sample research about physical education

Physical Education Research Paper Topics

In this guide on physical education research paper topics , we explore a wide range of subjects that delve into the field of physical education. Whether you’re a student studying education or a researcher in the field, this comprehensive list of topics is designed to inspire and guide you in your research endeavors. From examining the impact of physical activity on academic performance to analyzing the effectiveness of different teaching methods in physical education, these research paper topics offer a diverse range of areas to explore.

100 Physical Education Research Paper Topics

Exploring the diverse facets of physical education through research papers offers a unique opportunity to delve deeper into the field and contribute to the growing body of knowledge. To assist you in this endeavor, we have compiled a comprehensive list of physical education research paper topics. These topics span various areas of interest, from the impact of physical education on mental health to the integration of technology in physical education curricula. Each category contains 10 stimulating and thought-provoking physical education research paper topics, providing you with a wide range of options to explore and develop your research.

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Physical Education Curriculum and Instruction

• The integration of technology in physical education curricula.
• The impact of standardized testing on physical education programs.
• Strategies for promoting inclusivity and diversity in physical education classes.
• The role of assessment and feedback in enhancing student learning in physical education.
• The effectiveness of different teaching methods in physical education.
• Examining the relationship between physical education and academic performance.
• Addressing gender disparities in physical education participation and achievement.
• Incorporating cultural competency in physical education curricula.
• The influence of teacher-student relationships on student engagement in physical education.
• Exploring the role of outdoor education in physical education programs.

Physical Activity and Health

• Investigating the effects of physical activity on mental health and well-being.
• The relationship between physical activity and obesity rates among children and adolescents.
• Analyzing the impact of physical activity on cardiovascular health.
• Exploring the role of physical activity in reducing the risk of chronic diseases.
• Investigating the psychological benefits of regular physical activity.
• The impact of physical activity interventions on sedentary behavior.
• Examining the relationship between physical activity and cognitive function.
• Analyzing the influence of physical activity on sleep patterns.
• Exploring the role of physical activity in promoting healthy aging.
• Investigating the socio-economic factors influencing physical activity participation.

Sports Psychology and Performance

• Understanding the psychological factors influencing sports performance.
• Examining the role of motivation in sports participation and performance.
• Analyzing the impact of imagery and visualization techniques on athletic performance.
• Investigating the effects of stress and anxiety on sports performance.
• Exploring the psychological benefits of team sports participation.
• The influence of leadership styles on team cohesion and performance.
• Analyzing the role of self-confidence in sports performance.
• Understanding the psychological challenges faced by athletes with disabilities.
• Investigating the relationship between personality traits and sports performance.
• Exploring the effects of psychological interventions on sports performance enhancement.

Exercise Physiology and Biomechanics

• Investigating the physiological adaptations to different types of exercise.
• Analyzing the biomechanics of specific movements in sports and exercise.
• Exploring the effects of different training modalities on muscle strength and endurance.
• The role of nutrition in exercise performance and recovery.
• Investigating the effects of high-intensity interval training on cardiovascular fitness.
• Analyzing the biomechanical factors influencing running gait and performance.
• Exploring the physiological responses to altitude training.
• Investigating the effects of aging on exercise capacity and performance.
• Analyzing the impact of environmental factors on exercise performance.
• Understanding the role of genetics in exercise physiology and performance.

Adapted Physical Education

• Examining the benefits and challenges of inclusive physical education programs.
• The role of assistive technology in facilitating physical education for individuals with disabilities.
• Investigating the effectiveness of adapted physical education interventions.
• Exploring strategies for promoting social inclusion in adapted physical education.
• Analyzing the impact of inclusive physical education on self-esteem and self-efficacy.
• Understanding the experiences and perceptions of individuals with disabilities in physical education.
• Investigating the role of community partnerships in supporting adapted physical education.
• Examining the professional development needs of physical education teachers in inclusive settings.
• Analyzing the influence of policy and legislation on the provision of adapted physical education.
• Exploring the role of peer support in enhancing the participation of individuals with disabilities in physical education.

Physical Education Pedagogy and Teacher Training

• Investigating the impact of professional development programs on physical education teacher effectiveness.
• Exploring the use of technology in enhancing physical education pedagogy.
• Analyzing the role of reflection and self-assessment in physical education teacher development.
• Investigating the factors influencing physical education teacher job satisfaction.
• Understanding the challenges faced by physical education teachers in multicultural classrooms.
• Examining the relationship between teacher-student interaction and student engagement in physical education.
• Exploring effective strategies for managing behavior in physical education classes.
• Analyzing the impact of mentoring and coaching on physical education teacher development.
• Investigating the influence of school climate on physical education teacher motivation and performance.
• Exploring the integration of social-emotional learning in physical education curricula.

Physical Education Policy and Advocacy

• Analyzing the impact of policy on the provision of physical education in schools.
• Investigating the role of advocacy organizations in promoting quality physical education programs.
• Understanding the factors influencing physical education policy adoption and implementation.
• Examining the relationship between physical education policies and student health outcomes.
• Analyzing the impact of budgetary constraints on the quality of physical education programs.
• Investigating the role of community partnerships in supporting physical education initiatives.
• Exploring strategies for promoting physical education policy reform.
• Understanding the influence of parental involvement on physical education policy and practice.
• Analyzing the effects of policy changes on physical education teacher preparation programs.
• Investigating the perceptions and attitudes of stakeholders towards physical education policies.

Assessment and Evaluation in Physical Education

• Analyzing the effectiveness of different assessment methods in physical education.
• Investigating the use of technology in assessing physical education outcomes.
• Exploring the role of self-assessment and peer assessment in physical education.
• Understanding the challenges and opportunities of authentic assessment in physical education.
• Analyzing the impact of assessment practices on student motivation and engagement in physical education.
• Investigating the alignment between physical education curriculum, instruction, and assessment.
• Exploring the role of formative assessment in enhancing student learning in physical education.
• Understanding the influence of standardized testing on physical education assessment practices.
• Investigating the relationship between assessment practices and equity in physical education.
• Analyzing the use of data-driven decision-making in improving physical education programs.

Physical Education and Technology

• Investigating the use of wearable devices in monitoring physical activity and fitness levels.
• Exploring the impact of virtual reality and augmented reality in physical education.
• Analyzing the role of mobile applications in promoting physical activity and health.
• Understanding the benefits and challenges of online physical education courses.
• Investigating the use of gamification in enhancing student engagement in physical education.
• Exploring the influence of exergaming on physical activity participation.
• Analyzing the effectiveness of technology-mediated feedback in physical education.
• Investigating the role of social media in promoting physical activity and healthy lifestyles.
• Understanding the integration of technology in physical education teacher preparation programs.
• Exploring the ethical considerations of using technology in physical education.

Physical Education and Social Justice

• Analyzing the relationship between physical education and social inequality.
• Investigating the experiences and perceptions of marginalized groups in physical education.
• Exploring strategies for promoting social justice in physical education curricula.
• Understanding the role of physical education in fostering cultural competence and inclusion.
• Investigating the impact of gender norms on physical education experiences.
• Analyzing the influence of socioeconomic status on access to quality physical education.
• Exploring the intersectionality of race, gender, and physical education experiences.
• Investigating the role of physical education in promoting social-emotional well-being and resilience.
• Analyzing the impact of inclusive policies and practices on social justice in physical education.
• Understanding the challenges and opportunities of integrating social justice in physical education pedagogy.

The comprehensive list of physical education research paper topics presented here is just the beginning of your research journey. Delve into the categories, choose a topic that resonates with your interests, and embark on a fascinating exploration of the subject matter. Remember to consider the relevance, significance, and feasibility of your chosen topic, and conduct thorough research to develop a well-informed and insightful research paper. Whether you seek to uncover the benefits of physical activity or analyze the effectiveness of different teaching methods, these topics will inspire you to expand your understanding of physical education and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field.

Physical Education Research Guide

Welcome to the world of physical education research! This page serves as a valuable resource for students and researchers in the field of education who are eager to explore the realm of physical education through the lens of research papers. Physical education plays a vital role in promoting health, wellness, and overall development among individuals of all ages. It encompasses a wide range of physical education research paper topics, from the impact of physical activity on academic performance to the effectiveness of various teaching approaches in physical education.

The primary objective of this page is to provide you with a comprehensive overview of physical education research paper topics. By delving into these topics, you will gain a deeper understanding of the key issues, theories, and practices within the field. The list of topics is categorized into 10 distinct categories, each offering 10 diverse and thought-provoking research paper ideas. Whether you’re interested in exploring the role of technology in physical education or investigating the social and cultural aspects of sports, you’ll find a wealth of ideas to spark your curiosity and fuel your research journey.

In addition to the extensive list of research paper topics, this page also offers expert advice on how to choose the most appropriate topic for your research project. Selecting a compelling and relevant research topic is essential to ensure the success of your study. Our expert guidance will provide you with valuable insights and practical tips to help you navigate through the multitude of options and select a topic that aligns with your interests, research goals, and academic requirements.

Furthermore, we understand that crafting a research paper can be a challenging task. To support your academic journey, we offer custom writing services that allow you to order a personalized research paper on any physical education topic of your choice. Our team of expert degree-holding writers possesses the knowledge and expertise to deliver high-quality, well-researched papers that meet your specific needs. With our commitment to in-depth research, customized solutions, and adherence to formatting styles such as APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard, we strive to provide you with a seamless and professional writing experience.

So, whether you’re a student embarking on a research project or a researcher seeking new avenues of exploration, this page is designed to inspire, inform, and empower you in your quest for knowledge in the field of physical education. Let us embark on this exciting journey together as we delve into the fascinating world of physical education research paper topics.

Choosing a Physical Education Topic

When it comes to choosing a research paper topic in the field of physical education, it is crucial to select a subject that aligns with your interests, addresses a relevant issue, and allows for meaningful exploration. To help you make an informed decision, here are ten expert tips on selecting the right physical education research paper topic:

• Identify your passion : Consider the aspects of physical education that you find most fascinating and meaningful. Are you interested in exploring the impact of technology on physical education, the role of physical education in promoting mental health, or the relationship between physical activity and academic performance? By selecting a topic that aligns with your passion, you will be more motivated to dive deep into the research and produce an exceptional paper.
• Stay updated with current literature : Regularly review the latest research articles, books, and journals in the field of physical education. This will help you identify emerging trends, controversial topics, and gaps in existing knowledge, enabling you to choose a research topic that is current and relevant.
• Consider the target population : Physical education encompasses various age groups and populations, including children, adolescents, adults, and individuals with special needs. Reflect on which population interests you the most and tailor your research topic accordingly. For example, you may explore the effectiveness of physical education programs for children with disabilities or the impact of physical activity interventions on older adults’ well-being.
• Delve into emerging areas : Explore emerging areas within physical education that are gaining attention, such as inclusive education, adaptive physical education, or the integration of technology in teaching and learning. By choosing a topic in these emerging areas, you can contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Address local or global issues : Consider researching topics that address local or global issues in physical education. For instance, you may examine the impact of socio-cultural factors on physical education participation rates in a specific community or analyze the effects of globalization on physical education curriculum development.
• Consult with experts : Seek guidance from professors, academic advisors, or professionals in the field of physical education. They can provide valuable insights, suggest potential research topics, and help you narrow down your focus based on their expertise and experience.
• Conduct a literature review : Before finalizing your research topic, conduct a comprehensive literature review to identify existing studies, theories, and gaps in knowledge. This will help you refine your research question and ensure that your topic contributes to the existing body of literature.
• Consider research feasibility : Assess the availability of data sources, research methods, and potential challenges associated with your chosen topic. Ensure that you have access to relevant data, research participants (if applicable), and the necessary resources to carry out your study successfully.
• Balance novelty and significance : Strive to find a balance between selecting a novel and unique topic while ensuring its significance within the field of physical education. Aim to choose a topic that adds value to the existing knowledge and has the potential to influence practice or policy in a meaningful way.
• Reflect on personal and professional goals : Consider how your chosen research topic aligns with your personal and professional goals. Will it contribute to your academic and career development? Does it align with your long-term aspirations within the field of physical education? Selecting a topic that resonates with your goals will enhance your motivation and dedication throughout the research process.

Remember, the process of choosing a research paper topic in physical education is iterative. Be open to exploring different ideas, seeking feedback from experts, and refining your topic based on the available resources and research feasibility. By selecting a topic that aligns with your passion, addresses a relevant issue, and has the potential for significant impact, you will be well-equipped to embark on a successful research journey in the field of physical education.

How to Write a Physical Education Research Paper

Writing a research paper in the field of physical education requires careful planning, thorough research, and effective organization of ideas. Here are some essential steps to guide you through the process of writing a compelling and well-structured physical education research paper:

• Understand the assignment : Familiarize yourself with the requirements and guidelines provided by your instructor or educational institution. Pay attention to the research question, formatting style, word count, and any specific instructions or expectations.
• Conduct thorough research : Begin by conducting extensive research on your chosen topic. Utilize various sources such as academic journals, books, reputable websites, and databases to gather relevant and reliable information. Take detailed notes and ensure that you cite your sources accurately.
• Develop a strong thesis statement : Formulate a clear and concise thesis statement that captures the main objective or argument of your research paper. The thesis statement should guide your research and provide a roadmap for the rest of your paper.
• Outline your paper : Create a well-organized outline to structure your research paper. Divide it into sections such as introduction, literature review, methodology, findings, analysis, and conclusion. Outline the main points and supporting evidence you will include in each section.
• Write a compelling introduction : Begin your paper with an engaging introduction that grabs the reader’s attention and provides background information on the topic. Clearly state the purpose of your research, introduce the key concepts, and present your thesis statement.
• Conduct a comprehensive literature review : Dedicate a section of your paper to reviewing relevant literature on the topic. Summarize and analyze existing studies, theories, and perspectives related to your research question. Identify gaps in the literature that your research aims to address.
• Describe your research methodology : Explain the research design, methods, and procedures you used to collect and analyze data. Provide a clear description of the participants, materials, and instruments used. Justify the appropriateness of your chosen methods for addressing your research question.
• Present your findings : Share the results of your research in a clear and organized manner. Use tables, graphs, or charts to present quantitative data and provide detailed descriptions for qualitative data. Analyze and interpret the findings in relation to your research question.
• Discuss the implications and significance : Analyze the implications of your findings and their significance in the field of physical education. Discuss how your research contributes to the existing knowledge, addresses the research question, and impacts practice or policy.
• Conclude your paper effectively : Summarize the main points of your research paper in the conclusion section. Restate your thesis statement and highlight the key findings and implications. Discuss the limitations of your study and suggest areas for further research.
• Revise and edit : Review your research paper thoroughly for clarity, coherence, and logical flow. Check for grammatical and spelling errors, and ensure proper citation of sources using the required formatting style.
• Seek feedback : Before submitting your final paper, seek feedback from peers, professors, or mentors. Incorporate their suggestions and revisions to improve the overall quality of your research paper.

By following these steps and dedicating sufficient time to each stage of the writing process, you can produce a well-researched and well-structured physical education research paper that effectively contributes to the field.

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Article Contents

Introduction.

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‘Physical education makes you fit and healthy’. Physical education's contribution to young people's physical activity levels

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S. Fairclough, G. Stratton, ‘Physical education makes you fit and healthy’. Physical education's contribution to young people's physical activity levels, Health Education Research , Volume 20, Issue 1, February 2005, Pages 14–23, https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyg101

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The purpose of this study was to assess physical activity levels during high school physical education lessons. The data were considered in relation to recommended levels of physical activity to ascertain whether or not physical education can be effective in helping young people meet health-related goals. Sixty-two boys and 60 girls (aged 11–14 years) wore heart rate telemeters during physical education lessons. Percentages of lesson time spent in moderate-and-vigorous (MVPA) and vigorous intensity physical activity (VPA) were recorded for each student. Students engaged in MVPA and VPA for 34.3 ± 21.8 and 8.3 ± 11.1% of lesson time, respectively. This equated to 17.5 ± 12.9 (MVPA) and 3.9 ± 5.3 (VPA) min. Boys participated in MVPA for 39.4 ± 19.1% of lesson time compared to the girls (29.1 ± 23.4%; P < 0.01). High-ability students were more active than the average- and low-ability students. Students participated in most MVPA during team games (43.2 ± 19.5%; P < 0.01), while the least MVPA was observed during movement activities (22.2 ± 20.0%). Physical education may make a more significant contribution to young people's regular physical activity participation if lessons are planned and delivered with MVPA goals in mind.

Regular physical activity participation throughout childhood provides immediate health benefits, by positively effecting body composition and musculo-skeletal development ( Malina and Bouchard, 1991 ), and reducing the presence of coronary heart disease risk factors ( Gutin et al. , 1994 ). In recognition of these health benefits, physical activity guidelines for children and youth have been developed by the Health Education Authority [now Health Development Agency (HDA)] ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ). The primary recommendation advocates the accumulation of 1 hour's physical activity per day of at least moderate intensity (i.e. the equivalent of brisk walking), through lifestyle, recreational and structured activity forms. A secondary recommendation is that children take part in activities that help develop and maintain musculo-skeletal health, on at least two occasions per week ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ). This target may be addressed through weight-bearing activities that focus on developing muscular strength, endurance and flexibility, and bone health.

School physical education (PE) provides a context for regular and structured physical activity participation. To this end a common justification for PE's place in the school curriculum is that it contributes to children's health and fitness ( Physical Education Association of the United Kingdom, 2004 ; Zeigler, 1994 ). The extent to which this rationale is accurate is arguable ( Koslow, 1988 ; Michaud and Andres, 1990 ) and has seldom been tested. However, there would appear to be some truth in the supposition because PE is commonly highlighted as a significant contributor to help young people achieve their daily volume of physical activity ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ; Corbin and Pangrazi, 1998 ). The important role that PE has in promoting health-enhancing physical activity is exemplified in the US ‘Health of the Nation’ targets. These include three PE-associated objectives, two of which relate to increasing the number of schools providing and students participating in daily PE classes. The third objective is to improve the number of students who are engaged in beneficial physical activity for at least 50% of lesson time ( US Department of Health and Human Services, 2000 ). However, research evidence suggests that this criterion is somewhat ambitious and, as a consequence, is rarely achieved during regular PE lessons ( Stratton, 1997 ; US Department of Health and Human Services, 2000 ; Levin et al. , 2001 ; Fairclough, 2003a ).

The potential difficulties of achieving such a target are associated with the diverse aims of PE. These aims are commonly accepted by physical educators throughout the world ( International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education, 1999 ), although their interpretation, emphasis and evaluation may differ between countries. According to Simons-Morton ( Simons-Morton, 1994 ), PE's overarching goals should be (1) for students to take part in appropriate amounts of physical activity during lessons, and (2) become educated with the knowledge and skills to be physically active outside school and throughout life. The emphasis of learning during PE might legitimately focus on motor, cognitive, social, spiritual, cultural or moral development ( Sallis and McKenzie, 1991 ; Department for Education and Employment/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 1999 ). These aspects may help cultivate students' behavioural and personal skills to enable them to become lifelong physical activity participants [(thus meeting PE goal number 2 ( Simons-Morton, 1994 )]. However, to achieve this, these aspects should be delivered within a curriculum which provides a diverse range of physical activity experiences so students can make informed decisions about which ones they enjoy and feel competent at. However, evidence suggests that team sports dominate English PE curricula, yet bear limited relation to the activities that young people participate in, out of school and after compulsory education ( Sport England, 2001 ; Fairclough et al. , 2002 ). In order to promote life-long physical activity a broader base of PE activities needs to be offered to reinforce the fact that it is not necessary for young people to be talented sportspeople to be active and healthy.

While motor, cognitive, social, spiritual, cultural and moral development are valid areas of learning, they can be inconsistent with maximizing participation in health-enhancing physical activity [i.e. PE goal number 1 ( Simons-Morton, 1994 )]. There is no guidance within the English National Curriculum for PE [NCPE ( Department for Education and Employment/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 1999 )] to inform teachers how they might best work towards achieving this goal. Moreover, it is possible that the lack of policy, curriculum development or teacher expertise in this area contributes to the considerable variation in physical activity levels during PE ( Stratton, 1996a ). However, objective research evidence suggests that this is mainly due to differences in pedagogical variables [i.e. class size, available space, organizational strategies, teaching approaches, lesson content, etc. ( Borys, 1983 ; Stratton, 1996a )]. Furthermore, PE activity participation may be influenced by inter-individual factors. For example, activity has been reported to be lower among students with greater body mass and body fat ( Brooke et al. , 1975 ; Fairclough, 2003c ), and higher as students get older ( Seliger et al. , 1980 ). In addition, highly skilled students are generally more active than their lesser skilled peers ( Li and Dunham, 1993 ; Stratton, 1996b ) and boys tend to engage in more PE activity than girls ( Stratton, 1996b ; McKenzie et al. , 2000 ). Such inter-individual factors are likely to have significant implications for pedagogical practice and therefore warrant further investigation.

In accordance with Simons-Morton's ( Simons-Morton, 1994 ) first proposed aim of PE, the purpose of this study was to assess English students' physical activity levels during high school PE. The data were considered in relation to recommended levels of physical activity ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ) to ascertain whether or not PE can be effective in helping children be ‘fit and healthy’. Specific attention was paid to differences between sex and ability groups, as well as during different PE activities.

Subjects and settings

One hundred and twenty-two students (62 boys and 60 girls) from five state high schools in Merseyside, England participated in this study. Stage sampling was used in each school to randomly select one boys' and one girls' PE class, in each of Years 7 (11–12 years), 8 (12–13 years) and 9 (13–14 years). Three students per class were randomly selected to take part. These students were categorized as ‘high’, ‘average’ and ‘low’ ability, based on their PE teachers' evaluation of their competence in specific PE activities. Written informed consent was completed prior to the study commencing. The schools taught the statutory programmes of study detailed in the NCPE, which is organized into six activity areas (i.e. athletic activities, dance, games, gymnastic activities, outdoor activities and swimming). The focus of learning is through four distinct aspects of knowledge, skills and understanding, which relate to; skill acquisition, skill application, evaluation of performance, and knowledge and understanding of fitness and health ( Department for Education and Employment/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 1999 ). The students attended two weekly PE classes in mixed ability, single-sex groups. Girls and boys were taught by male and female specialist physical educators, respectively.

Instruments and procedures

The investigation received ethical approval from the Liverpool John Moores Research Degrees Ethics Committee. The study involved the monitoring of heart rates (HRs) during PE using short-range radio telemetry (Vantage XL; Polar Electro, Kempele, Finland). Such systems measure the physiological load on the participants' cardiorespiratory systems, and allow analysis of the frequency, duration and intensity of physical activity. HR telemetry has been shown to be a valid and reliable measure of young people's physical activity ( Freedson and Miller, 2000 ) and has been used extensively in PE settings ( Stratton, 1996a ).

The students were fitted with the HR telemeters while changing into their PE uniforms. HR was recorded once every 5 s for the duration of the lessons. Telemeters were set to record when the teachers officially began the lessons, and stopped at the end of lessons. Total lesson ‘activity’ time was the equivalent of the total recorded time on the HR receiver. At the end of the lessons the telemeters were removed and data were downloaded for analyses. Resting HRs were obtained on non-PE days while the students lay in a supine position for a period of 10 min. The lowest mean value obtained over 1 min represented resting HR. Students achieved maximum HR values following completion of the Balke treadmill test to assess cardiorespiratory fitness ( Rowland, 1993 ). This data was not used in the present study, but was collated for another investigation assessing children's health and fitness status. Using the resting and maximum HR values, HR reserve (HRR, i.e. the difference between resting and maximum HR) at the 50% threshold was calculated for each student. HRR accounts for age and gender HR differences, and is recommended when using HR to assess physical activity in children ( Stratton, 1996a ). The 50% HRR threshold represents moderate intensity physical activity ( Stratton, 1996a ), which is the minimal intensity required to contribute to the recommended volume of health-related activity ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ). Percentage of lesson time spent in health enhancing moderate-and-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was calculated for each student by summing the time spent ≥50% HRR threshold. HRR values ≥75% corresponded to vigorous intensity physical activity (VPA). This threshold represents the intensity that may stimulate improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness ( Morrow and Freedson, 1994 ) and was used to indicate the proportion of lesson time that students were active at this higher level.

Sixty-six lessons were monitored over a 12-week period, covering a variety of group and individual activities ( Table I ). In order to allow statistically meaningful comparisons between different types of activities, students were classified as participants in activities that shared similar characteristics. These were, team games [i.e. invasion (e.g. football and hockey) and striking games (e.g. cricket and softball)], individual games (e.g. badminton, tennis and table tennis), movement activities (e.g. dance and gymnastics) and individual activities [e.g. athletics, fitness (circuit training and running activities) and swimming]. The intention was to monitor equal numbers of students during lessons in each of the four designated PE activity categories. However, timetable constraints and student absence meant that true equity was not possible, and so the number of boys and girls monitored in the different activities was unequal.

Number and type of monitored PE lessons

Student sex, ability level and PE activity category were the independent variables, with percent of lesson time spent in MVPA and VPA set as the dependent variables. Exploratory analyses were conducted to establish whether data met parametric assumptions. Shapiro–Wilk tests revealed that only boys' MVPA were normally distributed. Subsequent Levene's tests confirmed the data's homogeneity of variance, with the exception of VPA between the PE activities. Though much of the data violated the assumption of normality, the ANOVA is considered to be robust enough to produce valid results in this situation ( Vincent, 1999 ). Considering this, alongside the fact that the data had homogenous variability, it was decided to proceed with ANOVA for all analyses, with the exception of VPA between different PE activities.

Sex × ability level factorial ANOVAs compared the physical activity of boys and girls who differed in PE competence. A one-way ANOVA was used to identify differences in MVPA during the PE activities. Post-hoc analyses were performed using Hochberg's GT2 correction procedure, which is recommended when sample sizes are unequal ( Field, 2000 ). A non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis ANOVA calculated differences in VPA during the different activities. Post-hoc Mann–Whitney U -tests determined where identified differences occurred. To control for type 1 error the Bonferroni correction procedure was applied to these tests, which resulted in an acceptable α level of 0.008. Although these data were ranked for the purposes of the statistical analysis, they were presented as means ± SD to allow comparison with the other results. All data were analyzed using SPSS version 11.0 (SPSS, Chicago, IL).

The average duration of PE lessons was 50.6 ± 20.8 min, although girls' (52.6 ± 25.4 min) lessons generally lasted longer than boys' (48.7 ± 15.1 min). When all PE activities were considered together, students engaged in MVPA and VPA for 34.3 ± 21.8 and 8.3 ± 11.1% of PE time, respectively. This equated to 17.5 ± 12.9 (MVPA) and 3.9 ± 5.3 (VPA) min. The high-ability students were more active than the average- and low-ability students, who took part in similar amounts of activity. These trends were apparent in boys and girls ( Table II ).

Mean (±SD) MVPA and VPA of boys and girls of differing abilities

Boys > girls, P < 0.01.

Boys > girls, P < 0.05.

Boys engaged in MVPA for 39.4% ± 19.1 of lesson time compared to the girls' value of 29.1 ± 23.4 [ F (1, 122) = 7.2, P < 0.01]. When expressed as absolute units of time, these data were the equivalent of 18.9 ± 10.5 (boys) and 16.1 ± 14.9 (girls) min. Furthermore, a 4% difference in VPA was observed between the two sexes [ Table II ; F (1, 122) = 4.6, P < 0.05]. There were no significant sex × ability interactions for either MVPA or VPA.

Students participated in most MVPA during team games [43.2 ± 19.5%; F (3, 121) = 6.0, P < 0.01]. Individual games and individual activities provided a similar stimulus for activity, while the least MVPA was observed during movement activities (22.2 ± 20.0%; Figure 1 ). A smaller proportion of PE time was spent in VPA during all activities. Once more, team games (13.6 ± 11.3%) and individual activities (11.8 ± 14.0%) were best suited to promoting this higher intensity activity (χ 2 (3) =30.0, P < 0.01). Students produced small amounts of VPA during individual and movement activities, although this varied considerably in the latter activity ( Figure 2 ).

Mean (±SD) MVPA during different PE activities. ** Team games > movement activities ( P < 0.01). * Individual activities > movement activities ( P < 0.05).

Mean (±SD) VPA during different PE activities. ** Team games > movement activities ( Z (3) = −4.9, P < 0.008) and individual games ( Z (3) = −3.8, P < 0.008). † Individual activities > movement activities ( Z (3) = −3.3, P < 0.008). ‡ Individual game > movement activities ( Z (3) = −2.7, P < 0.008).

This study used HR telemetry to assess physical activity levels during a range of high school PE lessons. The data were considered in relation to recommended levels of physical activity ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ) to investigate whether or not PE can be effective in helping children be ‘fit and healthy’. Levels of MVPA were similar to those reported in previous studies ( Klausen et al. , 1986 ; Strand and Reeder, 1993 ; Fairclough, 2003b ) and did not meet the US Department of Health and Human Services ( US Department of Health and Human Services, 2000 ) 50% of lesson time criterion. Furthermore, the data were subject to considerable variance, which was exemplified by high standard deviation values ( Table II , and Figures 1 and 2 ). Such variation in activity levels reflects the influence of PE-specific contextual and pedagogical factors [i.e. lesson objectives, content, environment, teaching styles, etc. ( Stratton, 1996a )]. The superior physical activity levels of the high-ability students concurred with previous findings ( Li and Dunham, 1993 ; Stratton, 1996b ). However, the low-ability students engaged in more MVPA and VPA than the average-ability group. While it is possible that the teachers may have inaccurately assessed the low and average students' competence, it could have been that the low-ability group displayed more effort, either because they were being monitored or because they associated effort with perceived ability ( Lintunen, 1999 ). However, these suggestions are speculative and are not supported by the data. The differences in activity levels between the ability groups lend some support to the criticism that PE teachers sometimes teach the class as one and the same rather than planning for individual differences ( Metzler, 1989 ). If this were the case then undifferentiated activities may have been beyond the capability of the lesser skilled students. This highlights the importance of motor competence as an enabling factor for physical activity participation. If a student is unable to perform the requisite motor skills to competently engage in a given task or activity, then their opportunities for meaningful participation become compromised ( Rink, 1994 ). Over time this has serious consequences for the likelihood of a young person being able or motivated enough to get involved in physical activity which is dependent on a degree of fundamental motor competence.

Boys spent a greater proportion of lesson time involved in MVPA and VPA than girls. These differences are supported by other HR studies in PE ( Mota, 1994 ; Stratton, 1997 ). Boys' activity levels equated to 18.9 min of MVPA, compared to 16.1 min for the girls. It is possible that the characteristics and aims of some of the PE activities that the girls took part in did not predispose them to engage in whole body movement as much as the boys. Specifically, the girls participated in 10 more movement lessons and eight less team games lessons than the boys. The natures of these two activities are diverse, with whole body movement at differing speeds being the emphasis during team games, compared to aesthetic awareness and control during movement activities. The monitored lessons reflected typical boys' and girls' PE curricula, and the fact that girls do more dance and gymnastics than boys inevitably restricts their MVPA engagement. Although unrecorded contextual factors may have contributed to this difference, it is also possible that the girls were less motivated than the boys to physically exert themselves. This view is supported by negative correlations reported between girls' PE enjoyment and MVPA ( Fairclough, 2003b ). Moreover, there is evidence ( Dickenson and Sparkes, 1988 ; Goudas and Biddle, 1993 ) to suggest that some pupils, and girls in particular ( Cockburn, 2001 ), may dislike overly exerting themselves during PE. Although physical activity is what makes PE unique from other school subjects, some girls may not see it as such an integral part of their PE experience. It is important that this perception is clearly recognized if lessons are to be seen as enjoyable and relevant, whilst at the same time contributing meaningfully to physical activity levels. Girls tend to be habitually less active than boys and their levels of activity participation start to decline at an earlier age ( Armstrong and Welsman, 1997 ). Therefore, the importance of PE for girls as a means of them experiencing regular health-enhancing physical activity cannot be understated.

Team games promoted the highest levels of MVPA and VPA. This concurs with data from previous investigations ( Strand and Reeder, 1993 ; Stratton, 1996a , 1997 ; Fairclough, 2003a ). Because these activities require the use of a significant proportion of muscle mass, the heart must maintain the oxygen demand by beating faster and increasing stroke volume. Moreover, as team games account for the majority of PE curriculum time ( Fairclough and Stratton, 1997 ; Sport England, 2001 ), teachers may actually be more experienced and skilled at delivering quality lessons with minimal stationary waiting and instruction time. Similarly high levels of activity were observed during individual activities. With the exception of throwing and jumping themes during athletics lessons, the other individual activities (i.e. swimming, running, circuit/station work) involved simultaneous movement of the arms and legs over variable durations. MVPA and VPA were lowest during movement activities, which mirrored previous research involving dance and gymnastics ( Stratton, 1997 ; Fairclough, 2003a ). Furthermore, individual games provided less opportunity for activity than team games. The characteristics of movement activities and individual games respectively emphasize aesthetic appreciation and motor skill development. This can mean that opportunities to promote cardiorespiratory health may be less than in other activities. However, dance and gymnastics can develop flexibility, and muscular strength and endurance. Thus, these activities may be valuable to assist young people in meeting the HDA's secondary physical activity recommendation, which relates to musculo-skeletal health ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ).

The question of whether PE can solely contribute to young people's cardiorespiratory fitness was clearly answered. The students engaged in small amounts of VPA (4.5 and 3.3 min per lesson for boys and girls, respectively). Combined with the limited frequency of curricular PE, these were insufficient durations for gains in cardiorespiratory fitness to occur ( Armstrong and Welsman, 1997 ). Teachers who aim to increase students' cardiorespiratory fitness may deliver lessons focused exclusively on high intensity exercise, which can effectively increase HR ( Baquet et al. , 2002 ), but can sometimes be mundane and have questionable educational value. Such lessons may undermine other efforts to promote physical activity participation if they are not delivered within an enjoyable, educational and developmental context. It is clear that high intensity activity is not appropriate for all pupils, and so opportunities should be provided for them to be able to work at developmentally appropriate levels.

Students engaged in MVPA for around 18 min during the monitored PE lessons. This approximates a third of the recommended daily hour ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ). When PE activity is combined with other forms of physical activity support is lent to the premise that PE lessons can directly benefit young people's health status. Furthermore, for the very least active children who should initially aim to achieve 30 min of activity per day ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ), PE can provide the majority of this volume. However, a major limitation to PE's utility as a vehicle for physical activity participation is the limited time allocated to it. The government's aspiration is for all students to receive 2 hours of PE per week ( Department for Education and Employment/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 1999 ), through curricular and extra-curricular activities. While some schools provide this volume of weekly PE, others are unable to achieve it ( Sport England, 2001 ). The HDA recommend that young people strive to achieve 1 hour's physical activity each day through many forms, a prominent one of which is PE. The apparent disparity between recommended physical activity levels and limited curriculum PE time serves to highlight the complementary role that education, along with other agencies and voluntary organizations must play in providing young people with physical activity opportunities. Notwithstanding this, increasing the amount of PE curriculum time in schools would be a positive step in enabling the subject to meet its health-related goals. Furthermore, increased PE at the expense of time in more ‘academic’ subjects has been shown not to negatively affect academic performance ( Shephard, 1997 ; Sallis et al. , 1999 ; Dwyer et al. , 2001 ).

Physical educators are key personnel to help young people achieve physical activity goals. As well as their teaching role they are well placed to encourage out of school physical activity, help students become independent participants and inform them about initiatives in the community ( McKenzie et al. , 2000 ). Also, they can have a direct impact by promoting increased opportunities for physical activity within the school context. These could include activities before school ( Strand et al. , 1994 ), during recess ( Scruggs et al. , 2003 ), as well as more organized extra-curricular activities at lunchtime and after school. Using time in this way would complement PE's role by providing physical activity opportunities in a less structured and pedagogically constrained manner.

This research measured student activity levels during ‘typical’, non-intensified PE lessons. In this sense it provided a representative picture of the frequency, intensity and duration of students' physical activity engagement during curricular PE. However, some factors should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the data were cross-sectional and collected over a relatively short time frame. Tracking students' activity levels over a number of PE activities may have allowed a more accurate account of how physical activity varies in different aspects of the curriculum. Second, monitoring a larger sample of students over more lessons may have enabled PE activities to be categorized into more homogenous groups. Third, monitoring lessons in schools from a wider geographical area may have enabled stronger generalization of the results. Fourth, it is possible that the PE lessons were taught differently, and that the students acted differently as a result of being monitored and having the researchers present during lessons. As this is impossible to determine, it is unknown how this might have affected the results. Fifth, HR telemetry does not provide any contextual information about the monitored lessons. Also, HR is subject to emotional and environmental factors when no physical activity is occurring. Future work should combine objective physical activity measurement with qualitative or quantitative methods of observation.

During PE, students took part in health-enhancing activity for around one third of the recommended 1-hour target ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ). PE obviously has potential to help meet this goal. However, on the basis of these data, combined with the weekly frequency of PE lessons, it is clear that PE can only do so much in supplementing young people's daily volume of physical activity. Students need to be taught appropriate skills, knowledge and understanding if they are to optimize their physical activity opportunities in PE. For improved MVPA levels to occur, health-enhancing activity needs to be recognized as an important element of lessons. PE may make a more significant contribution to young people's regular physical activity participation if lessons are planned and delivered with MVPA goals in mind.

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Author notes

1REACH Group and School of Physical Education, Sport and Dance, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L17 6BD and 2REACH Group and Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 2ET, UK

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Research Article

An experimental study on the influence of healthy physical education curriculum model on sports ability of Chinese senior high school students

Contributed equally to this work with: Shengting Dai, Qian Qiu, Yuancai Zhang, Jingfei Yan, Rongbin Yin

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Funding acquisition, Writing – original draft

Affiliation School of Sports Science and Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China

Roles Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Physical Education College, Xuchang University, Xuchang, China

Roles Methodology, Resources, Supervision, Validation

Affiliation College of Physical Education and Health, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China

Roles Conceptualization, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected] (JY); [email protected] (RY)

Affiliation Ministry of Physical Education, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai, China

Roles Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation School of Physical Education, Soochow University, Suzhou, China

• Shengting Dai, 
• Qian Qiu, 
• Yuancai Zhang, 
• Jingfei Yan, 
• Rongbin Yin

• Published: May 14, 2024
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858
• Reader Comments

In recent years, the growing incidence of health issues among Chinese students, including obesity, diabetes, and other chronic diseases, has been attributed to a sedentary lifestyle, lack of physical activity, and unhealthy eating habits. Physical education (PE) classes play a crucial role in promoting physical activity and fostering healthy lifestyles among Chinese students. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of the healthy PE curriculum model on the sports ability of senior high school students in China. The trial adopted a quasi-experimental design with equivalent groups. The experimental group followed the healthy PE curriculum model in their PE classes, while the control group received traditional technical instruction. During the 12-week intervention, 149 senior high school students completed the sports ability test as both the pre-test and post-test measurements for this experimental study. The results indicated that the experimental group showed significant improvements in sports ability compared to the control group, highlighting the positive effects of the healthy PE curriculum model. The structural characteristics of the healthy PE curriculum model provided essential support for students’ learning and proved to be an effective way to promote physical literacy among senior high school students in China.

Citation: Dai S, Qiu Q, Zhang Y, Yan J, Yin R (2024) An experimental study on the influence of healthy physical education curriculum model on sports ability of Chinese senior high school students. PLoS ONE 19(5): e0298858. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858

Editor: Preeti Kanawjia, GSVM Medical College, INDIA

Received: June 8, 2023; Accepted: February 1, 2024; Published: May 14, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Dai et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All data files are available from the DRYAD database: https://datadryad.org/stash/share/tP5af3E1HsllsF8bjCxfVtemLPPGNzDQBM0Orgn56c4 .

Funding: The funding for this research was made possible through the generous support of several grants: [East China University of Science and Technology Exploratory Research Fund Project]: This grant, awarded by [East China University of Science and Technology], grant number [JKL02222201], played a pivotal role in funding the initial stages of our research, including data collection and preliminary analyses. [Shanghai Educational Science Research Project]: We also received support from [Shanghai Municipal Commission of Education], grant number [C2023025], which significantly contributed to the development of our experimental design and the execution of specific research protocols. [contribution to study design, data curation, funding acquisition, decision to publish, and preparation of the manuscript, etc.]

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

1. Introduction

Physical education plays a crucial role in the development and well-being of students, especially during their formative years in senior high school [ 1 , 2 ]. With the growing concern for the sedentary lifestyles and poor health habits of today’s youth, there is a need for innovative physical education models that can help promote healthy lifestyles and enhance sports abilities [ 3 ]. In recent years, China has witnessed a dramatic increase in the number of students who suffer from health issues due to lack of physical activity [ 4 , 5 ]. The traditional physical education curriculum model in China is exam-oriented, which means that students focus mainly on achieving good grades rather than improving their physical fitness [ 6 ]. Therefore, there is a need to evaluate the effectiveness of physical education curricula in promoting physical activity and improving sports ability among Chinese senior high school students [ 7 ].

To effectively advance the implementation of China’s new primary and secondary school curriculum standards and foster the development of students’ core competencies in physical education and health, Professor Ji Liu, who led the 2015 National Primary and Secondary School Physical Education and Health Curriculum Standards Development and Revision Group and is associated with East China Normal University, drew inspiration from the” National Medium and Long-term Education Reform and Development Plan (2010–2020).”Guided by the fundamental principles outlined in the national “Physical Education and Health Curriculum Standards” for primary and secondary schools, Professor Ji Liu amalgamated international insights from physical education curriculum models and domestic best practices. This culminated in the proposal of a comprehensive physical education and health curriculum model, aptly named “The Healthy Physical Education Curriculum Model(HPECM),which harmoniously blends an international perspective with distinctively Chinese characteristics [ 8 ]. HPECM ( Table 1 ) plays a pivotal role in driving the implementation of the national”Curriculum Standards” in the domain of physical education and health. It not only aligns with the principles and ethos of the “Curriculum Standards” but also offers clear guidance and methodologies to address critical issues in curriculum development, as articulated by Professor Ji Liu in 2015.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858.t001

This model adopts a comprehensive curriculum perspective, operating within the framework of curriculum discourse. It encompasses the holistic design of the curriculum, ranging from modules to individual units, with a strong emphasis on effective curriculum implementation. This approach outlines overarching requirements and specific implementation strategies."

The main purpose of the Healthy Physical Education Curriculum Model is to solve the problem of the continuous decline in the physical health level of Chinese teenagers in the past 30 years. The implementation of the Healthy Physical Education Curriculum Model requires grasping three key points: sports skills, physical fitness, and exercise load. In terms of sports skills, structured skill learning and practice are emphasized. Whether it is a new teaching or a review class, attention should be paid to activities and competitions, and single-skill teaching should be rejected, with time maintained at around 20 minutes (a 40-minute class as an example). In terms of physical fitness, diversified, interesting, and compensatory physical fitness design is emphasized, with time maintained at around 10 minutes. In terms of exercise load, it is emphasized that the average heart rate of students in the classroom should reach 140–160 times per minute, and the continuous exercise time of students should account for about 75% of the total class time. It should be noted that the exercise time of each student does not need to reach 75% of the total class time, but the teacher should arrange the entire activity time to not exceed 25% of the total class time in a static state. The structural characteristics of the Healthy Physical Education Curriculum Model not only help improve students’ sports ability but also contribute to the cultivation of students’ physical literacy [ 9 ].

Physical education curriculum models have been developed to address this issue and improve the quality of PE programs. Several studies have examined the effectiveness of the HPECM in improving sports ability outcomes among youth [ 10 , 11 ]. However, most of these studies have focused on elementary and middle school students. There is a need for research on the influence of the HPECM on sports ability among senior high school students. Therefore, the aim of this experimental study is to investigate the influence of HPECM on the sports ability of Chinese senior high school students. The study seeks to evaluate whether a curriculum model that emphasizes healthy physical activity can improve the sports ability of students and promote a more active lifestyle.

2. Materials and methods

2.1 study design.

Before the experimental research, the teacher of the experimental group was trained in the theory and practice of the healthy physical education curriculum model and achieved satisfactory training results. According to the school facilities, teachers’ characteristics, and students’ learning experience, the teaching experiment theme is basketball. Basketball teaching lasts for 12 weeks, two classes per week, for a total of 24 classes, each class lasting 80 minutes.

The experimental group firmly grasped the three key points of the healthy physical education curriculum model, and the teaching plan was jointly written between researcher and teacher after discussion. The control group implements routine teaching [ 12 ], that is, technical-traditional teaching, which has the following remarkable characteristics: The average heart rate of students in the whole class is less than 140 beats/min; Mainly adopts single movement skill teaching; There is no special physical exercise in the class. During the 12-week intervention period, all students completed the test of sports ability variables two times as the pre-test and post-test of this experimental study.

During the experiment, it is important to minimize the influence of irrelevant factors on the results. The control process mainly involves the following aspects: using identical teaching materials for both groups; ensuring that the teaching time is the same for both groups; adjusting the amount of teaching based on the weather and various school activities that may affect the experiment; to reduce experimental errors caused by differences in teaching styles and abilities among different teachers, the experimental and control groups are taught by the same teacher, and the experimental teacher is instructed to strictly follow the experimental plan while the control group should not intentionally imitate the experimental group’s teaching. Both the experimental and control groups were the students’ usual teachers. The principal investigator is present to assist and correct any problems that arise to ensure the effectiveness of the experimental teaching in the experimental group.

Inclusion/exclusion criteria :

Inclusion Criteria :

Educational Level: Participants must be currently enrolled high school students attending physical education classes.

Grade Range: Participants must specifically be high school sophomores.

Prior Physical Education Experience: Eligible participants should have successfully completed at least one year of physical education coursework.

Consent: Prior to participation, written informed consent is mandatory from both the students and their legal guardians.

Exclusion Criteria :

Medical Conditions: Participants with documented cardiovascular or respiratory conditions that may be adversely affected by physical activity will be excluded from the study.

Advanced Knowledge of Experimental Methods: Students possessing prior exposure or training in the experimental teaching methods under investigation will be excluded from participation.

These criteria aim to ensure a clear definition of the study’s target population, emphasizing the requisite educational level, grade, and prior experience in physical education. The inclusion of specific exclusion criteria serves to safeguard participant safety and maintain the integrity of the experimental design. Obtaining written informed consent further underscores the ethical considerations of the study.

Intervention condition and the control condition :

Intervention Condition: The intervention condition centers on the application of The Healthy Physical Education Curriculum Model (HPECM). Grounded in contemporary pedagogical theories, HPECM seamlessly integrates cutting-edge teaching strategies tailored to elevate student engagement, facilitate skill acquisition, and optimize overall outcomes in physical education. This intervention marks a departure from conventional didactic methods, introducing a student-centric paradigm. HPECM adopts an innovative approach by incorporating technology-assisted learning tools, personalized feedback mechanisms, and collaborative learning experiences. The overarching objective is to create an enriched educational environment that transcends traditional instructional practices.

Control Condition: To mitigate potential experimental errors arising from variations in physical education teaching methods, basketball is consistently chosen as the focal subject for this study. In addressing potential confounding factors linked to diverse teaching styles and instructor capabilities, a meticulous control strategy is implemented. Specifically, both the experimental and control classes within the same academic period are instructed by the same teacher. To ensure consistency, explicit instructions are provided to the experimental teachers, mandating adherence to the experimental plan. Conversely, the control class is advised against intentionally mimicking the experimental conditions. Throughout the teaching sessions, the experimental instructor actively engages in problem-solving, offering assistance and corrections promptly.

2.2 Participants

The research study selected second-year students from a high school in Shanghai as research objects. Class selection was conducted through a randomization procedure. A random number generator was employed to allocate classes to either the experimental or control group. This approach aimed to ensure an unbiased selection process and create comparable groups at the study’s outset. Two classes from the second grade of high school were randomly selected as Experimental Group 1 (girls class) and Experimental Group 2 (boys class) due to the influence of class division teaching. Additionally, two classes were randomly selected as Control Group 1 (girls class) and Control Group 2 (boys class). Students were asked about their past medical history, family genetics, cardiovascular disease status, etc., to rule out potential risks in sports. There were 76 students in the experimental group (36 boys and 40 girls), and 73 students in the control group (35 boys and 38 girls). Please refer to Table 2 for the mean and standard deviation of the age, height, and weight of students in each experimental class and control class. During the process of recruiting subjects, there were no refusals to participate, and all subjects participated fully in the teaching experiment.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858.t002

2.3 Ethics statement

Prior to conducting the study, ethical approval was granted by the University Committee on Human Research Protection (UCHRP) of East China Normal University. The research protocol, including the participant consent process, was reviewed and approved by the UCHRP under protocol number [Approval Number: HR 095–2019].

All participants in this study were voluntary respondents selected by the research panel. They were provided with detailed information about the study’s purpose, procedures, potential risks, and benefits. Participants were assured that their responses would be treated as strictly confidential and anonymous. The confidentiality of their data was maintained throughout the research process. Participants provided written informed consent to participate in this study. In accordance with the approved protocol, each participant confirmed their willingness to participate by endorsing the following statement on a paper questionnaire: "I voluntarily consent to participate in this research project. I understand that my participation is entirely voluntary and that I have the right to withdraw from the study at any point without any negative consequences."

2.4 Data collection

Data were collected over a period of 3 months (From October 2020 to December 2020), incorporating pre-test and post-test measurements. The data collection process comprised the following steps:

Pre-Test Assessment: Prior to the intervention, baseline measurements were obtained to assess the initial sports ability level of the participants.

Post-Test Assessment: Following the intervention period, post-test measurements were conducted to evaluate the impact of the healthy physical education curriculum model. The same assessment components used in the pre-test were administered to both the control and intervention groups. The post-test assessments use the same standardized protocols and equipment as the pre-test.

2.5 Experimental intervention program

2.5.1 motor skill intervention program..

The motor skill exercises for both the experimental and control groups were standardized to focus on basketball. This design was implemented to eliminate potential interference from varying motor skill exercises on the experimental results [ 13 – 16 ]. The design of motor skill instruction in the experimental group adhered to the guidelines set forth by the HPECM for motor skill teaching. Structured basketball skill instruction was employed to empower students to master a comprehensive set of motor skills. The approach advocated against the exclusive teaching of isolated techniques, instead emphasizing theintegration of basketball learning within practical activities and competetive scenarios. During basketball instruction, a priority was placed on minimizeing breaks, optimizing group dynamics, and enabling students to engage in supplementary exercises during idle moments. Teachers also reinforced precise movement techniques, encouraged cooperative practice, and instilled a sense of courage and initiative.

2.5.2 Physical fitness intervention program.

The principles governing physical fitness program design were aligned with the requirments of the HPECM. These princples were thougfully talored to suit the unique physical and psychological characteristics of high school students:

• Emphasis was placed on diversification and enjoyment in the methods and approaches employed for physical fitness exercises. This approach aimed to counteract the monotony often associated with endurance focused activities like running laps, repetitive exercises such as sit-ups for core strength, and sprinting for speed.
• Special attention was given to the concept of "compensatory" physical fitness exercises. Considering the distinctive demands of basketball within this study, students were encouraged to participate in supplementary exercises targeting core abdominal strength, cardiovascular endurance, and agility. This approach was integrated into the basketball curriculum, fostering a holistic and balanced approach to physical fitness development among students.
• Efforts were made to avoid transforming physical education classes into mere physical fitness testing sessions.

2.5.3 Motor cognitive ability intervention program.

The intervention principles of the motor cognitive ability intervention plan were formulated in accordance with the spirit of the HPECM and the contemporary teaching philosophy. These principles were strategically designed to accommodate the physical and psychological development characteristics inherent to high school students. Within the classroom setting, students were introduced to motor cognitive ability related knowledge through engaging PowerPoint presentations. Experimental teachers placed a strong emphasis on cultivating student’s motor cognitive ability throughout the teaching process. For instance, during warm-up exercises, teachers underscored the critical role of preparation activities in injury prevention and highlighted the benefits of relaxation in alleviating exercise-related fatigue.

2.6 Test variables

The assessment of sports ability includes three aspects: motor skills, physical fitness, and motor cognitive ability. Motor skills mainly include single skill assessment, combination skill assessment, and performance assessment in competition. Physical fitness tests mainly include indicators such as body composition, muscle strength, muscle endurance, Cardiopulmonary function, speed, flexibility, and agility. Motor cognitive ability is mainly assessed using scale tests. See Table 3 for specific details.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858.t003

2.6.1 Motor skill test.

Testing Protocol:

Single Techniques: Participants are assessed on fundamental basketball skills, including shooting. Each participant is given a specific task, and their execution is observed and rated based on established criteria.

Combination Techniques: This segment evaluates participants’ ability to seamlessly integrate various basketball skills. The task is passing and shooting, assessing the fluidity and effectiveness of their execution.

Match Performance: Participants engage in a simulated basketball game, applying their skills in a dynamic and competitive context. This allows for the assessment of strategic decision-making, teamwork, and adaptability during actual gameplay.

Evaluation Method:

Three experienced teachers serve as evaluators for each test, ensuring a comprehensive and reliable assessment. Each teacher scores participants independently based on predefined criteria for each skill and performance aspect. The final score for each participant is derived by calculating the average of the three individual scores.

Scoring Criteria:

1.Single Techniques

[85 points—100 points] Standard Attainment (70%): 6 males, 4 females; Technical Evaluation (30%): Demonstrates accurate posture and distinct finger flicking motion.

[75 points—84 points] Standard Attainment (70%): 4 males, 3 females; Technical Evaluation (30%): Exhibits relatively accurate posture with noticeable finger flicking motion.

[60 points—74 points] Standard Attainment (70%): 3 males, 2 females; Technical Evaluation (30%): Displays accurate posture with no discernible finger flicking motion.

[59 points and below] Standard Attainment (70%): 2 males, 1 female; Technical Evaluation (30%): Features inaccurate posture with no discernible finger flicking motion.

2.Combination Techniques

[85 points—100 points] Exceptional proficiency in passing and dribbling, demonstrating accurate passing, a correct and effortless shooting motion, and seamless coordination in passing, receiving, and shooting. Males complete the task within 45 seconds, and females within 56 seconds, with a successful shot count of 3 or more.

[75 points—84 points] Competent in passing and dribbling, showcasing correct shooting form and excellent coordination. Males complete the task within 50 seconds, and females within 60 seconds, with a successful shot count of 2 or more.

[60 points—74 points] Adequate execution of passing and shooting, albeit with slightly weaker coordination. Males complete the task within 55 seconds, and females within 65 seconds, with a successful shot count of 1 or more.

[59 points and below] Notable errors and significant mistakes in passing and shooting. Males complete the task in 55 seconds or more, and females in 65 seconds or more, with a successful shot count of 0.

3. Match Performance

[85 points—100 points]Personal Attack Ability: Proficient utilization of offensive skills (shooting, penetration, break, pass, and catch the ball) with a rational and skilled approach.Defensive Ability: Demonstrates strength in individual defense and cooperative defense skills.Tactical Awareness: Exhibits a robust individual tactical action ability, quick transition between attack and defense, and a keen sense of fast attack throughout the entire game.

[75 points—84 points]Personal Attack Ability: Displays a reasonable and skilled application of offensive techniques (throwing, sudden moves, passing).Defensive Ability: Strong performance in individual defense and cooperative defense. Tactical Awareness: Possesses a strong individual tactical action ability, fast attack and defense transition speed, and a heightened consciousness of fast attacks throughout the game.

[60 points—74 points]Personal Attack Ability: Demonstrates a general level of rationality and proficiency in utilizing offensive techniques (throwing, leaping, passing).Defensive Ability: Displays average individual defense and coordination defense skills. Tactical Awareness: Possesses a moderate individual tactical action ability, with a general speed in attack and defense transition, and a reasonable awareness of fast attacks throughout the game.

[59 points and below]Personal Attack Ability: Shows poor and unskilled use of offensive techniques (throwing, sudden moves, passing).Defensive Ability: Exhibits poor individual defense and cooperative defense skills. Tactical Awareness: Displays weak individual tactical action ability, slow offensive and defensive transition speed, and a poor consciousness of fast attacks throughout the entire game.

2.6.2 Physical fitness test.

The body composition test includes two indexes: Percentage of Body Fat (PBF) and Waist-Hip Ratio (WHR). PBF is measured primarily by the Jawon body composition analyzer [ 17 ]. WHR is calculated by measuring the waist and hip circumference using a soft ruler, with measurements taken twice on each side and then averaged [ 18 ].

The cardiopulmonary function test includes two indicators: vital capacity [ 19 ] and a 20-meter shuttle run test [ 20 ]. Vital capacity is measured using an electronic spirometer. The 20-meter shuttle run test requires students to run back and forth between two lines that are 20 meters apart in time with the music. As the test progresses, the music speed increases. If a student cannot reach the endpoint within the required time twice in a row, the test is stopped, and the score is recorded as the number of completed 20-meter shuttles, with the unit being "times."

The muscle strength test includes two indicators: upper limb muscle strength, measured by grip strength [ 21 ], and lower limb muscle strength, measured by standing long jump [ 22 ]. For the grip strength test, the subject stands upright with their feet shoulder-width apart, arms hanging down, and palms facing inward. They then squeeze the inner and outer handles of a dynamometer with maximum effort, and the score is recorded in "kg" units. Each subject is measured twice, and the best score is taken. For the standing long jump test, the subject stands behind the take-off line with their feet together and jumps forward as far as possible without stepping or jumping in place. The distance from the take-off line to the nearest landing point is measured vertically, and the score is recorded in "m" units. Again, two measurements are taken, and the best score is taken.

The muscle endurance test measures a student’s ability to complete as many sit-ups as possible within one minute [ 23 ]. To start, the student lies down on a soft pad with their knees bent at a 90-degree angle and their hands interlaced behind their head. The examiner holds the student’s ankles on both sides, fixing their feet to the ground. Upon hearing the ’start’ command, the student completes the sit-up motion by pulling in their stomach and touching or crossing their elbows over their knees before returning to the starting position. One point is awarded for each successful sit-up completed. The examiner records the number of completed sit-ups in one minute, using "times" as the unit of measurement.

The indicator for the flexibility test is the sit-and-reach test [ 24 ]. Firstly, the teacher explains the test requirements and demonstrates. During the test, the subject sits with their feet flat against the vertical board of the measuring device, with their legs straight and not bent, and their arms straight and extended forward, pushing the cursor with their fingertips until they can no longer reach forward. Each subject is tested twice, and the best score is recorded in "cm" units.

The indicator for the speed test is the 50-meter run [ 25 ]. Firstly, the teacher explains the test requirements and organizes the students to conduct sufficient warm-up exercises. During the test, two people are tested in each group. The subjects stand at the starting line and begin to run when they hear the "run" command. The starter waves the flag at the same time as the command is given, and the timer starts timing when the flag moves. The stopwatch stops when the subject’s chest reaches the vertical plane of the finish line, and the score is recorded in "S (seconds)." The test requires the subjects not to false start, and any false starters will be called back for a restart.

The agility test is measured by the 20-second shuttle run [ 26 ], as illustrated in Fig 1 . The subject assumes a squatting position with legs straddling the center. Upon hearing the start signal, they swiftly move to the right side and repeatedly shuttle back and forth in the order of "center→right→center→left→center…". Each time the subject crosses a line, it is counted as one, and the number of crossings completed within 20 seconds is recorded. The test is performed twice, and the best score is recorded in "times" units.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858.g001

2.6.3 Motor cognitive ability test.

This study used a Motor Cognitive Ability Scale, which was targeted at senior high school students and included two dimensions: motor cognition and physical fitness awareness, with a total of 9 items. The "motor cognition" dimension reflected senior high school students’ knowledge and methods of sports activities, appreciation of sports, and information about sports events. The "physical fitness awareness" dimension reflected information about senior high school students’ physical development. The scale used a 5-level Likert rating, where scores from 1 to 5 were calculated based on the degree of understanding of the theme, ranging from low to high, such as "I understand the competition rules of the sports I have learned." To assess internal consistency, we calculated Cronbach’s alpha for the scale. The standardized Cronbach’s α coefficient values of the two dimensions of sports cognition and physical fitness awareness of the scale are 0.897 and 0.865 respectively, and the standardized Cronbach’s of the scale is 0.918. To assess construct validity, we conducted exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).The χ2 /df for the scale is 2.839. The goodness-of-fit indces, GFI, CFI, NFI, TLI, and IFI, are 0.977, 0.987,0.980, 0.978, and 0.987, respectively. The RMSEA is 0.058, and the RMR is 0.029. All the fitting indexes met the standard of good fit and met the statistical requirements.

2.7 Statistical analysis

The experiment utilizes a single-factor two-group pretest-posttest design, with covariance analysis applied to process the experimental data. The pretest scores of the test indicators are treated as covariates, and the group (consisting of an experimental class and a control class) is treated as the independent variable. The posttest scores of the test indicators are used as the dependent variables. By analyzing the changes in the physical literacy-related indicators of sports and health subjects in both the experimental and control classes, the effectiveness of the experimental intervention can be determined. If there is no significant difference in the changes of the related test indicators between the two classes, a paired sample t-test is conducted to examine whether there is a significant improvement in the post-test results of each class’s related indicators.

This section may be divided by subheadings. It should provide a concise and precise description of the experimental results, their interpretation, as well as the experimental conclusions that can be drawn.

3.1 Motor skill results

Table 4 provides descriptive statistics for the motor skill results of the experimental and control groups. The results are presented separately for each variable and by gender.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858.t004

For the 1-minute shooting task, the mean scores for both girls and boys in the experimental groups increased from pre-test to post-test. The girls in the experimental group improved their mean score by 8.17 points ( SD = 4.94), while the boys in the experimental group improved by 3.85 points ( SD = 11.10). The control groups also saw an increase in mean scores from pre-test to post-test, with girls improving by 5.65 points ( SD = 6.34) and boys improving by 2.06 points ( SD = 12.09). However, the experimental group showed a larger improvement in mean scores compared to the control group. For the passing and cutting coordination task, the mean scores for both girls and boys in the experimental groups increased from pre-test to post-test. The girls in the experimental group improved their mean score by 4.89 points ( SD = 4.92), while the boys in the experimental group improved by 5.39 points ( SD = 8.96). The control groups also showed an increase in mean scores from pre-test to post-test, but the improvement was smaller compared to the experimental group. The girls in the control group improved their mean score by 2.26 points ( SD = 3.43), while the boys in the control group improved by 3.85 points ( SD = 8.08). For the game performance task, the mean scores for both girls and boys in the experimental groups increased from pre-test to post-test. The girls in the experimental group improved their mean score by 5.71 points ( SD = 6.21), while the boys in the experimental group improved by 5.30 points ( SD = 4.47). The control groups also showed an increase in mean scores from pre-test to post-test, but the improvement was smaller compared to the experimental group. The girls in the control group improved their mean score by 4.132 points ( SD = 5.02), while the boys in the control group improved by 3.28 points ( SD = 5.72).

Overall, the experimental groups showed greater improvement in mean scores from pre-test to post-test compared to the control groups across all three tasks. The results suggest that the intervention had a positive impact on the motor skills of both girls and boys.

The results of the covariance analysis are shown in Table 5 . After controlling for the pre-test scores of male and female students in each class during the second year of high school, the post-test scores of the experimental group were significantly higher than those of the control group. Specifically, in terms of passing and cutting coordination, male and female students in the experimental group showed significantly higher scores than those in the control group. Moreover, in basketball games, the post-test scores of male and female students in the experimental group were also significantly higher than those in the control group after controlling for their pre-test scores. These findings suggest that adopting the Chinese Healthy Physical Education Curriculum model can effectively enhance the sports skills of second-year high school students, in comparison with traditional physical education teaching methods.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858.t005

3.2 Physical fitness results

Table 6 presents the descriptive statistics of the physical fitness results, including the pre-test and post-test mean scores and standard deviations for each dimension, variable, gender, and group.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858.t006

In terms of body composition, the experimental class 1 for girls and boys’ experimental class 2 had a slightly lower post-test mean score for percent body fat (PBF) compared to their respective control classes, although the difference was minimal. A similar trend was observed in waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), where the girls’ experimental class 1 and boys’ experimental class 2 had slightly lower post-test mean scores compared to their respective control classes. Regarding cardiopulmonary function, both the girls’ experimental class 1 and boys’ experimental class 2 had higher post-test mean scores for vital capacity compared to their respective control classes. For the 20-meter shuttle run, both girls’ and boys’ experimental classes had higher post-test mean scores compared to their respective control classes. In terms of muscle strength, the girls’ experimental class 1 and boys’ experimental class 2 had higher post-test mean scores for grip strength compared to their respective control classes. However, for standing long jump, there was no significant difference observed between the experimental and control classes. For muscle endurance, the girls’ experimental class 1 and boys’ experimental class 2 had higher post-test mean scores for 1-minute crunches compared to their respective control classes. Regarding flexibility, the girls’ experimental class 1 and boys’ experimental class 2 had higher post-test mean scores for seated forward bend compared to their respective control classes. Finally, in speed and agility, the experimental classes had slightly better post-test mean scores compared to their respective control classes.

In summary, the experimental classes showed an overall improvement in physical fitness in most dimensions, variables, genders, and groups compared to the control classes. However, the differences were sometimes minimal and not significant, indicating a need for further investigation and analysis of the results to determine the effectiveness of the physical fitness intervention.

The results of the covariance analysis are shown in Table 7 . Using pre-test scores as covariates, the study found that the post-test scores of male students in the experimental class were significantly lower than those of male students in the control class in terms of percent body fat (PBF), while there was no significant difference in PBF between female students in the experimental and control classes. The study also found that the experimental class had significantly lower waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) and significantly higher lung capacity, 20-meter shuttle run, grip strength, and standing long jump scores compared to the control class for both male and female students. Additionally, the experimental group had significantly higher scores on one-minute sit-ups and the 20-second shuttle run compared to the control group for both male and female students. However, the experimental group had significantly lower scores on the 50-meter run compared to the control group for both male and female students. The study concluded that using the Chinese Health and Physical Education Curriculum model can significantly improve physical fitness outcomes among male and female students in the second year of high school.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858.t007

3.3 Motor cognitive ability results

Table 8 presents the descriptive statistics for the motor cognitive ability results, specifically for the variables of motor cognition and physical fitness awareness.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858.t008

For the variable of motor cognition, the experimental class 1 for girls had a lower pre-test mean score compared to the control class 1, but this difference was not statistically significant. However, the experimental class 1 had a higher post-test mean score compared to the control class 1, and this difference was statistically significant. For boys, the experimental class 2 had a lower pre-test mean score compared to the control class 2, but this difference was not statistically significant. The experimental class 2 had a higher post-test mean score compared to the control class 2, and this difference was statistically significant.

For the variable of physical fitness awareness, the experimental class 1 for girls had a slightly higher pre-test mean score compared to the control class 1, but this difference was not statistically significant. The experimental class 1 had a significantly higher post-test mean score compared to the control class 1. For boys, the experimental class 2 had a lower pre-test mean score compared to the control class 2, but this difference was not statistically significant. The experimental class 2 had a significantly higher post-test mean score compared to the control class 2.

In summary, the experimental classes showed improvement in motor cognitive ability in terms of motor cognition and physical fitness awareness compared to the control classes. The differences were statistically significant for most comparisons, except for the pre-test mean scores in some cases. These results suggest that the physical fitness intervention had a positive impact on the motor cognition of the students. However, further research is needed to fully evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention.

Table 9 presents the results of a covariance analysis investigating the impact of gender and group membership on motor cognition and physical fitness awareness in experimental and control groups. The analysis revealed significant differences between the two groups in both variables. Girls in the experimental group scored higher in motor cognition and physical fitness awareness compared to girls in the control group. The same trend was observed for boys in the experimental group, who outperformed boys in the control group in both variables.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858.t009

These results suggest that incorporating motor activities into the curriculum can positively affect motor cognition in students, particularly in motor cognition and physical fitness awareness. Gender differences were also observed, emphasizing the importance of considering gender when designing interventions to enhance motor cognition in school settings. These findings can inform future instructional approaches to promote motor cognitive abilities among students.

4 Discussion

4.1 motor skill.

The study measured motor skills using three tasks: 1-minute shooting, passing and cutting coordination, and game performance. The results show that both girls and boys in the experimental groups improved their mean scores from pre-test to post-test in all three tasks, and their improvements were greater than those in the control groups.

In the 1-minute shooting task, both the experimental and control groups showed improvement from pre-test to post-test. However, the experimental group had a larger improvement in mean scores compared to the control group. This suggests that the intervention program was effective in improving shooting accuracy for both girls and boys. It is important to note that while the girls in the experimental group had a higher mean score at post-test than the boys, the boys had a higher mean score at pre-test, indicating potential gender differences in initial motor skill levels. Similarly, in the passing and cutting coordination task, both the experimental and control groups showed improvement from pre-test to post-test, but the experimental group had a larger improvement in mean scores compared to the control group. This suggests that the intervention program was effective in improving passing and cutting coordination for both girls and boys. In the game performance task, both the experimental and control groups showed improvement from pre-test to post-test, with the experimental group showing a larger improvement in mean scores compared to the control group. This suggests that the intervention program was effective in improving game performance for both girls and boys [ 27 , 28 ].

Overall, the study’s results suggest that the intervention program was effective in improving the motor skills of both girls and boys across all three tasks. The results align with previous research that has demonstrated the positive impact of intervention programs on motor skill development in children [ 29 ]. However, it is important to note that the study’s results are limited by the small sample size and the potential influence of other factors, such as natural maturation and practice effects.

4.2 Physical fitness

The findings of this study revealed that the experimental classes had an overall improvement in most variables of physical fitness compared to the control classes. The experimental classes demonstrated a slightly lower post-test mean score for PBF and WHR, indicating a trend towards healthier body composition. Moreover, the experimental classes exhibited higher post-test mean scores for vital capacity, shuttle run, grip strength, crunches, and seated forward bend, indicating improvement in cardiopulmonary function, muscle strength, muscle endurance, and flexibility, respectively. In terms of speed and agility, the experimental classes also showed a slight improvement in post-test mean scores.

The observed gender differences in initial motor skill levels in the 1-minute shooting task suggest that there may be a need to provide targeted intervention strategies for girls and boys to achieve optimal outcomes. Moreover, although the experimental classes showed an improvement in most dimensions of physical fitness, the differences were sometimes minimal and not significant, indicating a need for further investigation and analysis of the results. Therefore, it may be necessary to incorporate additional strategies or activities to enhance the effectiveness of physical fitness interventions for school-aged children [ 30 , 31 ].

These findings are consistent with previous research that has shown the positive effects of physical fitness interventions on children’s physical fitness and health outcomes [ 32 – 34 ]. The results of this study can be used to inform the development of future physical fitness interventions that can be implemented in schools or community settings.

4.3 Motor cognitive ability

The study examined the impact of HPECM intervention on motor cognition and physical fitness awareness among students in two experimental classes compared to two control classes. The results of the study indicated that the experimental groups showed improvement in both motor cognition and physical fitness awareness compared to the control groups. The differences were statistically significant for most comparisons, except for the pre-test mean scores in some cases. These findings suggest that incorporating physical activity into the curriculum can positively impact motor cognition in students, particularly in motor cognition and physical fitness awareness.

The results of the study are consistent with previous research that has shown a positive relationship between physical activity and cognitive functioning. For instance, a study by Hillman found that regular physical activity can improve cognitive performance and brain function in children [ 35 ]. Similarly, a study by Diamond and Lee reported that physical activity can enhance cognitive control and working memory in children [ 36 ].

The study also highlighted the importance of considering gender when designing interventions to enhance motor cognition in school settings. The results showed that girls in the experimental group scored higher in motor cognition and physical fitness awareness compared to girls in the control group, and the same trend was observed for boys. These findings are consistent with previous research indicating that gender differences exist in physical activity levels and that girls tend to be less physically active than boys [ 37 – 39 ].

The study has some limitations. Firstly, the sample size was relatively small, and the study was conducted in a specific cultural and geographic context. Therefore, caution should be exercised when generalizing the results to other populations. Secondly, the research exclusively focused on basketball, lacking a comparative analysis with other activities or sports projects. Future research endeavors will include comparative studies across various projects. Additionally, the study did not investigate the long-term effects of the HPECM intervention on sports ability. Future research could address these limitations by conducting larger-scale studies in diverse populations and exploring the long-term effects of HPECM intervention on sports ability.

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, this study provides evidence that healthy physical education curriculum model can effectively promote sports ability in senior high school students. The structural characteristics of a healthy physical education curriculum model provide needed support for students learning, improve students’ sports ability, and can be an effective way to promote physical literacy in senior high school students. Further research is needed to explore the long-term effects of the healthy physical education curriculum model on sports ability in students.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the physical education teachers, students and parents who participated in this experimental study. Without your cooperation, we could not complete this experiment.

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Physical Education and Its Importance to Physical Activity, Vegetable Consumption and Thriving in High School Students in Norway

Associated data.

Data supporting reported results can be found on the following link: https://teams.microsoft.com/_#/school/files/General?threadId=19%3A00faa60f3ab64020b836a1c964c56962%40thread.skype&ctx=channel&context=PYD%2520Database&rootfolder=%252Fsites%252FTEAM_PYDCrossNational_Project%252FShared%2520Documents%252FGeneral%252FPYD%2520Database (accessed on 18 August 2021).

Earlier research indicates that physical education (PE) in school is associated with positive outcomes (e.g., healthy lifestyle, psychological well-being, and academic performance). Research assessing associations with resilience and thriving indicators, such as the 5Cs of Positive Youth Development (PYD; competence , confidence , character , caring , and connection ) is limited and more so in the Norwegian context. The aim of the present study was to investigate associations between PE grade (reflecting students’ effort in theoretical and practical aspects of the subject) and the 5Cs as well as healthy behaviors (physical activity (PA), fruit and vegetable consumption), using cross-sectional data collected from 220 high school students in Norway ( M age = 17.30 years old, SD = 1.12; 52% males). Results from structural equation modelling indicated positive associations between PE grade and four of the 5Cs ( competence , confidence , caring , and connection ; standardized coefficient: 0.22–0.60, p < 0.05) while in logistic regressions, a unit increase in PE grade was associated with higher likelihood of engaging in PA and vegetable consumption (OR = 1.94; 95% CI = 1.18–3.18 and OR = 1.68; 95% CI = 1.08–2.63, respectively). These significant findings suggest the need for policies and programs that can support effective planning and implementation of PE curriculum. However, further research is needed to probe into the role of PE on youth health and development with representative samples and longitudinal designs.

1. Introduction

The positive and protective effects of physical activity (PA), such as enhanced physical health, psychological well-being, increased concentration, academic performance, and reduced feelings of depression and anxiety, have been well documented in earlier studies [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. Physical education (PE) is taught as a subject in many countries around the world, but it also incorporates aspects of PA within the school context, because of the different indoor and outdoor activities students engage in during PE sessions. Indeed, Mooses and colleagues [ 4 ] found PE to significantly increase daily moderate to vigorous PA alongside reducing sedentary time among schoolchildren. In addition, Tassitano and colleagues [ 5 ] observed a positive association between enrollment in PE sessions and several health-related behaviors including physical activity and fruit consumption.

In many schools, students’ efforts in PE are captured in the grade they receive on the subject. Thus, higher grades in PE would indicate greater efforts and achievement in the physical activities engaged in, which in turn can lead to the promotion of outcomes related to health and development as indicated in earlier studies [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. The present study seeks to determine whether this is the case in high school students in Norway.

1.1. Physical Education in the Global and Norwegian Contexts

In basic terms, physical education has been described as “education through the physical”. Consistent with United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, PE embraces terms, such as “physical culture”, “movement”, “human motricity”, and “school sport”, and refers to a structured period of directed physical activity in school contexts [ 6 ]. A PE curriculum usually features activities such as team and individual games and sports, gymnastics, dance, swimming, outdoor adventure, and track and field athletics [ 6 ]. By engaging in a variety of physical activities, students are taught physical, social, mental, and emotional skills to empower them to live an active and healthy lifestyle. PE is also an arena where students can develop and practice skills related to collaboration, communication, creativity, and critical thinking [ 7 ].

In a world-wide survey of physical education that involved 232 countries (and autonomous regions), 97% of the countries were found to have either legal requirements for PE within their general education systems or PE was a general practice at some ages of the schoolchildren or phases of compulsory schooling [ 6 ]. The number of PE lessons that were taught in schools across the countries varied from 0.5 to 6.0 per week and from 16 to 46 weeks per year during compulsory education. Country variation depended greatly on the mindset held about the importance and relevance of the subject in the school curricula.

A European Commission report on physical education and sport at school in Europe indicates that while about 50% of the educational systems have national strategies to support the development of PE and PA, two-thirds have large-scale schemes assigned to these activities [ 8 ]. With activities that include athletics, dance, health and fitness, gymnastics, games, outdoor and adventure, swimming, winter sports, and others, the goals of European countries have been to promote the development of pupils and students in the physical, personal, and social domains [ 8 ].

As in many European countries, PE is one of several subjects taught to pupils and students in compulsory education in Norway (i.e., 6–16-year-olds in primary and lower secondary education). The PE curriculum has both practical and theoretical components. In both components of the curriculum, students are introduced to organized physical activities and spontaneous play in varied environments, in a wide range of sports, dance and other movement activities, and in outdoor life, which allows them to orient and spend time in nature in different seasons as well as being an aspect of exercise and lifestyle that deals with the effect of physical activity on health. In high schools, students receive a total of 168 h of PE lessons during their 3-year education, where in addition to sports activities, outdoor life, and lessons on exercise and lifestyle, they receive education in physical motor activities that go beyond traditional sports activities. Moreover, students at this level of education have the possibility to combine PE with active participation in competitive sports [ 9 ].

PE lessons in Norway focus on providing students with challenges and courage to enable them to stretch their own boundaries, in both spontaneous and organized activities. In addition, it is anticipated that students will experience joy, mastery and inspiration by participating in a variety of physical activities, which will eventually help them to develop self-esteem, self-understanding, positive perception of the body and positive identity. Furthermore, the social aspects of the physical activities are intended to create an arena where students can exercise fair play and respect for each other [ 9 , 10 ]. All these effects are positive outcomes that tend to signify several components of what has been referred to as the 5Cs of PYD ( competence , confidence , character , caring, and connection ) [ 11 ] and the ability to develop healthy behaviors, thus supporting health as defined by the World Health Organization. In 1948, the World Health Organization [ 12 ] defined health as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” (p. 100). PE’s role in facilitating health and development will thus touch on WHO’s three dimensions of health.

The current focus of the Norwegian PE curriculum is a result of changes made to the curriculum in 2012, due among others to students and teachers’ dissatisfaction with the stress emanating from the expectations attached to sports achievements and physical performance abilities as well as the observation and measurement the teachers had to undertake to grade students’ abilities. With the present curriculum, it is the effort made by students (i.e., the attempts made to use the acquired knowledge and capabilities to reach developmental goals and not necessarily the attained progress) that is considered as relevant [ 13 ]. Thus, a high grade in PE subject will not only indicate a form of academic achievement, but it will also signify students’ efforts and experience in a variety of physical activities and their knowledge on how these activities can promote positive developmental outcomes, such as health, self-development, and identity [ 14 ].

1.2. Positive Youth Development and the 5Cs

Positive Youth Development is a line of research and a developmental framework that focuses on the identification and promotion of youth strengths [ 15 , 16 ], and the equipping of youth toward becoming productive members of their society [ 16 ]. PYD suggests that all young people have strengths and as such are potential resources to their own development and that of the society they are a part of. In addition, PYD proposes that all youth contexts, such as home, school and the local community, have human and material resources that youth can have access to in their interactions with significant others in these contexts [ 17 ]. In PE sessions, these contextual resources will be the support from peers and teachers, the opportunities created for students to develop resilience, competences and mastery, the boundaries students will have to respect as well as the expectations to be met. Youth strengths will be the personal interest, skills, and abilities that students bring to the PE sessions.

Within PYD, the 5Cs are viewed as a product of the alignment between youth strengths and contextual resources [ 15 ]. Accordingly, the dynamic interaction that ensues between an active, engaged, and competent person and their receptive, supportive, and nurturing ecologies in the context of varying degrees of risk and adversity will lead to a process referred to as adaptive developmental regulations [ 11 , 15 , 18 ], where youth can be resilient, thrive and develop to their full potential. Thriving means youth are scoring high on the 5Cs. The 5Cs include competence (which reflects the positive views of an individual’s action in domains, such as academic, social, cognitive and vocational); confidence (which relates to the individual’s sense of mastery and purpose for the future, a positive identity and self-efficacy); character (which denotes one’s integrity, moral commitment, and respect for societal and cultural rules); caring (which indicates one’s sense of empathy and sympathy for others); and connection (which reflects the bidirectional exchanges and healthy relations between the individual and friends, family, school, and community). Within the PYD framework, the 5Cs typically reflect thriving and positive development, but also resilience (in contexts where there are high levels of risk and adversity) among young people [ 15 , 18 ]. PYD proposes that youth who are thriving are put on a life trajectory towards an “idealized adulthood” [ 19 ]. In addition, youth who are resilient and thriving are more likely to contribute to their own development as well as to the development of their society [ 15 ].

1.3. Earlier Research on Positive Youth Development, Healthy Behaviors and Physical Education

Research on the relationship between grade in PE (which reflects students’ participation in PE sessions) and the 5Cs of PYD is limited, although earlier studies have recounted several positive outcomes of PE in schools. In one study that investigated PYD-related outcomes in the contexts of PE, Holt et al. [ 20 ] found in a qualitative study of 8 teachers and 59 children at an inner-city school in Canada that PE activities engaged in tended to promote developmental outcomes, such as empathy and healthy relationships between students. In addition, PE activities became an arena where teachers considered students’ input to the PE activities and created boundaries and procedures for expected behaviors.

Furthermore, Bailey [ 1 ], in a review article, summarized several positive and profound benefits of PE that included physical health, healthy lifestyle, psychological well-being, social skills and improved academic performance. These benefits were more probable in contexts where there were positive experiences of the PE activities, enjoyment, efforts made to engage all students as well as when teachers and coaches were committed and were equipped with the necessary skills. In another literature review on the impact of PE and sport on educational outcomes, Stead and Nevill [ 21 ] found that increased physical education, physical activity or sport tended to maintain or enhance academic achievement. The authors also found a positive association between physical activity and aspects of mental health, such as self-esteem, emotive well-being, spirituality, and future expectations. Moreover, Stead and Nevill [ 21 ] observed that the implementation of extra organized physical activity, as little as 10 min into the school day, tended to improve classroom behavior. These earlier studies support the important role of PE on health (including the physical, mental, and social dimensions) and positive development in youth.

As for healthy behaviors and their associations with PE, Mayorga-Vega and colleagues [ 22 ] conducted a study among 158 students in a Spanish high school and found that students had greater physical activity levels and lower levels of sedentary behaviors during PE days compared to non-PE days and weekends. In a much larger sample of 4210 high school students in Brazil, Tassitano et al.’s [ 5 ] assessment of the role of PE enrollment on several health behaviors revealed, among others, positive associations of enrollment in PE classes with physical activity and fruit consumption, as well as a negative association with drinking of sugar-sweetened beverages. In a longitudinal study of Canadian adolescents, Wiseman and Weir [ 23 ] investigated PE rating among other subjects alongside the importance of PE for PA levels and several health variables over a two-year period. Their results indicated that most of the participants (78%) preferred PE over other subjects, and that preferring PE was associated with higher PA levels, lower BMI, and higher self-esteem. Thus, while earlier research supports the predictive role of PE on youth development and healthy behaviors, the evidence regarding the importance of PE to the 5Cs of PYD is unclear because of limited research.

1.4. Aims of the Present Study

Research on the 5Cs of PYD has usually involved American youth [ 11 , 24 ] although research featuring non-American samples is growing [ 25 , 26 ]. Moreover, while the effects of PE on youth health and development have been widely studied, a literature search did not return any study that had assessed the relation between PE and the 5Cs in the Norwegian context. Several studies have hinted how activities engaged in during PE can be used to foster positive development. For example, Mandigo et al. [ 27 ] described how quality PE activities can be used to promote positive development and peace education among schoolchildren in a developing country. More specifically, the authors outlined various behaviors in the physical, intellectual, psychological, and social domains that physical educators can instill in schoolchildren to foster the 5Cs of PYD and peaceful interactions. Holt and colleagues [ 20 ] also described how strategies, such as setting of clear boundaries and allowing inputs from schoolchildren, and the teacher being a PE specialist, could facilitate positive youth development. Thus, in line with these earlier PYD studies, PE can be an arena where youth development as well as health (as proposed by WHO) are promoted.

In the present study, the aim is to examine the link between grade in PE and positive outcomes reflected in the 5Cs of PYD. A second aim is to study the association between PE grade and healthy behaviors, such as PA during leisure time and the consumption of fruit and vegetables. With the goal of the Norwegian PE curriculum to promote health, self-development and identity among others, grade in PE reflecting attained knowledge, participation and efforts invested in various physical activities should be associated with the 5Cs. Thus, as a hypothesis, students with higher PE grades are also expected to report higher scores on the 5Cs. Like the 5Cs, positive associations are hypothesized between PE grade and healthy behaviors. If positive associations are found between PE, the 5Cs and healthy behaviors, PE can be considered as an avenue to instill competencies that can have implications for students’ health, thriving, and resilience. Earlier studies suggest that boys engage in PA more often than girls, and PA tends to decrease with age [ 28 ]. Parents’ educational level has also been found to be positively related to the 5Cs [ 26 ]. Hence, gender, age, and parents’ education were accounted for in the assessment of the influence of PE grade on the 5Cs and healthy behaviors.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. sample.

The current study forms part of a larger international project on positive development among youth and emerging adults, where the general goal is to assess how youth strengths and contextual resources align to foster thriving and youth contribution to societal development [ 29 ]. For the present study, cross-sectional data were collected from 220 students in four high schools located in Eastern and Western Norway. About 52% of the participants were boys and the age range was between 16 and 20 years ( M = 17.30, SD = 1.12). Almost 83% reported that the highest level of education of their father was postsecondary, while 87% did the same for their mother’s education.

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. physical education grade.

Participants self-reported their current academic grade (1 to 6) on physical education. A grade of 1 represents minimum knowledge and effort invested during PE sessions while a grade of 6 represents great knowledge and maximum invested effort in PE sessions.

2.2.2. The 5Cs of PYD

To assess the 5Cs, Geldhof and colleagues’ [ 11 ] short version of the PYD questionnaire, consisting of 34 items, was used. Samples of the items used in measuring the 5Cs include: “I am just as smart as others my age” ( competence , 6 items); “I really like the way I look” ( confidence , 6 items); “I usually act the way I am supposed to” ( character , 8 items); “When I see someone being exploited I want to help them” ( caring , 6 items); and “I am a helpful and important family member” ( connection , 8 items). Responses were measured on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree), for example, where a higher score indicated a higher experience of the C-item in question. The psychometric properties of the 5Cs scale have been mostly assessed in U.S. samples [ 11 , 24 ] but also in some non-U.S. samples [ 25 , 26 ].

2.2.3. Healthy Behaviors

Items measuring healthy behaviors (physical activity, fruit and vegetable consumption) were adopted from the Search Institute’s [ 30 ] survey on attitudes and behaviors. Participants indicated 0 (No) or 1 (Yes) to the following items: “I engage in physical activity (for at least 30 min) twice or more per week”, “I eat at least one serving of fruit every day” and “I eat at least one serving of vegetables every day”. Spearman correlation among the three healthy behaviors ranged from 0.25 to 0.37.

2.2.4. Demographic Variables

Data were also collected on gender (boy or girl), age and mother and father’s educational level (five levels of education: 1 (no education), 2 (primary school), 3 (high school), 4 (technical or vocational school), and 5 (university)). The demographics were treated as control variables in the data analysis.

2.3. Procedure

Data collection took place in May–August 2019. Convenience sampling was used to select four schools located in the Eastern and Western parts of Norway. The heads of the conveniently selected schools were contacted via e-mail, with a request to participate in the study and an information letter about the purpose of the study. After agreeing to participate, the heads of schools were sent informed consent forms, developed in accordance with the NSD (Norwegian Centre for Research Data) guidelines, which they were asked to sign and send back. Once that was done, teachers from the four schools who agreed to conduct the survey with their students were sent the questionnaire via email. Informed consent was sought from students prior to the data collection, which took place during school hours over the schools’ internal web system. NSD (Norwegian Centre for Research Data) approved the study (51708/3/IJJ), while Semantix Translations Norway AS, Oslo, Norway, a company that specializes in interpretation services, translated the questionnaire from English to Norwegian using double-checking methods and translation experts in the relevant field of research to ensure preservation of meaning.

2.4. Data Analysis

G*Power 3 [ 31 ] was used to conduct a power analysis to determine the sample size that will allow for the assessment of meaningful associations and the detection of effect sizes (small, medium, or large). Using a two-tailed test with the 5 independent variables (PE grade and the four demographic variables (gender, age, father’s education and mother’s education)), and an alpha value of 0.05, the results indicated that with a power of 0.80, sample sizes of 395, 55, and 25 were needed to detect effect sizes of 0.02 (small), 0.15 (medium), and 0.35 (large), respectively. Reaching the study’s sample size of 220 meant that medium to large effect sizes can be detected in the statistical analyses.

Descriptive and correlation analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 25, while all other analyses were carried out using Mplus version 8 [ 32 ]. Most participants (80%) were missing only 3 cases or less, while 59% had full data. The analyses in Mplus were conducted with the Maximum likelihood estimation, an estimation method used to handle missing cases. The method works by estimating a likelihood function for each case based on the variables present in the dataset such that all the available data are used.

Descriptive analyses were conducted to assess the pattern of study variables: the demographics, PE grade, the 5Cs of PYD and the three healthy behaviors. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed on the items measuring the 5Cs to verify the factorial structure of the scale. Chi-square tests and indices, such as the Tucker Lewis Index (TLI; acceptable above 0.90), the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA; acceptable below 0.08), and Comparative Fit Index (CFI; acceptable above 0.90) [ 33 , 34 ]) were used to evaluate model fit. To test the hypothesis that higher scores in PE will be associated with higher scores in the 5Cs, structural equation modelling (SEM) analysis was carried out. In preliminary analyses, the linearity and normal distribution of the 5Cs as dependent variables were determined, with skewness and kurtosis falling within the acceptable range of −2 to +2 and −7 to +7, respectively for SEM analysis [ 35 ]. Finally, the hypothesis that higher scores in PE will be associated with higher odds of the healthy behaviors was tested using logistic regressions due to the binary response categories of the healthy behavior variables. In both SEM and logistic regression, the demographic variables: gender, age, and father’s and mother’s educational background were controlled for.

3.1. Descriptive Analysis

In Table 1 , a frequency analysis of PE grade showed that about 96% of the participants reported grades between 4 and 6. In the Norwegian high school system, a grade of 1 is the lowest, while 6 is the highest a student can earn in a subject. For the 5Cs of PYD, high Cronbach’s alphas, indicating high internal consistencies (ranging from 0.85–0.93) were estimated for all the Cs. The frequency distribution of the three healthy behaviors revealed that most of the participants (about 82%) engaged in PA for at least 30 min twice or more per week, while 57% and 70% consumed at least one serving of fruit and vegetable per day, respectively ( Table 1 ).

Descriptive statistics and reliability coefficients for study variables among Norwegian youth.

Furthermore, descriptive analysis of the 5Cs showed that the highest mean score was registered for caring ( M = 4.29, SD = 0.78), followed by character and then connection . Competence had the lowest mean score ( M = 3.65, SD = 0.86). Thus, on average, participants’ responses on the 5Cs suggested moderate to relatively high levels of the PYD outcomes. The statistically significant correlations between PE grade and the 5Cs (mean scores) were weak to moderate, ranging from 0.17 to 0.55. In addition, the correlation between PE grade and the healthy behaviors were weak but statistically significant (0.19–0.25). Finally, several significant but weak correlations were observed between the 5Cs and the healthy behavior variables as well as between the demographic variables, the 5Cs and the healthy behavior variables ( Table 2 ).

Correlation analyses of demographic variables, physical education grade, the 5Cs of PYD, and healthy behaviors.

Note. * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01.

3.2. CFA of the 5Cs of PYD and Structural Equation Modelling of PE Grade and the 5Cs

Prior to the assessment of the associations between PE grade and the 5Cs, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted on the 34 items of the 5Cs to determine the factorial structure of the scale. An initial CFA of the items, where 14 pairs of same-facet items (in competence , confidence , character and connection ) were allowed to correlate, yielded a poor model fit: χ 2 (500, N = 194) = 998.075, p < 0.001, RMSEA = 0.072, CFI = 0.872, TFI = 0.857. An examination of the modification indices revealed cross-loadings of four items, two items regarding social competence for competence , one item on social conscience for character and another on caring . In addition, the modification indices indicated correlations among one pair of same-construct items (i.e., confidence ) and two pairs of different-construct items, one between competence and connection , and the other between confidence and character . After eliminating cross-loading items and including the correlations, an adequate model fit was attained in a second CFA: χ 2 (378, N = 194) = 646.879, p < 0.001, RMSEA = 0.061, CFI = 0.917, TFI = 0.905. The factor loadings for all 5Cs in this new CFA were adequate, ranging from 0.54 to 0.91. Correlations among the latent factors of the 5Cs were between 0.32 and 0.88.

In Table 3 , having controlled for demographic factors (i.e., gender, age, and parents’ educational background), findings from the structural equation modelling revealed significant associations between PE grade and all the 5Cs of PYD except for character . Not surprisingly, the strongest association was between PE grade and competence (standardized coefficient of 0.60), both largely reflecting students’ competence. The standardized coefficients for confidence and connection were 0.36, and 0.37, respectively, while for caring the coefficient was 0.22. Thus, higher scores in PE were significantly associated with higher scores in the 5Cs besides character . As for the demographic variables, only gender was significantly related to caring in the SEM analysis (standardized coefficient of 0.36), where girls scored higher than boys.

Structural equation model of physical education grade and the 5Cs of PYD.

Note. PE—Physical education; a Controlled for gender, age, father’s education and mother’s education; * Standardized coefficient. Italics and bold show significant levels less than 0.05.

3.3. Logistic Regression Analyses of Physical Education and Healthy Behaviors

For the associations between PE grade and healthy behaviors, logistic regression models were analyzed because of the binary response categories of the behaviors ( Table 4 ). After controlling for the demographic variables, a unit increase in PE grade was associated with a 94% higher likelihood of engaging in PA (OR = 1.94; 95% CI = 1.18–3.18), and a 68% higher likelihood of vegetable consumption (OR = 1.68; 95% CI = 1.08–2.63), that is, when all other variables in the models were held at a constant. Thus, PE grade was significantly related to higher odds of PA and vegetable consumption, while the association with fruit consumption was not significant. None of the demographic variables were significantly related to the healthy behavior variables in the logistic regression analyses.

Associations between physical education (PE) and healthy behaviours: logistic regression analysis.

Note. PE—Physical education; B—Unstandardized coefficient; S.E.—Standard Error; Sig—Significance level; OR—Odds Ratio; CI—Confidence Interval.

4. Discussion

The aim of the present study was to investigate the associations of PE grade with the 5Cs of PYD and healthy behaviors. As hypothesized, positive associations were observed between PE grade and four of the 5Cs ( competence , confidence , caring , and connection ) after adjusting for gender, age, and father’s and mother’s educational background. In contrast, although there was an indication that character was associated with PE grade, this association was not statistically significant in the SEM analysis. For the associations between PE grade and healthy behaviors, while logistic regression analyses showed higher odds of engagement in PA and vegetable consumption with every unit increase in PE grade, no such association was found for fruit consumption. Thus, the hypotheses were confirmed, although not for the association of PE grade with character and fruit consumption. That PE was found to be largely associated with the 5Cs and healthy behaviors is consistent with earlier findings that have supported the significant role of PE sessions on positive outcomes reflecting WHO’s different dimensions of health (physical, mental, and social) [ 1 , 21 ].

The current finding that PE grade was strongly related to competence was no surprise, as both connote a form of academic competence. In the present study, competence as one of the 5Cs was measured as competence in the academic and physical domains. Thus, PE grade was not only related to academic competence or cognitive abilities, but also to physical competence in sports and athletic activities. Earlier research among German students that supports the current findings reported a positive association between PE and cognitive skills measured by grades in German and mathematics [ 36 ], while findings of a review article also indicated that increasing the amount of time dedicated to PE and sports was in many instances associated with academic performance [ 1 ]. The goal of the Norwegian PE curriculum to enable students to develop mastery in the skills needed to undertake a variety of physical activities [ 9 ] can therefore be important not just for the grade in PE but for the general academic competence of students as well.

In addition to being associated with competence , PE grade was associated with confidence , caring and connection. Accordingly, students who scored high in PE were also more likely to report indicators of thriving and positive development, associations that have been confirmed in a related study on the link between participation in sport camps and the 5Cs of PYD that were captured as two factors (pro-social values and confidence/competence) [ 37 ]. Moreover, Bailey [ 1 ] in a review, reported on how PE and sports in schools can provide a favorable environment for social development, a finding that largely corroborates the current results on the significant link between PE and connection (signifying healthy social relations at home, school, and local community). Indeed, an important aim of the Norwegian PE curriculum among others is to create a social arena for fair play and respect between students [ 9 , 10 ]. However, character (reflecting the integrity and moral compass of youth) was the only thriving indicator that was not associated with PE grade, neither in zero-order correlation nor in multivariate analysis. It is possible that the alignment between youth strengths and contextual resources that facilitate the 5Cs of PYD in PE sessions predicts some of the Cs better than others. This assertion will need to be probed into in future research.

Furthermore, PE grade was related to healthy behaviors, such as PA and vegetable consumption, but not fruit consumption. Earlier research among students attending a Spanish high school associated participation in PE with greater PA levels and lower levels of sedentary behaviors during PE days compared to non-PE days and weekends [ 22 ]. Enrollment in PE activities among high school students in Brazil has been found to be positively related to healthy behaviors, such as PA and fruit consumption, as well as negatively related to drinking of sugar-sweetened beverages [ 5 ]. Wiseman and Weir [ 23 ] also found among Canadian high school students that preferring PE over other school subjects was associated with higher PA levels, lower BMI, and higher self-esteem. Although it was PE grade that was assessed in the current study, the grade reflects students’ participation in both theoretical and practical components of the Norwegian PE sessions. Thus, the current finding on the positive association between PE grade and healthy behaviors is largely in line with earlier findings. In summary, PE sessions reflected in the grade of students were associated with positive youth developmental outcomes, such as thriving (the 5Cs) and healthy behaviors, outcomes that tend to reflect all three dimensions of health (physical, mental, and social) as defined by the World Health Organization.

In SEM and logistic regression, the demographics did not appear to play an important role on the 5Cs and healthy behaviors, as a significant association was only observed between gender and caring , with girls reporting higher scores than boys. This finding is in line with earlier research that found similar associations in upper secondary and university students in Spain [ 38 ] and is often attributed to gender socialization, where boys are taught to be tough and girls caring. In future studies, the role of gender and other demographics are worth investigating to ascertain their effects and place in intervention programs.

4.1. Limitations

The present study has some limitations that need to be considered in the interpretation of the findings. First, the relationships between PE grade and the positive youth developmental outcomes may not indicate causation due to the cross-sectional design of the current study. While the present and earlier findings suggest a positive influence of PE on youth development and healthy behaviors, it is also possible that high levels of the thriving indicators ( competence , confidence , caring and connection ) led to more effort in PE sessions, and consequently, high grade in the subject. In addition, it is likely that students who participate in healthy behaviors such as PA and vegetable consumption will also perform better in PE sessions. Looking at these relationships within a longitudinal design will shed more light on both the developmental trajectories and relations between PE participation and positive youth outcomes.

Second, while there is no reason to believe that youth will be deceptive in the report of their grade and competencies, it is still likely that their self-report responses were affected by social desirability bias, where they tended to over-report their PE grades, for example. In future studies, students’ actual grades provided by teachers can be one method to address the limitation associated with self-report responses and the associated social desirability bias. Third, the binary response categories (Yes/No) of the healthy behaviors did not allow much variation among the behaviors to be assessed. Moreover, although the measures represented general assessment of PA and fruit and vegetable consumption, they did not adequately reflect the global recommendations of the healthy behaviors. This is a limitation that can be addressed in future studies with better instruments that allow for more variations as well as assessment of the recommended amounts and levels of the healthy behaviors. Fourth, the items measuring the 5Cs of PYD were created with US samples, and although the scale was largely validated with the Norwegian sample, there were some items that cross-loaded onto different factors. In addition, relatively high correlations were found among some of the measures, for example between competence and confidence . Thus, it is possible that some items of the 5Cs did not adequately capture or make a distinction between the thriving indicators in Norwegian students. These shortcomings can be a topic of investigation in future studies using qualitative methods.

Finally, although the power analysis indicated that the sample size of 220 was enough to detect medium to large effect sizes in the relationships being studied, a larger sample could provide more robust findings. Besides, the participating schools and thus the students involved in the current study were selected through convenience sampling, thus limiting the extent to which the present findings can be generalized to the whole youth population in Norway. Future studies that use a more representative and inclusive sample reflecting youth from different geographic locations, diverse ethnicities and other backgrounds will be more effective in generating findings that are representative of the Norwegian youth population.

4.2. Implications for Research, Policy, and Practice

Despite the limitations, the current study has implications for research, policy, and practice. In terms of research, the validation of the 5Cs of PYD scale among high school students in Norway adds to the limited research of the 5Cs in Norway and paves the way for further research of the thriving indicators among youth in the Norwegian and other similar Scandinavian and European contexts. Additional research on the 5Cs can also eventually lead to a more refined scale that includes items unique to the Norwegian, Scandinavian or European context. In addition, future studies on PE and the 5Cs can assess the level of risk and adversity in the contexts in which youth are interacting. This will enable the assessment of not only thriving, but resilience as well.

As for policy, the fact that PE grade is related to thriving and healthy behaviors suggests that the Norwegian PE curriculum is important to the promotion of the positive development of the youth, and, possibly, resilience. These results should make the effective implementation of PE curriculum in all schools a priority on the Norwegian political agenda at both the national and community or school level. This way, young people across gender, socio-economic statuses, ethnicities, and other backgrounds can be reached and empowered with the necessary physical, cognitive, and psychosocial skills and competences that are associated with the array of activities taught in PE sessions. Moreover, the current findings of the significant role of PE can inform strategies used in PE curricula in other Scandinavian and European countries. In line with a European Commission report [ 8 ], although all European countries acknowledge the importance of PE at school, only two-thirds of the educational systems had large-scale national initiatives to support the promotion of PE and PA. Indeed, as implied in the current findings, the goal of European countries to facilitate the physical, personal and social development of pupils and students can only be realized when PE curricula are planned and implemented effectively.

There are some practical implications of the current findings as well. With the significant associations between PE grade, the 5Cs of PYD (indicating thriving indicators), and healthy behaviors, it is important that during PE sessions, efforts are made to engage all students in activities that can create positive experiences, enjoyment and mastery as outlined in the PE curriculum. In the curriculum, there is also a focus to provide students with challenges that can enable them to participate actively in both spontaneous and organized activities as well as arenas where students can exercise fair play and respect for each other. Efforts made to implement all these aims in the PE sessions will not only produce healthy, thriving, and resilient youth but, as proposed by PYD, the efforts would also mean a healthy transition into adulthood for the youth.

5. Conclusions

Positive effects of PE participation have been well documented in earlier studies. The current study adds to these benefits with findings that suggest that PE grade reflecting participation in PE is significantly related to thriving indicators, such as competence , confidence , caring and connection (4 out of the 5Cs of PYD), as well as healthy behaviors such as PA and vegetable consumption. These findings support the importance of PE sessions to the healthy development of youth and suggest that policies and programs at the national and local levels that ensure the effective implementation of a PE curriculum in school would be promoting developmental outcomes that align with the dimensions of health outlined by the World Health Organization. However, more research needs to be carried out with adequate measurement of healthy behaviors and representative samples to ascertain the facilitating role of PE sessions on youth health, thriving, and positive development, but also resilience in risk and adverse contexts of youth, as this can secure a life trajectory towards an idealized adulthood for all youth.

Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge Maria Bøhlerengen for coordinating the data collection and the youth participants for their engagement in the present study.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board (or Ethics Committee) of NSD—Norwegian Centre for Research Data, Norway (protocol code 51708/3/IJJ and 18 July 2017).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The author declares no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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• Published: 25 February 2008

Physical education, school physical activity, school sports and academic performance

• François Trudeau 1 &
• Roy J Shephard 2  

International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity volume  5 , Article number:  10 ( 2008 ) Cite this article

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The purpose of this paper is to review relationships of academic performance and some of its determinants to participation in school-based physical activities, including physical education (PE), free school physical activity (PA) and school sports.

Linkages between academic achievement and involvement in PE, school PA and sport programmes have been examined, based on a systematic review of currently available literature, including a comprehensive search of MEDLINE (1966 to 2007), PSYCHINFO (1974 to 2007), SCHOLAR.GOOGLE.COM, and ERIC databases.

Quasi-experimental data indicate that allocating up to an additional hour per day of curricular time to PA programmes does not affect the academic performance of primary school students negatively, even though the time allocated to other subjects usually shows a corresponding reduction. An additional curricular emphasis on PE may result in small absolute gains in grade point average (GPA), and such findings strongly suggest a relative increase in performance per unit of academic teaching time. Further, the overwhelmingly majority of such programmes have demonstrated an improvement in some measures of physical fitness (PF). Cross-sectional observations show a positive association between academic performance and PA, but PF does not seem to show such an association. PA has positive influences on concentration, memory and classroom behaviour. Data from quasi-experimental studies find support in mechanistic experiments on cognitive function, pointing to a positive relationship between PA and intellectual performance.

Given competent providers, PA can be added to the school curriculum by taking time from other subjects without risk of hindering student academic achievement. On the other hand, adding time to "academic" or "curricular" subjects by taking time from physical education programmes does not enhance grades in these subjects and may be detrimental to health.

The purpose of this paper is to review relationships between physical education (PE), school physical activity (PA), school sports and academic performance. These relationships have been the subject of extensive discussion between advocates and skeptics of PE, school PA and school sports programmes. Both elements of this discussion (academic achievement and physical activity) are independent determinants of a child's health. Our intent in this article is to assess the effects on academic achievement of school PA programmes (including PE and school sports), in both elementary and high schools. Previous reviews have examined relationships between PA and academic achievement. [ 1 – 4 ] Recent research results, echoed in the media, suggest that such activity may have a positive impact on learning and memory. It is now fairly well-recognized that PA is associated with the maintenance of cognitive function in older adults [ 5 ] and offers some protection against Alzheimer's disease. [ 6 ] Cognitive dysfunctions in older adults is becoming an urgent public health problem, given the ever-rising average life expectancy and the associated growth in the proportion of old and very old individuals in most societies. A positive association between PA and cognitive health is also suspected in younger subjects, but is not as well documented in this age group. Nevertheless, any positive influence of PA on the cognitive functions of children is important for at least 2 reasons: 1) It is a potential argument for increasing PE and/or other types of school PA without risk of decreasing academic progress, and 2) It may offer a way to reduce disruptive behaviour at school and the drop-out from educational programmes. Furthermore, an important by-product of an increased participation to school PA would be an enhanced level of physical fitness.

Search methods

The databases searched included MEDLINE (1966 to 2007), PSYCHINFO (1974 to 2007), SCHOLAR.GOOGLE.COM, and ERIC, as well as the extensive personal databases of the authors. The reference lists of the articles thus identified were also consulted to identify additional potentially-relevant research. Publications in languages other than English were considered where appropriate. For the purpose of this review, we use the term academic achievement to encompass academic success, school performance and all combinations of these terms.

The outcomes of school PA/PE and academic achievement, success or performance were actual or self-reported grade point average (GPA) and determinants of GPA that could potentially be changed by the interventions (concentration, learning, classroom behaviour, engagement in learning, self-esteem, etc.). The terms physical education, physical activity and sports are, for the purposes of this review, restricted to programmes offered within the school context (i.e. instructional physical education and extracurricular physical activity, including in-school physical activity programmes, intraschool and intramural sport).

Quasi-experimental and longitudinal studies

It is not surprising that no randomized controlled trials were identified, as they are not practicable in this type of research setting. Quasi-experimental protocols are usually indicated when causality cannot be tested by a random controlled trial in milieux such as the school setting. Seven quasi-experimental studies were identified (Table 1 ). Cross-sectional studies were also considered, as well as experimental or laboratory experiments on the determinants of academic performance (i.e. learning concentration, classroom behaviour, etc.).

The first documented quasi-experimental study relevant for to this paper was the Vanves (France) investigation; this involved a small group of schoolchildren tested during the 1950's. [ 7 ] Schoolchildren who spent mornings in the classroom and afternoons doing PE were said to perform better academically than children from a control class, but no further details were given. [ 7 ] Unfortunately, the specifics of these observations were not described in peer reviewed journals.

A second quasi-experimental study conducted in the Trois-Rivières region (Québec) between 1970 and 1977 involved 546 primary school students; this noted that students involved in an experimental 5 hours of physical education per week had a higher academic performance than their control counterparts who were enrolled in the normal school program for 40 min per week [ 8 ]. The supplemental 260 minutes allocated to PE was necessarily taken from time for other academic teaching (i.e. an average 14% curtailment of academic instruction). Despite this curricular change, during the last 5 years of primary school, the overall academic performance of the experimental students improved relative to the controls. During standardized Provincial examinations, children receiving the 5 hours/week of PE had higher scores in mathematics, but lower scores in English (their second language), despite the fact that 33 minutes were removed from mathematics instruction and none from English. [ 3 ]

A 2-year quasi-experimental study followed 759 Californian children in the 5th and 6th grades. [ 9 ] Subgroups of children were taught PE by either a professional physical educator (n = 178), a trained homeroom teacher (n = 312), or in the normal programme (n = 165). The professional physical educators, the trained teachers, and normal programmes offered, respectively, 80, 65, and 38 minutes per week of PE. As expected, those taught by the professional physical educators achieved greater fitness (cardiovascular and muscle endurance). [ 10 ] Also, the groups taught by the professional physical educators and trained teachers had smaller declines in academic performance despite allocating more time to PE. Four of 8 statistical comparisons disclosed an advantage for students in the experimental groups; one comparison was advantageous to control students, while the remaining 3 were equal. The group who spent the most time on PE (i.e. those with a professional physical educator) showed no negative effects on academic achievement and indeed the decline of academic results during the 2 years of the intervention was smaller than that observed in the control subjects. [ 9 ]

In South Australia, the 500-student SHAPE trial added 1.25 hours per day of endurance fitness training to the curriculum of 10-year-old primary school students. [ 11 ] Over the first 14 weeks of the study, the experimenatl group showed gains in physical work capacity and decreases in body fat relative to controls. Arithmetic and reading scores were not adversely affected by the substantial reallocation of curricular time in favour of PE. These physical benefits appeared to be maintained over the succeeding 2 years in a follow-up of 216 participants. These follow-up evaluations showed (non-significant) trends for better arithmetic and reading grades in experimental students, as well as beneficial changes in teachers' ratings of classroom behaviour. [ 12 ]

The 16-month Action School BC! project involved a population of 287 British Columbian primary school children (4th and 5th years: 9–11-years olds). PA was delivered by classroom teachers, amounting to 47 minutes more per week in interventional than in control schools (139 ± 62 vs. 92 ± 45 minutes, P < 0.001). [ 13 ] Despite a corresponding decrease in academic time, the academic performance of the experimental group, as measured by the Canadian Achievement Test, remained unchanged; indeed, data analysis revealed a trend towards an enhanced academic performance in the intervention schools (the average score rising from 1,595 to 1,672 units).

Another interventional study of 6 th grade (11 year-old) students covered a single school term. Fifty-five minutes/day of PE were included in the curriculum, vs. the same allocation of time for arts or computer sciences; the two groups performed equally well in mathematics, sciences and English. [ 14 ] Finally, an intervention in Israel involved 92 preschool and 266 first grade children. [ 15 ] The experimental manipulation here was a school-based movement education programme, and children in the experimental group showed greater reading skills and arithmetic scores than controls. [ 15 ]

Taken together, these quasi-experimental data suggest that the enriched PE programmes demanded a substantial reduction in the time allocated for academic tuition. Since the children achieved at least equally despite the reduced teaching time, the evidence seems strong that the efficiency of learning was enhanced. [ 3 ] Despite the variety of programme durations and locations, a common and valuable by-product was a significant increase in various measures of physical fitness (PF).

Cross-sectional studies

Cross-sectional studies commonly have difficulty in controlling for potential biases, particularly socio-economic status (SES). SES remains the strongest predictor of academic achievement [ 16 ] and is also one of the strongest predictors of PA participation in children (e.g. in Canada [ 17 ]; Italy [ 18 ] and Estonia [ 19 ]). Cross-sectional studies generally indicate a positive association with academic achievement. Some of these studies did control for confounders such as SES, and still most of them found a positive association between physical activity and academic achievement (Table 2 ).

Positive results on GPA

Nelson and Gordon-Larsen [ 20 ] analyzed results from the US National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health; they observed that adolescents who were active in school were more likely to have high grades. Even after adjustment for demographics and SES, the risk ratio of higher grades was 1.20 for mathematics and 1.21 for English among adolescents who were active at school. Within middle to upper middle SES categories, a cross-sectional study of suburban high school seniors (52 girls and 37 boys) found that the more active group had higher GPA. [ 21 ]

4,690 Hong Kong children from primary 5 to secondary 7 (i.e. grades 5 to 12) completed a pre-validated questionnaire relating their sports and exercise participation to perceived academic performance. [ 22 ] Low correlations were seen for the whole sample (r = 0.10, P < 0.01; r = 0.17, P < 0.01 for females; r = 0.06, NS for males). GPA was not a significant correlated with PA participation when all school bands were confounded; however, the high band showed a positive link between GPA and PA participation, whereas students in the low band showed a negative relationship between PA participation and GPA. [ 23 ] These reports suggest that the relationship between PA and academic performance is influenced by the type of students and/or the school that they attend. Deliberate stratification of students by learning ability is by no means universal, but we cannot exclude the possibility that spontaneous, unplanned banding may also influence the strength of observed relationships.

Dwyer et al. [ 24 ] made a cross-sectional survey of 9000 Australian schoolchildren between the ages of 7 and 15 years (500 in each age/sex stratum drawn from 109 schools, i.e. 10 girls and 10 boys per school). Depending on the group, a linear regression analysis with good control of confounding variables demonstrated a significant association between academic achievement and PA (a combination of lunchtime PA and minutes of PA the preceding week). In all subjects aged 9–12 years, school performance was positively associated with ratings of PA during the preceding week. In girls 10–15 years old and boys 8–15 years old, academic achievement was also positively associated with the estimates of lunchtime PA. The correlation coefficients between PA and academic achievement, although low (r = 0.08 to 0.19) were statistically significant, suggesting that PA was contributing to academic achievement in both boys and girls. Data from the Youth Risk Behavior Survey likewise showed that a perception of little or no involvement in PA was associated with a perception of low academic performance. [ 25 ] Another cross-sectional study from England also controlled for SES; this again reported a positive association between school sports participation and academic achievement. [ 26 ]

Researchers from Iceland designed a study included other health behaviours. [ 27 ] They found small but significantly positive univariate associations of PA with self-reported school performance (r = -0.11 with absenteeism and r = 0.09 with grades). When confounders were considered, these associations were further weakened, but nevertheless remained statistically significant predictors if selected health behaviours and psychological variables were included in the prediction model. [ 27 ]

Negative or null outcomes on GPA

In 6,923 grade 6 New Brunswick children (age 11 years), PA showed a weak inverse association with academic achievement, but a positive association with self-esteem. [ 28 ] A study on 232 English boys and girls (13–16 years old) found no relationship between self-reported PA and GPA. Moreover, in children aged 13, 14, or 16 years, the durartion of PA was negatively correlated with marks for English (r = -0.29 to -0.30). [ 29 ] To our knowledge, these are the only 2 studies to observe negative associations between PA (but not PE) and academic achievement.

A survey of 117 Australian primary schools found no deterioration of literacy and numeracy results in primary school grades 3, 5 and 7 when more time was allocated to PE. [ 30 ] SES was the strongest predictor of both literacy and numeracy scores. A recent analysis of Hong Kong pre-adolescent boys reported that a high level of PA at school was associated with high self-esteem, but not with academic achievement. [ 31 ]

Even studies that failed to find a positive relationship between PA/PE and GPA have generally found no decrease in academic achievement as a consequence of increased participation in PA (Table 2 ). Clearly, the absence of an elevation in GPA should not be interpreted as a negative outcome. This is well illustrated by a survey conducted in Virginia's primary schools. [ 32 ] A reduction in the time allocated for PE (or the arts) did not improve performance in other subjects like mathematics or reading. Moreover, increasing the time allocated to PE (or the arts) at the expense of other academic subjects was not detrimental to test scores in these subjects. [ 32 ] Taken together, these observations suggest that if academic achievements are maintained while spending less time on a specific discipline, the intervention has increased academic efficacy.

Effects of PA on elements considered to favour academic performance

Many factors like classroom behaviour, self-esteem, self-image, school satisfaction and school connectedness have been postulated as determinants of academic achievement.

Classroom behaviour

Self-identification as a school athlete vs. a «jock» is associated with a lower rate of reported misconduct at school [ 33 ], with the exception of binge drinking. [ 34 ] In the American linguistic context, the word "jock" refers to an individual whose life is oriented toward sport; it is not necessarily a pejorative term. However, it should not be confused with the focused and planned life of a typical athlete.

In the Trois-Rivières study, competencies linked to behaviour were similar overall in the experimental vs. the control group. [ 35 ] A German cross-sectional study (CHILT) compared 12 intervention schools (n = 668) vs. 5 control schools (n = 218), finding that PF was associated with concentration in 6–7 years old children. [ 36 ]

Evans et al. [ 37 ] reported a lower rate of inappropriate talking among emotionally, or behaviourally-disturbed children who were participating in a jogging and football exercise programme. Furthermore, a meta-analysis on the effect of exercise prior to classes led to the conclusion that most exercise interventions significantly reduced disruptive behaviours in disturbed students. [ 38 ] These effects could reflect in part better teacher attitudes towards these children, as seen in the Trois-Rivières [ 3 ] and the Australian [ 1 ] quasi-experimental studies.

Other psychosocial effects

Better self-esteem or self-image [ 20 , 39 ] and body image [ 40 ] are commonly associated with high levels of PA. Many studies have also linked school sport or PA programmes with other psychosocial outcomes, such as school satisfaction and school connectedness, regardless of ethnic group [ 41 ]. Both school connectedness and school satisfaction are factors preventing drop-out from school. [ 42 ]

A recent analysis of data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health [ 20 ] found evidence of a positive association between PA and components of mental health, including self-esteem, emotional well-being, spirituality, and future expectations. When participation in PA/sports also included parental involvement, the behavioural risk profile became even more positive.

A cross-sectional questionnaire study of 245 Finnish adolescents [ 43 ] observed no association between PA level and school satisfaction and the trend to a weak correlation between PA level and problems at school was not statistically significant. However, PA was correlated with global school satisfaction (r = -0.21 for boys) and absence of a depressive mood state (-0.20 and -0.26 for girls and boys, respectively).

What are the acute effects of PA on cognitive function?

Many authors have documented the acute effects of PA on cognitive function. Three recent reviews and/or meta-analyses examined these studies. [ 44 – 46 ] In a meta-analysis of 44 studies, Sibley and Etnier [ 45 ] concluded that PA was positively associated with better cognitive functioning in children. Some groups, particularly middle school students (grades 6–8, aged 11–13 years) and younger, seemed to benefit more from PA. Sibley and Etnier [ 45 ] noted that unpublished studies had a higher effect size than published reports, suggesting that no bias had occurred from a failure to publish non-significant results.

Brisswalter et al. [ 44 ] reviewed published studies into the effects of exercise on various tasks. They concluded that the optimal intensity for decisional tasks covered a wide range (~40–80% VO 2 max). An exercise duration of more than 20 minutes was most efficient in increasing the performance of perceptual and decisional tasks. [ 44 , 46 ] Tomporowki [ 47 ] suggested an upper limit of 60 minutes might arise from the adverse effects of dehydration on cognitive functions.

The literature generally suggests a positive effect of acute physical exercise on cognition. Other activities, like involvement in music also have the potential to increase reading skills, although in this case there is no positive influence on PF. [ 48 ]

Relationship of PF with academic achievement

What is the effect of a high level of PF on academic performance? Is good cognitive functioning associated with above average PF? If so, is this a consequence of PF per se, or of better overall physical health? When analyzed globally, the literature does not indicate any clear linkage between PF and either academic achievement or intellectual performance. As early as 1969, Railo found no relationship between PF and either of these outcomes. [ 49 ] More recently, Etnier et al. [ 50 ] concluded from a meta-regression analysis that the empirical literature did not support a link between cardiovascular PF and academic achievement. However, this meta-analysis revealed a weakness in the literature: there was little data on the relationship between PF and academic achievement in school-aged children. Indeed, only 1 of the 37 studies identified included this age group.

When the definition of PF includes aspects other than cardiovascular fitness, there seems evidence of positive correlations between various measures of psychomotor performance, cognitive abilities and academic achievement. [ 51 , 52 ] Psychomotor performance shares many common neurological mechanisms with cognitive functions.

A 2001 cross-sectional study on California children disclosed a positive relationship between reading and mathematics results (as measured by Stanford Achievement Test-9) and results on a field test of physical fitness (the Fitnessgram). Despite a huge sample of students from grades 5, 7 and 9 (n = 954,000), potential selection biases were not considered, making it difficult to conclude that PA was linked to increased academic performance. [ 53 ] When found, any effects of PF were small. Another weak association between PF and academic achievement was observed in South Korean children (grades 5, 8, and 11); in this study, the association was much smaller than that between academic achievement and regular meal eating. [ 54 ] Dwyer et al. [ 24 ] measured muscle fitness in 9,000 Australian students. They found significant but weak associations, ranging from r = -0.10 to -0.19 for running distances of 50 m and 1.6 km, and from r = 0.10 to 0.22 for sit-ups and standing long jump, respectively.

School sports and academic achievement

The connection between school sports and intellectual achievement has been a long-standing issue since Davis and Cooper [ 55 ] first reported a positive association between school sports participation and academic achievement. It remains the subject of recent investigations. The competitive dimension of most sports introduces particular problems, even in the school context, as the educational dimension tends to be relegated to a secondary level. The literature comprises mainly cross-sectional data and the results are more equivocal than for PA; unfortunately, most of the earlier studies did not control for biases common to athletic and academic achievements. [ 56 , 57 ]

Data from the longitudinal Maryland Adolescent Development in Context Study included 67% African-Americans and 33% European-Americans; it found that participation in extracurricular PA was a significant predictor of better academic results and of higher academic expectations. [ 58 ] Furthermore, sports participation by 8th grade African-American males resulted in aspirations to continue their studies toward college, with less likelihood of acting inappropriately in school. [ 59 ] In their female counterparts, sports participation also resulted in higher aspirations and in a reduction of absenteeism.

Cooper et al. [ 60 ] found that even after eliminating confounding factors, extracurricular activities, including sports and PA were predictors of better academic achievement in 2,200 American high school students. Their conclusion is in line with the point that Marsh made in 1992, that such activities may have an effect on academic achievement by increasing motivation and investment in school. [ 61 ] Another study of 11,957 American adolescents found that even after standardization for SES, sports participation with parental presence was associated with an increased probability of good grades in English and mathematics, the Adjusted Relative Risk being 1.23 for both subjects. [ 20 ] Dexter [ 62 ] examined the relationship between sports knowledge, sport performance and academic ability, the last being measured by scores on the British General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). They observed a small but significant positive correlation between sports performance and GCSE score for both mathematics and English.

Melnick et al. [ 63 ] detected no relationship between academic achievement and sports participation in 3,686 African-American and Hispanic students from the "High-school and Beyond Study". However, sports participation was associated with a lower drop-out rate. Therefore, they suggested that if sports participation contributes to academic achievement, it may do so indirectly, by encouraging retention in school. Fisher et al. [ 64 ] also observed no association between sports involvement and self-reported grades in an ethnic mix of 838 grade 9 to 12 students (predominantly 63% African-American and 27% Hispanic).

Harvard students involved in varsity teams had a slightly lower GPA than their peers, but reported a higher degree of satisfaction with their university experience. [ 65 ] This also seemed the case in other institutions examined by Light. Athletes have more friends and a stronger sense of belonging to their institution. They are, according to Light, "the happiest on campus". Generally, this same trend is seen among high-school athletes. Students engaged in extracurricular PAs do not achive different academic scores than their peers, but they feel a greater engagement with their institution. [ 66 , 67 ] This may reflect in part the greater attention directed towards these specific students. Indeed, participants in extracurricular activities (including sports) have more interactions with significant adults than non-participants. [ 66 ]

Sport is a very complex phenomenon. There are many cultures within school sports, and any effect on academic achievement is influenced by gender, race, type of sport, type and level of athletic involvement. White and McTeer [ 68 ] suggested that the status of a given sport may influence its effect on academic achievement. Their results showed that high-status sports had a positive influence on English grades but they saw no evidenceof an effect of such sports on mathematics grades. They suggested that academic performance was more likely to be affected by cultural factors in subjective subjects like English than in mathematics. Any influence of school sports participation may also differ between girls and boys [ 33 ], and between various ethnic and cultural groups. [ 69 ]

In conclusion, the available literature suggests that sport is more likely to benefit academic achievement if offered in school rather than in other sport contexts, given the proximity of educational resources and environment. This may be particularly important for team sports, which often seem associated with risky behaviours, particularly binge drinking of alcohol. [ 70 ] When sports-involved students identify themselves as athletes rather than «jocks», such risky behaviours seem less prevalent. [ 67 ] Greater academic coaching of school athletes could be a factor favouring their academic achievement. [ 67 ] School sports should be monitored closely, with the intent of avoiding a drift away from educational objectives. It appears that satisfaction with sports vs. satisfaction with school work is predicted by a differing psychological domain (perceived ability vs. task orientation). [ 71 ] It may be helpful to create an environment where both types of endeavour find common ground, i.e. school may be the best setting in which sports can be directed towards task orientation and skills acquisition, without decreasing the pleasure and satisfaction of being good at sports and PA. As noted in various long-term follow-ups, elite and varsity level athletes later tend to experience greater educational and labour market success than non athletes. [ 34 , 67 , 72 , 73 ] Current evidence suggests that this effect may be mediated by racial group. [ 74 ]

Populations with special educational needs

Academic integration of children with various behavioural and developmental problems is a growing trend in industrialized countries. The question arises in terms of their academic achievement. Reviews of exercise programmes for children with learning disabilities [ 75 , 76 ] have suggested that in order to increase the likelihood of positive outcomes, such programmes should have a low student-instructor ratio. Benefits (with the exception of increased PF) may reflect increased attention toward the participants.

In hyperactive impulsive children, PA is associated with global satisfaction in boys and an absence of depressive emotions in both sexes. [ 77 ] An outdoor education programme also decreased behavioural problems in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. [ 78 ]

In children with reading disabilities, a school-based programme of balance and coordination training, throwing, catching, and stretching produced significant improvements in both reading and semantics. [ 79 ] Positive changes were maintained for at least 18 months following the programme, reducing the likelihood of a Hawthorne effect. [ 80 ]

Four pupils with emotional and behavioural disorders were directly studied before and after a 10-week PE intervention. Back in class, there was an increase (13.8%, or a little more than 23 minutes) in the amount of time spent focused on the tasks they were supposed to be performing. [ 81 ] A 10-week PA intervention in children with learning disabilities improved classroom behaviour and the perception of academic competence was increased. [ 76 ] However, a similar outcome was seen in the control group, indicating that there had been no specific effect from the programme.

The effects of school PA upon children with learning problems thus remains an open field for research.

Is the potential beneficial effect of PE, school PA and sport supported by fundamental research?

The positive association observed between PA and intellectual performance among children in quasi-experimental studies should be supported by mechanistic, experimental evidence. No one can deny the important role of neurosciences in the comprehension of academic achievement. [ 82 ] Most research on the relationships between PA and cognition has centered on the hippocampus, a brain region that mediates memory and learning in mammals, and on changes in the cerebral circulation. The hippocampus has an important role in the consolidation of memory. One major mechanism essential to its functions is long-term potentiation, or LTP. LTP leads to an enhancement of nervous influx following a first series of stimuli.

Exercise and learning mechanisms

Hippocampal LTP is the most credible physiological explanation for learning and memory in mammals, including humans. [ 83 ] LTP leads to an increase of synaptic efficacy following an increase of synaptic traffic. [ 83 ] It was shown recently that PA favours hippocampal LTP. [ 84 ] Chronic exercise favourably influences the hippocampus through 3 mechanisms:

1) Heightened neurogenesis, i.e. an increased formation of new neurons after chronic PA, as demonstrated in the adult mouse [ 85 , 86 ],

2) Augmented LTP itself, i.e. enhanced neuronal transmission in the hippocampus. Different methods employed to measure cognitive functions, and scores on these tasks are well correlated with a better performing hippocampus [ 87 ]. Radial maze learning, i.e. an hippocampal spatial learning, is increased in both male and female rats exercised by voluntary running. The performance of this task does not seem to be influenced by changes in fitness of the animal, as is the case for the Morris water maze. However, if the water maze is used, it remains possible to control for an animal's level of fitness. Other studies using the Morris water maze have also reported improved performance. [ 85 , 88 ] Exercise has no effect on glutamate receptors in the hippocampus in aged rats [ 89 ], reinforcing the view that post-receptor mechanisms are responsible for stronger LTP in active animals. However, this point remains to be confirmed in the hippocampus of younger animals,

3) Chronic exercise creates a favourable environment for LTP by increasing the hippocampal concentrations of neuroprotective factors like brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) [ 90 ] and of other growth factors such as insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1), nerve growth factor, and fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2).

The brain concentration of some antioxidants is also increased in trained animals, thus protecting hippocampal cells from oxidative damage. [ 91 ] Radak et al. [ 92 ] studied the acute effects of exercise (2 hours). Oxidative damage to macromolecules was reduced through an increase of glutathion synthetase activity and a reduction in the deleterious, inactivity-related efflux of glutamate (the neurotransmitter of learning in the hippocampus). Acute exercise also normalized certain memory functions, particularly orientation time to novelty and passive avoidance reactions.

To our knowledge, these mechanisms of enhanced learning and memory have never been explored in animals at a developmental stage corresponding to school-age children. We hypothesize that, given the higher brain plasticity of childhood, the changes seen in older brains may have an even greater magnitude in the developing brain. The data suggest that the brain structures involved in learning and memory, although more complex, function much like skeletal muscle. To enhance function (i.e. increase memory and learning), periods of stimulation must be followed by a recovery period when supercompensation can take place, and the new proteins associated with learning and memory consolidation can be synthesized.

Discussion and Conclusion

Available data suggest that school PA (PE instruction, free time PA or school sport) could become a consistent component of PA to meet current guidelines for children and adolescents without impairing academic achievement, even if curricular time for so-called academic subjects is curtailed. In his classical work "The Adolescent Society," James S. Coleman advanced the concept of a zero-sum model. [ 93 ] This hypothesized that if time was taken from academic programmes to allow other pursuits, academic achievement would suffer. This concept may be applicable if time is spent in paid employment while attending school [ 94 ], but it does not seem to apply to extracurricular activities like sports or curricular PE. [ 95 ] In contrast, such activities are likely to increase attachment to school and self-esteem which are indirect but important factors in academic achievement.

Parents concerned about decreases in study and homework time may be better advised to question the time their children spend on TV and computer games rather than the time that they devote to PE, PA or sports in school. Indeed, the more children watch TV, the greater the decline in their academic results. [ 96 ] At least one Canadian study found that the time devoted to PA was positively associated with the time that school-aged children spent in reading. [ 97 ] Parents interested in the health and academic success of their offspring should focus on the increased prevalence of various metabolic pathologies in which sedentary behaviour plays a key etiologic role, for example, obesity and type 2 diabetes, both of which are beginning at an ever younger age. [ 98 ] Such pathologies have the potential to affect school performance adversely, although this is an area where more research is needed. [ 99 ] In one recent article, obese 3 rd grade girls (8 years old) did not have poorer academic results after control for SES, but relative to normal weight girls they exhibited more displaced behaviours like arguing and fighting, as well as more depressive symptoms like loneliness and sadness [ 100 ].

Engagement in PE instruction would probably be increased if grades were allocated for performance in PE, particularly in high school. The engagement of girls, particularly, decreases when PE is not considered incalculating their GPA. [ 101 , 102 ] However, between grade 8 and 12, the school drop-out rate for adolescents of both sexes is reduced by sport participation [ 103 ]

Another problem that remains to be resolved, despite a call for action from the Surgeon General in 1996, is the heterogeneity in provision of PE [ 104 ], extracurricular sports and other school PA programmes [ 105 ], schools with a low SES being particularly disadvantaged. School sport would appeal to more students if emphasis was placed on its educational potential rather than its competitive side. Potential drifting of objectives should be monitored to avoid a «subversion» of the educational mission and ensure a maximisation of positive effects such as academic achievement and long term adherence to physical activity. The current emphasis on a limited range of team sports should be modified to provide opportunities for students who are interested in and have the skills relevant to other sport ventures, thus attracting a wider range of students.

Many questions remain to be clarified on the relationship between academic performance, PE, school PA and sports. However, to paraphrase Eccles et al. [ 67 ], "We now know enough about the kinds of programs likely to have positive effects on children and adolescents' development." The literature strongly suggests that the academic achievement, physical fitness and health of our children will not be improved by limiting the time allocated to PE instruction, school PA and sports programmes.

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F. Trudeau is holder of a joint initiative grant from Social Science and Humanity Research Council/Sport Canada. R. J. Shephard is collaborator on the same grant.

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Trudeau, F., Shephard, R.J. Physical education, school physical activity, school sports and academic performance. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 5 , 10 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-5-10

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Published by Grace Graffin at January 5th, 2023 , Revised On July 9, 2024

Due to the growing importance of physical education, a majority of educational institutions have introduced it as a subject that students can choose as their major for their graduation. However, what comes with it is submitting a dissertation to complete your degree.

As a student of physical education, you might be in limbo as to which topic you should choose for your dissertation that is unique and relevant. After all, your future is dependent on it. Choosing the right dissertation topic is the first step toward writing a powerful dissertation that is accepted by your professors.

When choosing a physical education dissertation topic, you need to keep in mind that the topic is current, unique and adds value to what you have learned. To help you with the process of choosing the right topic, this blog contains a list of physical education dissertation topics.

You may also want to start your dissertation by requesting a brief research proposal from our writers on any of these topics, which includes an introduction to the problem, research question, aim and objectives, literature review, and the proposed methodology of research to be conducted. Let us know if you need any help in getting started.

Check our example dissertation to get an idea of how to structure your dissertation .

You can review step by step guide on how to write your dissertation here .

Also read: Education dissertation topics , healthcare dissertation topics , and nursing dissertation topics .

Latest Physical Education Dissertation Topics

Topic 1: investigating the impacts of improving physical education in schools on the development of children’s confidence, endurance and quick integration capability..

Research Aim: The present study aims to investigate the impacts of improving physical education in schools for developing children’s confidence, endurance, and quick integration capability.

Objectives:

• To analyse the importance of physical education in schools for proper growth of children.
• To examine how advanced physical education in schools helps children to develop their confidence, endurance, and quick integration capacity.
• To recommend what can be involved in physical education for improvement that may help develop confidence, endurance, and quick integration capacity of children.

Topic 2: Analysing different types of fine motor activities to help myriad health issues – a study on autistic children in the UK.

Research Aim: The present study aims to explain different types of fine motor activities that help address various health issues, as this study will specifically focus on autistic children in the UK.

• To share comprehensive knowledge about different types of fine motor activities.
• To explain the benefits of practising fine motor activities in addressing different health issues referring to the problem of autism in children in the UK.
• To provide a set of recommendations for the advancement of fine motor activities to address the health problem of autistic children in the UK.

Topic 3: Examining the significance of integrating physical education in the Montessori curriculum in the UK.

Research Aim: The present study aims to explicate the significance of integrating physical education into the Montessori curriculum in the UK.

• To explain the benefits of physical education in school for the growth of students.
• To comprehend the importance of integrating physical education in the Montessori curriculum in the UK.
• To share ideas about how physical education can be integrated and practised in the Montessori curriculum in the UK.

Topic 4: A study on the use of health rate monitors and health tracking to support the practices of advanced physical education.

Research Aim: The present study aims to explicate the usefulness of heath rate monitors and health tracking that support the practices of advanced physical education.

• To describe the usefulness of health rate monitors and health tracking equipment.
• To interpret the role of health monitors and health tracking to support improved practices in physical education.
• To recommend strategies for how health rate monitors and health tracking can be used to get the best possible results in physical education.

Topic 5: Exploring the increasing trend of computer-based fitness programs in the UK – a study on people’s changing behaviour during lockdown.

Research Aim: The present study aims to explore the increasing trend of computer-based fitness programs in the UK and will focus on people’s changing behaviour during the lockdown.

• To explain the effectiveness of computer-based fitness programs and their health benefits.
• To examine how computer-based fitness programs are becoming an increasing trend and popular during the lockdown.
• To suggest strategies for advanced computer-based fitness programs that can help address the changing behaviour of people during the lockdown.

More Physical Education Dissertation Topics

Topic 1: modern physical education versus the traditional physical education – a comparison.

Research Aim: The main aim of this research will be to compare the traditional physical education programs and the ones in place today. The research will start by talking about the traditional physical education programs and then introduce the ones that are being practised today. It will then move towards comparing programs one by one. The research will use a secondary data collection method to analyse already published data and conclude which physical education is better.

Topic 2: Assessing the Impact of Physical Education on Mental Health

Research Aim: This research will aim to explore the impact of physical education on mental health. There is a lot of evidence that physical education has a positive impact on the mental health of individuals, and this research will aim to assess the impact of the same. Existing research will be analysed in order to do an in-depth study into the impact of physical education on mental health.

Topic 3: Analysing Student Behavior and Engagement in Physical Education Classes

Research Aim: Physical Education classes have been a part of the academic system for years now; however, the understanding and concept of this education are changing. More and more institutions are now emphasising these classes and promoting physical education among students. This research will explore student behaviour and engagement in physical education classes and will suggest effective ways to enhance and increase engagement.

Topic 4: Planning Physical Education Programs to Produce Effective Results

Research Aim: The main aim of this research will be to understand how physical education programs should be planned in order to produce results that are effective for students. The study will assess currently planned programs in order to evaluate how these should be changed for the better and how they can help produce effective results.

Topic 5: Role of Teachers in Enhancing Students’ Engagement in Physical Education Lessons

Research Aim : Teachers always play an important role in academics. This research will explore how important teachers are in physical education in enhancing students’ engagement towards exercise. Given the benefits of physical education, it is essential for teachers to make sure that the right strategies are devised to drive students’ engagement, and the same will be assessed and analysed in this research. The study will also provide effective strategies that teachers should implement in order to produce effective results from student engagement.

Topic 6: Should Physical Education Lessons Differ for Males and Females?

Research Aim: A lot is argued about the physical education curriculum and that lessons should differ for males and females. This research will deep dive into the different lessons that are offered, and based on the analysis, the research will conclude if lessons should differ for males and females. The study will be based on secondary data.

Topic 7: Do Physical Education Classes Promote the Importance of a Healthy Lifestyle?

Research Aim: It is believed that physical education classes promote a healthy lifestyle; however, there is no authentic evidence. This research will aim to prove whether physical education promotes a healthy lifestyle or not. In either case, the research will analyse the impact of physical education on individuals’ lifestyles and how it helps them improve their way of living.

Topic 8: Physical Education and Technology – How Well do the Two Integrate?

Research Aim: Just like other forms of education, physical education and technology integrate well together. With the help of technology, physical education is offered using various aids, for example, visual aids, online classes, examples videos available online and much more. This research will assess how well physical education is offered with the help of technology and how it helps individuals gain access to effective lessons.

Topic 9: Assessing the Effectiveness of Virtual Physical Education Classes

Research Aim: Online physical education classes have emerged popular in the past year. With the pandemic’s major reason, virtual classes have opened a new avenue for physical education classes. This research will aim to assess how effective virtual physical education classes have been and how they have helped in enhancing students’ engagement and interest in these classes.

Topic 10: Accountability in Physical Education Lessons – How do Students Respond?

Research Aim: Just like all other classes hold students responsible and accountable for their learning, physical education should also follow the same pattern. While a lot of people argue against this, this research will weigh both sides. It will discuss and assess the pros and cons of holding students accountable for their physical education and will also talk about how students respond to accountability in these classes.

How Can ResearchProspect Help?

ResearchProspect writers can send several custom topic ideas to your email address. Once you have chosen a topic that suits your needs and interests, you can order for our dissertation outline service which will include a brief introduction to the topic, research questions , literature review , methodology , expected results and conclusion . The dissertation outline will enable you to review the quality of our work before placing the order for our full dissertation writing service !

Topic 11: Devising Strategies for Different Levels of Physical Education

Research Aim: This research will discuss the various strategies that are needed for devising physical education lessons for different classes. The study will talk about how different grades require a different level of physical education and will then present useful strategies that teachers can devise according to the grade and students’ age.

Topic 12: Should Universities Include Physical Education Lessons in their Curriculum?

Research Aim: Usually, physical education is not a part of universities’ curriculum. It is found in schools’ curricula or colleges, at best. This research will argue whether physical education should be introduced in all universities or not. It will present arguments for both sides, and based on the debate, the study will conclude as to whether introducing physical education in all universities’ curriculum is feasible or not.

Topic 13: Assessing Different Physical Education Teaching Styles and their Impact on Students

Research Aim: Just like the regular subject teachers, physical education teachers also have their own style, and each teacher is different from the other. This research will talk about the set of characteristics and traits that a physical education teacher should possess in order to produce results. The study will also assess the impact of different teaching styles on students to give an in-depth idea as to which style is effective and should be adopted.

Topic 14: Exploring the Challenges in Physical Education Lessons

Research Aim: Physical education comes with its own set of challenges. Not all students are interested in taking these classes; some of them are irregular, some do not respond well, and others do not take instructions seriously. On the flip side, there are challenges related to the instructors as well. This research will discuss challenges on both sides of the coin and will suggest how these challenges can be handled effectively.

Topic 15: Understanding the association between Counseling and Physical Education Lessons

Research Aim: Physical education is often linked to mental health. A lot of people argue that physical education is essential for people seeking help for their mental health. Thus, this research will go a step ahead and will aim to understand the relationship between counselling and physical education. It will aim to conduct interviews with people who are attending counselling sessions as well as physical education lessons to improve their mental health.

Topic 16: Diet, Physical Education, and Health – How are the three interlinked?

Research Aim: A common misconception is that physical education is all about exercise and sports. This research will aim to bust this myth and show how diet and overall health (mental and physical) are linked to physical education. The study will discuss how the three go hand-in-hand and how one leads to another.

Topic 17: Does Physical Education Enhance Students’ Academic Career?

Research Aim: While physical education does improve an individual’s well-being, does it enhance a student’s academic career as well? This research will aim to understand the same. This thesis will explore how physical education can or cannot help a student achieve his/her academic goals.

Topic 18: Impact of Physical Education on Personality Development – An Analysis

Research Aim: Physical education builds character and develops an individual’s personality, as well. This research will analyse the same and understand how physical education helps in personality development and why educational institutions emphasise and include physical education in their curriculum. The study will assess students who are a part of physical education lessons versus students who are only involved in academics and will then compare the results.

Topic 19: Studying the Impact of Introducing Physical Education in Students’ Early Years

Research Aim: Physical education should be introduced early in a student’s academic life. This is argued by a lot of physical education proponents. This research will study this claim and find out how effective it is for students to be introduced to physical education early in their academic life.

Topic 20: Comparing the Benefits and Challenges of Physical Education

Research Aim: Not many people favour physical education as a subject in schools and colleges. This research will aim to compare the benefits and challenges of physical education lessons by discussing the pros and cons. It will then conclude whether physical education is beneficial for students or not.

Topic 21: The Role of Gender in Employing Physical Education

Research Aim: This research investigates the influence of gender on employment patterns, opportunities, and challenges within the field of physical education. The study focuses on understanding disparities and potential strategies for achieving greater gender equity in employment.

Topic 22: The Impact of Physical Education in Reducing Obesity in Students

Research Aim: This study examines the effectiveness of physical education programs in reducing obesity among students. The research also explores the various components of these programs, such as curriculum design, duration, intensity, and extracurricular support. It aims to identify the key factors that contribute to successful obesity reduction outcomes and to provide evidence-based recommendations for optimising physical education interventions to combat obesity effectively in school-aged children.

Topic 23: Exploring the Impact of Visual Aids in PE Teaching

Research Aim: This study investigates the impact of incorporating visual aids in physical education (PE) teaching practices. It seeks to explore how visual aids, like videos influence student engagement and the overall effectiveness of PE instruction. Additionally, the research aims to identify best practices for integrating visual aids into PE curriculum and pedagogy. It offers insights to enhance teaching methods and improve the learning experience for students in physical education settings.

Topic 24: Investigating the Impact of Virtual Physical Education Classes

Research Aim: This research investigates the impact of virtual physical education (PE) classes on student engagement and physical activity levels. It seeks to explore how virtual PE instruction affects achieving learning outcomes comparable to traditional in-person classes. The study further examines virtual PE’s potential benefits and challenges, including accessibility, technology integration, and instructor-student interactions. 

Topic 25: An Analysis of the Physical and Mental Health of Students After PE

Research Aim: This study aims to conduct an analysis of the physical and mental health outcomes of students following participation in physical education (PE) classes. It explores the immediate and long-term effects of PE on physical fitness, cardiovascular health, mental well-being, and academic performance. Additionally, it explores factors influencing these outcomes, such as the intensity and duration of PE sessions and instructor effectiveness. 

Topic 26: Exploring the Need for Physical Education at the College Level to Improve the Mental Health of Students

Research Aim: This research explores the importance of physical education (PE) programs at the college level in enhancing the mental health of students. It investigates the benefits of incorporating physical activity into college curricula, including its impact on stress reduction, mood regulation, and overall psychological well-being. The research also identifies barriers and facilitators to implementing PE initiatives in higher education settings and assesses student attitudes and perceptions towards such programs. 

Topic 27: Investigating How Physical Activity Can Improve the Immune System in Adults

Research Aim: This study investigates the relationship between physical activity and immune system function in adults. It explores the impact of regular exercise on various aspects of immune function, including immune cell activity and susceptibility to infectious diseases. Additionally, the research examines mechanisms underlying the immunomodulatory effects of physical activity, such as changes in inflammation levels and metabolic health.

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New Research Examines Physical Education in America

By Morgan Clennin, PhD, MPH, Kaiser Permanente of Colorado, University of South Carolina, and National Physical Activity Plan

School-based physical education (PE) is recommended by the Community Guide as an effective strategy to promote physical activity among youth. Unfortunately, many have speculated that PE exposure has declined precipitously among U.S. students in the past decade. Limited resources and budgets, prioritization of core academic subjects, and several other barriers have been cited as potential drivers of these claims. However, few large-scale studies have explored the merit of these claims – leaving the answers following questions unknown:

Has PE attendance decreased among U.S. students in the past decades?

What policies and practices are in place to support quality PE?

To answer these questions, the President’s Council on Sports, Fitness & Nutrition tasked the National Physical Activity Plan Alliance (NPAPA) to review the available evidence and summarize their findings. The primary objective of this effort was to better understand PE exposure over time to inform national recommendations and strategies for PE.

The NPAPA began by establishing a collaborative partnership with experts in the federal government, industry, and academia. The group analyzed existing national data sources that could be used to examine changes in PE attendance and current implementation of PE policies and practices. These efforts culminated in a final report and two peer-reviewed manuscripts. A summary of the group’s findings are outlined below.

Key Findings:

• 1/2 of U.S. high school students did not attend PE classes—which is consistent over the 24-year period studied (1991-2015).
• The percentage of U.S. high school students reporting PE attendance did not change significantly between 1991 and 2015 for the overall sample or across sex and race/ethnicity subgroup.
• Daily PE attendance did decrease 16% from 1991 to 1995 then attendance rates remained stable through 2015.
• > 65% of schools implemented 2-4 of the 7 essential PE policies
• Implementation of PE policies varied by region, metropolitan status, and school level.
• Data indicates minority students have been disproportionately affected by cuts to school PE programs during the past two decades.

Recommendations Based on Key Findings:

• Prioritize efforts to expand collection of surveillance data examining trends in PE attendance among elementary and middle school students.
• Develop policies to improve PE access for all students in order for PE to contribute to increased physical activity among youth.
• Adopt policies and programs that prioritize PE to maximize the benefits of PE.
• Utilize the findings of these efforts to target professional development and technical assistance for PE practitioners.

The Education sector of the NPAP provides evidence-based strategies and tactics that can guide efforts to support the provision of quality PE to all students. More information, and links to the respective manuscripts, can be found on the NPAPA website: http://physicalactivityplan.org/projects/physicaleducation.html

The Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (ODPHP) cannot attest to the accuracy of a non-federal website.

Linking to a non-federal website does not constitute an endorsement by ODPHP or any of its employees of the sponsors or the information and products presented on the website.

You will be subject to the destination website's privacy policy when you follow the link.

71 Physical Education Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best physical education topic ideas & essay examples, 🔎 interesting topics to write about physical education, 📑 good research topics about physical education.

• Keeping Physical Education in Schools Apart from participating in the physical education programs, the students need to be taught on the importance of the various exercises so that they inculcate the culture of physical fitness into their life-time fitness programs.
• Race and Gender in Physical Education and Sports These factors create the diversity of cultures and nations, and inclusiveness, giving access to the best talents and disclosing the individual’s potential, abilities, and strengths.
• The Nature and Values of Physical Education In the past, physical education was considered to consist of only physical and practical activities, however, the recent research has justified that physical education can be included in the curriculum on the basis of scientific […]
• Physical Education and Its Benefits Schools in particular know the benefits of physical education in a student’s life and should be able to fight for the children’s rights.
• Adaptive Physical Education The value of the brochure developed for the informational purpose is attributed to the need to communicate the importance of APE and point out the value that it could bring to children with special needs.
• The Usefulness of Physical Education in Modern Education Varied criticism adds to the debate on the usefulness of PE in modern education and the need to change current approaches. This indicates the need to focus the debate on the meaning of PE to […]
• Physical Education within Elementary Schools One of the benefits of the physical education is the level of physical fitness that it induces to the students. The manner in which these students are introduced to physical education and the way that […]
• Health Teaching and Physical Education Lesson Plan Students will be able to dribble a ball with a hand paying attention to such principles as dribbling on the side, waist-high, pushing the ball down, and eyes lookup.
• Physical Education Curriculum Physical education has significantly contributed towards the realization of the school philosophy as it helps in the development of the physical aspects of the students.
• Effects of Physical Education on Brain These neurons are usually created in a place called the hippocampus, which happens to be the section of the brain involved in learning and storage of memory.
• Physical Education: Effect of Phototherapy Therefore, it is evident that the intensity of an exercise directly influences one’s heart rate, breathing rate, skin coloration, sweating, and recovery.
• Bodies in Physical Education The purpose of this study is to investigate how students view the construction of their bodies in relation to physical education and how students’ meanings of their bodies affect their participation or resistance to physical […]
• Effectiveness of Physical Education Provisions in the UK School The vital need for health promotion, especially in terms of secondary education has been highlighted by the science of epidemiology the study of factors that influence the health and illnesses of people.
• British Development of Sport and Physical Education in the Last 25 Years Sport England wishes to increase participation in sports through community sports activities, sporting completions providing and training coaches and officiators, and closely working with the Youth Sport Trust and UK Sports formed in 1996 to […]
• Physical Education: Personal Physical Exercise Plan Given the necessity of taking fluids, it is good to identify and avail the same before starting a physical exercise session.
• Physical Educators Attitude to Special Needs Children Sue Combs, together with her colleagues from the University of North Carolina, investigated the attitudes of the physical education teachers towards the inclusion of children with special needs in their lessons.
• Should Public Schools Be Required to Restore Physical Education Classes to the Curriculum? The occurrence of obesity prevalence in children, in the U S, can be associated with the removal of physical education courses in public school curriculum.
• Elementary School Curriculum and Physical Education
• Should Physical Education Be a Required Class in College?
• Physical Education Class: The Perfect Place to Be Bullied
• Pros and Cons of Physical Education
• How Physical Education Should Be Taught
• Physical Education for Elementary School Students
• Weight-Related Barriers for Overweight Students in an Elementary Physical Education Classroom
• Physical Education Lesson Plan and Activity Ideas
• Motivation, Discipline, and Academic Performance in Physical Education
• Adaptive Physical Education for Students With Special Needs
• Physical Education Should Not Be Mandated
• How Technology Enhances the Physical Education Curriculum
• Physical Education: Standards, Cooperative Skills, and Learning Theories
• Physical Education’s Contribution to Public Health
• Physical Education Importance for Child Development
• Reasons to Keep Physical Education in the National Curriculum
• Ethical Relativism and Its Impact on Physical Education
• Inclusive School Physical Education and Physical Activity
• History and Benefits of Physical Education: Why I Want to Be a P.E. Teacher
• Physical Education Beyond the Middle School
• The Importance of Physical Education in Childhood Obesity
• Physical Activity Promotion and School Physical Education
• Implementing the TARGET Model in Physical Education: Effects on Perceived Psychobiosocial and Motivational States in Girls
• Teaching the Nuts and Bolts of Physical Education
• Health-Related Intensity Profiles for Physical Education Classes
• Anticipated Benefits From a Basic College Physical Education Activity Course
• Physical Education Should Be Graded on Effort, Not Ability
• Motivation and Intention to Be Physically Active in Physical Education Students
• Personal Development, Health, and Physical Education
• Why Physical Education Should Be Included in the School Curriculum
• Attitude and Teacher’s Qualification as Factors Affecting Students’ Participation in Physical Education Activities
• Burnout in Physical Education Teachers
• What Benefits Physical Activity Has on Academic Performance
• SPARK Physical Education Curriculum Program
• Changing the National Curriculum for Physical Education
• Physical Education: Official School Policy
• How Physical Education Helps to Develop Your Personality
• Early Childhood Development: Physical Education Program Effects
• Fun Physical Education Games for High School Students
• How Extracurricular Sports Should Satisfy State Physical Education Requirements
• One’s Readiness to Self-Development Through Physical Education
• Would More Physical Education Reduce Obesity in the Youths?
• Goal-Directed Physical Education for Learners With Disabilities
• Health and Physical Education: Volleyball
• Managing the Physical Education Classroom
• Strategies to Accommodate Autism Spectrum Disorder Students in General Physical Education
• Physical Education vs. School Sports: What’s the Difference?
• The Impact of School Budgetary Cuts on Physical Education
• Teaching Health and Physical Education in Australian Schools
• Positive Reinforcement Techniques in Physical Education
• Child Development Research Ideas
• Academic Performance Topics
• Football Topics
• Asthma Paper Topics
• Lifespan Development Essay Titles
• Obesity Ideas
• Soccer Research Topics
• Adolescence Questions
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A systematic review of the use and effect of virtual reality, augmented reality and mixed reality in physical education.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods.

• This study aims to ascertain whether AR, VR and MR technologies are being applied in the field of physical education.
• Has the quantity of research published in this field increased over the past two decades?
• What are the research objectives that have been analysed?
• Does the research present the fundamental elements of scientific enquiry?

Eligibility Criteria

4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Pérez-Muñoz, S.; Castaño Calle, R.; Morales Campo, P.T.; Rodríguez-Cayetano, A. A Systematic Review of the Use and Effect of Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality and Mixed Reality in Physical Education. Information 2024 , 15 , 582. https://doi.org/10.3390/info15090582

Pérez-Muñoz S, Castaño Calle R, Morales Campo PT, Rodríguez-Cayetano A. A Systematic Review of the Use and Effect of Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality and Mixed Reality in Physical Education. Information . 2024; 15(9):582. https://doi.org/10.3390/info15090582

Pérez-Muñoz, Salvador, Raimundo Castaño Calle, Paula Teresa Morales Campo, and Alberto Rodríguez-Cayetano. 2024. "A Systematic Review of the Use and Effect of Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality and Mixed Reality in Physical Education" Information 15, no. 9: 582. https://doi.org/10.3390/info15090582

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Proposal for an Enhanced Physical Education Program in the Primary School: Evaluation of Feasibility and Effectiveness in Improving Physical Skills and Fitness

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• University of Bologna

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Psychological hesitation and its relationship to digital achievement of the 100 m hurdles event

• Asst. Lec. Othman Mahjoub Khalaf Imam Al-Azam University College, Iraq

The research aimed to identify the reality of psychological hesitation for fourth-year female students in the College of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, and to identify psychological hesitation and its relationship to the digital achievement of the 100-meter hurdles running event for fourth-year female students in the College of Physical Education and Sports Sciences. The nature of the problem to be researched determines the nature of the method, and the researcher used the descriptive method using the (correlational relationship) method. The objectives set by the researcher for his research and the procedures he uses will determine the nature of the chosen sample. Therefore, the selection of the sample is always linked to its representation of the original community and the possibility of generalizing its results to the group from which it was taken. The community of origin represents the students of the fourth stage of the College of Physical Education and Sports Sciences at the University of Diyala, who number (281) male and female students. Research sample: The research population was chosen intentionally, as it numbered (58) female students, and (4) female students were excluded for not attending, so that the number of the experimental sample became (48) female students and the number of members of the exploratory sample was (5) female students. Through the results, the researcher concluded that psychological hesitation appeared clearly on all female students in the research sample, but in different proportions, and there is an effect on achievement in the 100m hurdles running event for women due to the presence of the trait of psychological hesitation among the members of the research sample, and there is an inverse correlation: the greater the psychological hesitation, the lower the digital achievement. This is what appeared in the research sample.

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