Graphika, a social media analytics firm. At its peak, it had 120 analysts, some of whom were college students.

It had what it considered successes, including spotting — and helping to stop — the spread of a false claim that a poll worker was burning Trump ballots in Erie, Pa. The approach could misfire, though. A separate, but related, CISA system flagged a tweet from a New York Times reporter accurately describing a printer problem at a voter center in Wisconsin, leading Twitter to affix an accuracy warning.

Decisions about whether to act remained with the platforms, which, in nearly two out of every three cases, did nothing.

In Mr. Benz’s telling, however, the government was using the partnership to get around the First Amendment, like outsourcing warfare to the private military contractor Blackwater.

Mr. Benz’s foundation for a time advertised itself as “a project of” Empower Oversight , a Republican group created by former Senate aides to support “whistle-blower” investigations.

Mr. Benz had previously lived a dual life. By day, he was a corporate lawyer in New York. In his off-hours, he toiled online under a social media avatar, Frame Game Radio, which railed against “the complete war on free speech” as it produced racist and antisemitic posts.

In videos and posts, Frame Game identified himself as a onetime member of the “Western chauvinist” group the Proud Boys, and as a Jew. Yet he blamed Jewish groups when he and others were suspended by social media companies. Warning about a looming demographic “white genocide,” Frame Game vented, “Anything pro white is called racist; anything white positive is racist.”

Mr. Benz did not respond to requests for comment. After NBC News first reported on Frame Game last fall, Mr. Benz called the account “a deradicalization project” to which he contributed in a “limited manner.” It was intended, he wrote on X, “by Jews to get people who hated Jews to stop hating Jews.”

Toward the end of 2018, Mr. Benz joined the Trump administration as a speechwriter for the housing and urban development secretary, Ben Carson. Mr. Benz’s posts were discovered by a colleague and brought to department management, according to a former official who insisted on anonymity to discuss a personnel matter.

As the election between Mr. Trump and Mr. Biden heated up, he joined Mr. Miller’s speech-writing team at the White House. He was there through the early days of the effort to keep Mr. Trump in power, and was involved in the search for statistical anomalies that could purport to show election fraud, according to testimony and records collected by House investigators, some of which were first uncovered by Kristen Ruby, a social media and public relations strategist.

In late November 2020, Mr. Benz was abruptly moved to the State Department as a deputy assistant secretary for international communications and information policy. It is unclear precisely what he did in the role. Mr. Benz has since claimed that the job, which he held for less than two months, gave him his expertise in cyberpolicy.

Mr. Benz’s report gained national attention when a conservative website, Just the News, wrote about it in September 2022. Four days later, Mr. Schmitt’s office sent requests for records to the University of Washington and others demanding information about their contacts with the government.

Mr. Schmitt soon amended his lawsuit to include nearly five pages detailing Mr. Benz’s work and asserting a new, broader claim: Not only was the government exerting pressure on the platforms, but it was also effectively deputizing the private researchers “to evade First Amendment and other legal restrictions.”

The scheme, Mr. Benz said, had “ambitious sights for 2022 and 2024.”

‘An aha moment’

In October 2022, Mr. Musk completed his purchase of Twitter and vowed to make the platform a forum for unfettered debate.

He quickly reversed the barring of Mr. Trump — calling it “morally wrong” — and loosened rules that had caused the suspensions of many of his followers.

He also set out to prove that Twitter’s previous management had too willingly cooperated with government officials. He released internal company communications to a select group of writers, among them Matt Taibbi and Michael Shellenberger.

The resulting project, which became known as the Twitter Files, began with an installment investigating Twitter’s decision to limit the reach of the Post article about Hunter Biden’s laptop.

The author of that dispatch, Mr. Taibbi, concluded that Twitter had limited the coverage amid general warnings from the F.B.I. that Russia could leak hacked materials to try to influence the 2020 election. Though he was critical of previous leadership at Twitter, he reported that he saw no evidence of direct government involvement.

In March 2023, Mr. Benz joined the fray. Both Mr. Taibbi and Mr. Benz participated in a live discussion on Twitter, which was co-hosted by Jennifer Lynn Lawrence, an organizer of the Trump rally that preceded the riot on Jan. 6.

As Mr. Taibbi described his work, Mr. Benz jumped in: “I believe I have all of the missing pieces of the puzzle.”

There was a far broader “scale of censorship the world has never experienced before,” he told Mr. Taibbi, who made plans to follow up.

Later, Mr. Shellenberger said that connecting with Mr. Benz had led to “a big aha moment.”

“The clouds parted, and the sunlight burst through the sky,” he said on a podcast. “It’s like, oh, my gosh, this guy is way, way farther down the rabbit hole than we even knew the rabbit hole went.”

A platform in Congress

A week after that online meeting, Mr. Taibbi and Mr. Shellenberger appeared on Capitol Hill as star witnesses for the Select Subcommittee on the Weaponization of the Federal Government. Mr. Benz sat behind them, listening as they detailed parts of his central thesis: This was not an imperfect attempt to balance free speech with democratic rights but a state-sponsored thought-policing system.

Mr. Shellenberger titled his written testimony, “The Censorship Industrial Complex.”

The committee had been created immediately after Republicans took control of the House in 2023 with a mandate to investigate, among other things, the actions taken by social media companies against conservatives.

It was led by Mr. Jordan, a lawmaker who helped spearhead the attempt to block certification of Mr. Biden’s victory and who has since worked closely with Mr. Miller and America First Legal.

“There are subpoenas that are going out on a daily, weekly basis,” Mr. Miller told Fox News in the first days of Republican control of the House, showing familiarity with the committee’s strategy.

Mr. Jordan’s committee soon sought documents from all those involved in the Election Integrity Partnership, as well as scores of government agencies and private researchers.

Mr. Miller followed with his own federal lawsuit on behalf of private plaintiffs in Missouri v. Biden, filing with D. John Sauer, the former solicitor general of Missouri who had led that case. (More recently, Mr. Sauer has represented Mr. Trump at the Supreme Court.)

Democrats in the House and legal experts questioned the collaboration as potentially unethical. Lawyers involved in the case have claimed that the subcommittee leaked selective parts of interviews conducted behind closed doors to America First Legal for use in its private lawsuits.

An amicus brief filed by the committee misrepresented facts and omitted evidence in ways that may have violated the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, Representative Jerrold Nadler of New York wrote in a 46-page letter to Mr. Jordan.

A committee spokeswoman said the letter “deliberately misrepresents the evidence available to the committee to defend the Biden administration’s attacks on the First Amendment.”

The amicus brief, filed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, was drafted by a lawyer at Mr. Miller’s legal foundation.

Mr. Miller did not respond to requests for comment.

A chilling effect

By the summer of 2023, the legal and political effort was having an impact.

The organizations involved in the Election Integrity Partnership faced an avalanche of requests and, if they balked, subpoenas for any emails, text messages or other information involving the government or social media companies dating to 2015.

Complying consumed time and money. The threat of legal action dried up funding from donors — which had included philanthropies, corporations and the government — and struck fear in researchers worried about facing legal action and political threats online for the work.

“You had a lot of organizations doing this research,” a senior analyst at one of them said, speaking on the condition of anonymity because of fear of legal retribution. “Now, there are none.”

The Biden administration also found its hands tied. On July 4, 2023, Judge Doughty issued a sweeping injunction, saying that the government could not reach out to the platforms, or work with outside groups monitoring social media content, to address misinformation, except in a narrow set of circumstances.

The ruling went further than some of the plaintiffs in the Missouri case had expected. Judge Doughty even repeated an incorrect statistic first promoted by Mr. Benz: The partnership had flagged 22 million messages on Twitter alone, he wrote. In fact, it had flagged fewer than 5,000.

The Biden administration appealed.

While the judge said the administration could still take steps to stop foreign election interference or posts that mislead about voting requirements, it was unclear how it could without communicating “with social media companies on initiatives to prevent grave harm to the American people and our democratic processes,” the government asserted in its appeal.

In September, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit scaled the order back significantly, but still found the government had most likely overstepped the limits of the First Amendment. That sent the case to the Supreme Court, where justices recently expressed deep reservations about government intrusions in social media.

Ahead of the court’s decision, agencies across the government have virtually stopped communicating with social media companies, fearing the legal and political fallout as the presidential election approaches, according to several government officials who described the retreat on the condition of anonymity.

In a statement, Cait Conley, a senior adviser at the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency, said the department was still strengthening partnerships to fight “risks posed by foreign actors.” She did not address online threats at home.

The platforms have also backed off. Facebook and YouTube announced that they would reverse their restrictions on content claiming that the 2020 election was stolen. The torrent of disinformation that the previous efforts had slowed, though not stopped, has resumed with even greater force.

Hailing the end of “that halcyon period of the censorship industry,” Mr. Benz has found new celebrity, sitting for interviews with Tucker Carlson and Russell Brand. His conspiracy theories, like the one about the Pentagon’s use of Taylor Swift, have aired on Fox News and become talking points for many Republicans.

The biggest winner, arguably, has been Mr. Trump, who casts himself as victim and avenger of a vast plot to muzzle his movement.

Mr. Biden is “building the most sophisticated censorship and information control apparatus in the world,” Mr. Trump said in a campaign email last week, “to crush free speech in America.”

Glenn Thrush and Luke Broadwater contributed reporting.

Jim Rutenberg is a writer at large for The Times and The New York Times Magazine and writes most often about media and politics. More about Jim Rutenberg

Steven Lee Myers covers misinformation for The Times. He has worked in Washington, Moscow, Baghdad and Beijing, where he contributed to the articles that won the Pulitzer Prize for public service in 2021. He is also the author of “The New Tsar: The Rise and Reign of Vladimir Putin.” More about Steven Lee Myers

Our Coverage of the 2024 Elections

Presidential Race

No Labels, the group that for months has pledged to run a centrist presidential ticket in the event of a rematch between President Biden and former President Donald Trump, is running out of time to recruit a presidential candidate after a string of rejections.

Biden’s re-election campaign had $71 million on hand at the end of February, more than double the money in Trump’s campaign account, as he continued to expand his fund-raising advantage over his rival.

Trump indicated that he was likely to back a 15-week federal ban on abortion , with exceptions for rape, incest and life-threatening emergencies.

Other Key Races

Ohio will almost certainly go for Trump this November. Senator Sherrod Brown, the last Democrat holding statewide office, will need to defy the gravity of the presidential contest to win a fourth term.

March 19 was the biggest primary night since Super Tuesday, and there were few surprises in the results. Here are the key takeaways .

Democrats in Arizona are leaning heavily into their support for abortion access to shore up support for Biden and hang on to a key Senate seat. But a legal dispute means it remains unclear what restrictions will actually be in effect when Arizonans vote in November.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

Knowledge Base
Dissertation

How to Write a Thesis or Dissertation Introduction

Published on September 7, 2022 by Tegan George and Shona McCombes. Revised on November 21, 2023.

The introduction is the first section of your thesis or dissertation , appearing right after the table of contents . Your introduction draws your reader in, setting the stage for your research with a clear focus, purpose, and direction on a relevant topic .

Your introduction should include:

Your topic, in context: what does your reader need to know to understand your thesis dissertation?
Your focus and scope: what specific aspect of the topic will you address?
The relevance of your research: how does your work fit into existing studies on your topic?
Your questions and objectives: what does your research aim to find out, and how?
An overview of your structure: what does each section contribute to the overall aim?

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes

How to start your introduction, topic and context, focus and scope, relevance and importance, questions and objectives, overview of the structure, thesis introduction example, introduction checklist, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about introductions.

Although your introduction kicks off your dissertation, it doesn’t have to be the first thing you write — in fact, it’s often one of the very last parts to be completed (just before your abstract ).

It’s a good idea to write a rough draft of your introduction as you begin your research, to help guide you. If you wrote a research proposal , consider using this as a template, as it contains many of the same elements. However, be sure to revise your introduction throughout the writing process, making sure it matches the content of your ensuing sections.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Begin by introducing your dissertation topic and giving any necessary background information. It’s important to contextualize your research and generate interest. Aim to show why your topic is timely or important. You may want to mention a relevant news item, academic debate, or practical problem.

After a brief introduction to your general area of interest, narrow your focus and define the scope of your research.

You can narrow this down in many ways, such as by:

Geographical area
Time period
Demographics or communities
Themes or aspects of the topic

It’s essential to share your motivation for doing this research, as well as how it relates to existing work on your topic. Further, you should also mention what new insights you expect it will contribute.

Start by giving a brief overview of the current state of research. You should definitely cite the most relevant literature, but remember that you will conduct a more in-depth survey of relevant sources in the literature review section, so there’s no need to go too in-depth in the introduction.

Depending on your field, the importance of your research might focus on its practical application (e.g., in policy or management) or on advancing scholarly understanding of the topic (e.g., by developing theories or adding new empirical data). In many cases, it will do both.

Ultimately, your introduction should explain how your thesis or dissertation:

Helps solve a practical or theoretical problem
Addresses a gap in the literature
Builds on existing research
Proposes a new understanding of your topic

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

Academic style
Vague sentences
Style consistency

See an example

Perhaps the most important part of your introduction is your questions and objectives, as it sets up the expectations for the rest of your thesis or dissertation. How you formulate your research questions and research objectives will depend on your discipline, topic, and focus, but you should always clearly state the central aim of your research.

If your research aims to test hypotheses , you can formulate them here. Your introduction is also a good place for a conceptual framework that suggests relationships between variables .

Conduct surveys to collect data on students’ levels of knowledge, understanding, and positive/negative perceptions of government policy.
Determine whether attitudes to climate policy are associated with variables such as age, gender, region, and social class.
Conduct interviews to gain qualitative insights into students’ perspectives and actions in relation to climate policy.

To help guide your reader, end your introduction with an outline of the structure of the thesis or dissertation to follow. Share a brief summary of each chapter, clearly showing how each contributes to your central aims. However, be careful to keep this overview concise: 1-2 sentences should be enough.

I. Introduction

Human language consists of a set of vowels and consonants which are combined to form words. During the speech production process, thoughts are converted into spoken utterances to convey a message. The appropriate words and their meanings are selected in the mental lexicon (Dell & Burger, 1997). This pre-verbal message is then grammatically coded, during which a syntactic representation of the utterance is built.

Speech, language, and voice disorders affect the vocal cords, nerves, muscles, and brain structures, which result in a distorted language reception or speech production (Sataloff & Hawkshaw, 2014). The symptoms vary from adding superfluous words and taking pauses to hoarseness of the voice, depending on the type of disorder (Dodd, 2005). However, distortions of the speech may also occur as a result of a disease that seems unrelated to speech, such as multiple sclerosis or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

This study aims to determine which acoustic parameters are suitable for the automatic detection of exacerbations in patients suffering from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) by investigating which aspects of speech differ between COPD patients and healthy speakers and which aspects differ between COPD patients in exacerbation and stable COPD patients.

Checklist: Introduction

I have introduced my research topic in an engaging way.

I have provided necessary context to help the reader understand my topic.

I have clearly specified the focus of my research.

I have shown the relevance and importance of the dissertation topic .

I have clearly stated the problem or question that my research addresses.

I have outlined the specific objectives of the research .

I have provided an overview of the dissertation’s structure .

You've written a strong introduction for your thesis or dissertation. Use the other checklists to continue improving your dissertation.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or research bias, make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

Research bias

Survivorship bias
Self-serving bias
Availability heuristic
Halo effect
Hindsight bias
Deep learning
Generative AI
Machine learning
Reinforcement learning
Supervised vs. unsupervised learning

(AI) Tools

Grammar Checker
Paraphrasing Tool
Text Summarizer
AI Detector
Plagiarism Checker
Citation Generator

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

A hook to catch the reader’s interest
Relevant background on the topic
Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

A thesis statement or research question
Sometimes an overview of the paper

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

Research objectives describe what you intend your research project to accomplish.

They summarize the approach and purpose of the project and help to focus your research.

Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement .

Scope of research is determined at the beginning of your research process , prior to the data collection stage. Sometimes called “scope of study,” your scope delineates what will and will not be covered in your project. It helps you focus your work and your time, ensuring that you’ll be able to achieve your goals and outcomes.

Defining a scope can be very useful in any research project, from a research proposal to a thesis or dissertation . A scope is needed for all types of research: quantitative , qualitative , and mixed methods .

To define your scope of research, consider the following:

Budget constraints or any specifics of grant funding
Your proposed timeline and duration
Specifics about your population of study, your proposed sample size , and the research methodology you’ll pursue
Any inclusion and exclusion criteria
Any anticipated control , extraneous , or confounding variables that could bias your research if not accounted for properly.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

George, T. & McCombes, S. (2023, November 21). How to Write a Thesis or Dissertation Introduction. Scribbr. Retrieved March 20, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/introduction-structure/

Is this article helpful?

Tegan George

Other students also liked, how to choose a dissertation topic | 8 steps to follow, how to write an abstract | steps & examples, unlimited academic ai-proofreading.

✔ Document error-free in 5minutes ✔ Unlimited document corrections ✔ Specialized in correcting academic texts

IMAGES

HOW TO WRITE A THESIS: Steps by step guide
How To Write A Thesis Statement (with Useful Steps and Tips) • 7ESL
25 Thesis Statement Examples (2024)
How to Write a Thesis Statement: Fill-in-the-Blank Formula
How to Write a Good Thesis Statement
phd thesis theoretical framework

VIDEO

The Thesis
How to Write a THESIS Statement
how to write a thesis
Teaching class how to write thesis statement
How to write essays, thesis and research
How to write thesis and synopsis

COMMENTS

Theoretical Framework Example for a Thesis or Dissertation
Theoretical Framework Example for a Thesis or Dissertation. Published on October 14, 2015 by Sarah Vinz . Revised on July 18, 2023 by Tegan George. Your theoretical framework defines the key concepts in your research, suggests relationships between them, and discusses relevant theories based on your literature review.
What is a Theoretical Framework? How to Write It (with Examples)
How to write a theoretical framework . The following general steps can help those wondering how to write a theoretical framework: 2. Identify and define the key concepts clearly and organize them into a suitable structure.; Use appropriate terminology and define all key terms to ensure consistency.; Identify the relationships between concepts and provide a logical and coherent structure.
Theoretical Framework: Definition & How to Write It
Theoretical Framework: Research Writing Guide. In a thesis or dissertation, a theoretical framework is a section where the writer evaluates or discusses the most relevant theories to their study. The purpose of this section is to: Define the key concepts. Combine and evaluate relevant models and theories. Explain expectations and assumptions ...
How to write a theoretical framework
The theoretical framework - the 'toolbox' - details the theories, propositions, hypotheses (if you're using them) and concepts - the 'tools' - that you will use to address or make sense of this problem. The list of potential explanations for why responses differ is enormous. You could approach this question with a focus on ...
What is a Theoretical Framework?
Revised on 10 October 2022. A theoretical framework is a foundational review of existing theories that serves as a roadmap for developing the arguments you will use in your own work. Theories are developed by researchers to explain phenomena, draw connections, and make predictions. In a theoretical framework, you explain the existing theories ...
LibGuides: Guide for Thesis Research: Theoretical Frameworks
Resources About Theory and Theoretical Frameworks. Challenging Ideas: Theory and Empirical Research in the Social Sciences and humanities Edited by Maren Lytje, Torben K. Nielsen, and Martin Ottovay Jørgensen. Call Number: Ebook, click link to view. ISBN: 9781443887373. Publication Date: 2015.
6 Steps to Mastering the Theoretical Framework of a Dissertation
Complete your review of literature first. In order to identify the scope of your theoretical framework, you'll need to address research that has already been completed by others, as well as gaps in the research. Understanding this, it's clear why you'll need to complete your review of literature before you can adequately write a theoretical ...
Example Theoretical Framework of a Dissertation or Thesis
Revised on 10 October 2022. Your theoretical framework defines the key concepts in your research, suggests relationships between them, and discusses relevant theories based on your literature review. A strong theoretical framework gives your research direction, allowing you to convincingly interpret, explain, and generalise from your findings.
Conceptual and Theoretical Frameworks for Thesis Studies: What ...
Identify and define key concepts in your thesis problem statement and thesis question. Explain and evaluate existing theories by writing a literature review that describes the concepts, models, and theories that support your study. Choose the theory that best explains the relationships between the key variables in your study.
Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper
Examine your thesis title and research problem. The research problem anchors your entire study and forms the basis from which you construct your theoretical framework. ... The present tense is used when writing about theory. Although the past tense can be used to describe the history of a theory or the role of key theorists, the construction of ...
writing the thesis
Not every thesis has a section or chapter devoted to a theoretical framework. But a lot do. (It's the Ph in PhD after all.) And these 'theory chapters' can be very tricky to write - and are often tricky for the examiner to read. Before starting to write your theory section/chapter it can be good to think about what the examiner wants to ...
Everything students need to know about writing a theoretical framework
The work starts with a formal theoretical framework because it describes your dissertation and its basic purpose or other research studies. It should provide a good model to conduct your research, analyze its results, interpret your data, and report on relevant information. You should understand how to use a theory to frame research questions.
Organizing Academic Research Papers: Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework may be rooted in a specific theory, in which case, you are expected to test the validity of an existing theory in relation to specific events, issues, or phenomena.Many social science research papers fit into this rubric. For example, Peripheral Realism theory, which categorizes perceived differences between nation-states as those that give orders, those that obey ...
How to Write a Thesis: A Guide for Master's Students
Tip #2: Begin Work on the Thesis Statement and Break Up the Thesis into Manageable Sections. After selecting an appropriate topic and developing a central research question for the thesis statement, it is then necessary to apply the research and writing skills you have learned throughout your degree program.
Thesis
Thesis. Your thesis is the central claim in your essay—your main insight or idea about your source or topic. Your thesis should appear early in an academic essay, followed by a logically constructed argument that supports this central claim. A strong thesis is arguable, which means a thoughtful reader could disagree with it and therefore ...
PDF Defend an interesting thesis
What's a thesis? • A thesis is a claim that can be correct or incorrect. o I exist. o There are no moral facts. o A thesis is a claim that can be correct or incorrect. o A hotdog is a sandwich. o It is not the case that a hotdog is a sandwich. • Provide the reader with an obviously marked thesis statement early on in the paper. Your
What Is a Thesis?
A thesis is a type of research paper based on your original research. It is usually submitted as the final step of a master's program or a capstone to a bachelor's degree. Writing a thesis can be a daunting experience. Other than a dissertation, it is one of the longest pieces of writing students typically complete.
PDF ELEMENTS OF A SUCCESSFUL POLITICAL THEORY PAPER
ELEMENTS OF A SUCCESSFUL POLITICAL THEORY PAPER. 1. ARCHITECTURE. A successful political theory paper in part depends to a huge extent on its architecture: the introduction (1.1), thesis statement (1.2), body (1.3) and conclusion (1.4). Understanding the role that each of these components are meant to play within the essay will hopefully aid ...
Motivated supervision increases motivation when writing a thesis, study
The theoretical basis of this study lies in so-called Expectancy-Value Theory. Put simply, it assumes that people multiply the attractiveness of the respective goal, i.e., the value, with the ...
Tips for Writing an Effective Application Essay
Writing an essay is a critical part of the application process. Use these tips to write an essay for college admission that could earn you an acceptance letter. ... If all your friends are writing application essays about covid-19, it may be a good idea to avoid that topic, unless during the pandemic you had a vivid, life-changing experience ...
What is the 'great replacement theory'? A scholar of race relations
Impact of the theory and spread of hate. In less than two decades, the theory has become a major idea, with as many as 60% of the French population believing some aspects of it. According to that ...
A Conspiracy Theory Goes to the Supreme Court: How Did Murthy v
The Supreme Court is instead about to address them on the basis of a concocted conspiracy theory. On Monday, the Supreme Court will hear oral argument in Murthy v Missouri , a case that requires the justices to consider whether the government coerced or "significantly encouraged" social media executives to remove disfavored speech in ...
How teachers started using ChatGPT to grade assignments
A new tool called Writable, which uses ChatGPT to help grade student writing assignments, is being offered widely to teachers in grades 3-12.. Why it matters: Teachers have quietly used ChatGPT to grade papers since it first came out — but now schools are sanctioning and encouraging its use. Driving the news: Writable, which is billed as a time-saving tool for teachers, was purchased last ...
How to Write a Thesis Statement
Placement of the thesis statement. Step 1: Start with a question. Step 2: Write your initial answer. Step 3: Develop your answer. Step 4: Refine your thesis statement. Types of thesis statements. Other interesting articles. Frequently asked questions about thesis statements.
WWE SmackDown Results, Winners And Grades On March 22, 2024
Waller and Theory will likely break up either at WrestleMania or the night after. WWE aired a video vignette of Bron Breakker before going to break as big plans remain in his future. Waller and ...
How to Write a Strong Hypothesis
Developing a hypothesis (with example) Step 1. Ask a question. Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that you want to answer. The question should be focused, specific, and researchable within the constraints of your project. Example: Research question.
How Trump's Allies Are Winning the War Over Disinformation
In the wake of the riot on Capitol Hill on Jan. 6, 2021, a groundswell built in Washington to rein in the onslaught of lies that had fueled the assault on the peaceful transfer of power.
How to Write a Thesis or Dissertation Introduction
Overview of the structure. To help guide your reader, end your introduction with an outline of the structure of the thesis or dissertation to follow. Share a brief summary of each chapter, clearly showing how each contributes to your central aims. However, be careful to keep this overview concise: 1-2 sentences should be enough.

Theoretical Framework: Research Writing Guide

What Is a Theoretical Framework?

Theoretical or Conceptual Framework?

The Length of a Theoretical Framework

Summary of a Theoretical Framework Sample

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Eureka! When I learnt how to write a theoretical framework

Hello, Doctor…

What is a theoretical framework?

Master your lit review & theory framework.

How to structure a theoretical framework

A short (but necessary) note on ontology and epistemology

I have more than one theory. What do I do?

Share this:

Submit a Comment Cancel reply

Search The PhD Knowledge Base

The PhD Knowledge Base Categories

Guide for Thesis Research

Some Articles About Theory

Why is theory important?

Resources About Theory and Theoretical Frameworks

Proofreading

Translation

Graphic Design

6 Steps to Mastering the Theoretical Framework of a Dissertation

Complete your review of literature first

Understand the purpose of a theoretical framework

Use your theoretical framework to justify your research

Keep it within three to five pages

Use models and other graphics

Use a checklist after completing your first draft

A final note

Related Posts

How Does a Hypothesis Differ From a Research Question?

How to Make a Strong Thesis Statement

Need an academic editor before submitting your work?

Have a language expert improve your writing

Example Theoretical Framework of a Dissertation or Thesis

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Table of contents

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Cite this Scribbr article

Is this article helpful?

Other students also liked

Conceptual and Theoretical Frameworks for Thesis Studies: What you must know

What is a research framework and why do I need one?

What is a conceptual framework?

Steps to develop a conceptual framework

Types of variables

Example of a conceptual framework

What is a theoretical framework?

Purpose of a theoretical framework

Steps to develop a theoretical framework

Structuring a theoretical framework

Example of a theoretical framework

Research question:

Sub-questions:

Theoretical framework:

Editor’s pick

What type of framework is used in the Humanities and Social Sciences (HSS) domain? +

What is the difference between mediating versus moderating variables? +

What software should I use to present my conceptual framework? +

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

Importance of Theory and a Theoretical Framework

Strategies for Developing the Theoretical Framework

Structure and Writing Style

Writing Tip

Another Writing Tip

Yet Another Writing Tip

Still Yet Another Writing Tip

writing the thesis – the theoretical framework

Share this:

About pat thomson

Leave a comment Cancel reply

Follow Blog via Email

Recent Posts

SEE MY CURATED POSTS ON WAKELET

How to use a theory to frame your research study or dissertation

What is it all about?

How does it strengthen your study?