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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Theory of Mind

Introduction, general overviews.

• Classic Theories
• Measurement
• Autism Spectrum Disorder
• Individual Differences
• Executive Function
• Neural Bases
• Before and Beyond the Preschool Years
• Children’s Social Competence
• Practical Implications and Interventions

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• Advanced Theory of Mind
• Developmental Psychology (Social)
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• Psychological Perspectives on Metaphor

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Theory of Mind by Claire Hughes , Rory T. Devine LAST REVIEWED: 29 October 2013 LAST MODIFIED: 29 October 2013 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199828340-0121

Although research into children’s awareness of mental states (such as beliefs, desires, and intentions) dates back to Piaget’s early work on childhood egocentrism, a key catalyst in this field was Premack and Woodruff’s 1978 study of trained chimpanzees’ apparent ability to engage in deceptive behavior, which led to the coining of the term “theory of mind”. This work attracted the attention of philosophers of mind such as Dennett who argued that the hallmark of mental states (such as belief) is they are representational (i.e., fallible) in nature, such that demonstrating the ability to explain or predict the behavior of an agent with a false belief would be compelling evidence for crediting a child with a theory of mind—and hence the now-classic false-belief task was born. Since the late 1970s, children’s emerging understanding of mind has attracted the attention of researchers in many different disciplines, from comparative psychology to cognitive neuroscience and education. In the 1980s, researchers focused on explaining developmental milestones in the preschool years, positioning themselves within three different theoretical camps: nativists, who argued (largely from evidence of delayed false-belief understanding in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders [ASD—a highly heritable developmental disorder characterized by impairments in communication, socialization, and restricted repetitive behaviors]) that an innate and dedicated cognitive system came “online” as a result of biological maturation; theory-theorists, for whom children’s interactions with their social environments enabled them to become “little psychologists” (a view that explicitly echoes the Piagetian metaphor of children as “little scientists”); and simulation-theorists, who emphasized the importance of pretend play and children’s ability to imagine themselves in others’ shoes. The 1990s saw a theoretical rapprochement and the emergence of hybrid accounts, coupled with a recognition of striking individual differences in children’s understanding of mind and their association with variation in other cognitive domains (such as language ability or Executive Function ) and in diverse aspects of children’s social worlds (e.g., number of siblings, family talk about mental states). Since the 2000s, research has grown in several different directions, including: imaging studies of the neural bases for theory of mind; new paradigms for testing infants, older children, adolescents, and adults; and a burgeoning interest in cultural influences on children’s acquisition of a theory of mind. Remarkably, given the widespread assumption that theory of mind is fundamental to human social interaction, rather little is known about the mechanisms linking theory of mind to children’s everyday social competence. Indeed, research into the practical implications of theory of mind and possible interventions to promote theory-of-mind competence is still in its infancy, but likely to grow considerably in the early 21st century.

Useful introductory books to this field of research include: Baron-Cohen 1995 , which sets out the theory-of-mind account of Autism Spectrum Disorder; the edited Repacholi and Slaughter 2003 volume on individual differences in theory of mind; Carpendale and Lewis 2006 on the social origins of children’s understanding of mind; Apperly 2011 , which explores the cognitive basis of theory of mind; and Hughes 2011 , which presents findings from a detailed longitudinal study of children followed from toddlerhood to the transition to school.

Apperly, I. 2011. Mindreaders: The cognitive basis of “theory of mind.” Hove, UK: Psychology Press.

Apperly’s book provides both an integrative comprehensive overview of existing research on theory of mind in children, nonhuman primates, and adults and introduces a novel two-systems theory of theory of mind.

Baron-Cohen, S. 1995. Mindblindness: An essay on autism and theory of mind . Learning, Development, and Conceptual Change. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Baron-Cohen’s book gives a definitive exposition on the theory of mind account of Autism Spectrum Disorders. In doing so, he articulates a modular theory of theory of mind development.

Carpendale, J., and C. Lewis. 2006. How children develop social understanding . Understanding Children’s Worlds. Oxford: Blackwell.

In this book, the authors provide a thorough and critical review of research on theory of mind in childhood and propose a developmental theory focused on the social origins of theory of mind.

Hughes, C. 2011. Social understanding and social lives: From toddlerhood through to the transition to school . Essays in Developmental Psychology. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.

The author places individual differences in theory of mind center stage and relates them to both cognitive skills and social experiences.

Repacholi, B., and V. Slaughter, eds. 2003. Individual differences in theory of mind: Implications for typical and atypical development . Macquarie Monographs in Cognitive Science. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.

This edited volume was the first collection to specifically focus on normative individual differences in theory of mind and extend the focus of theory-of-mind research beyond the preschool years.

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• 185.66.14.133

An Introduction to Theory of Mind: Fundamental Concepts and Issues

• First Online: 01 January 2024

Cite this chapter

• Miriam Rivero-Contreras 31 ,
• David Saldaña 32 &
• Martina Micai 33  

Part of the book series: Logic, Argumentation & Reasoning ((LARI,volume 34))

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Theory of Mind (ToM) is a construct that reflects people’s ability to understand the mental states of others. In our daily lives, we continuously infer what others are thinking, understanding, feeling, and interpreting, especially with respect to us and other persons. The present chapter is focused on different definitions and concepts of ToM, its development in children and adolescents, and factors related to individual differences. We also analyse how ToM has been assessed in different studies and the methodological issues surrounding its measurement.

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Rivero-Contreras, M., Saldaña, D., Micai, M. (2023). An Introduction to Theory of Mind: Fundamental Concepts and Issues. In: Lopez-Soto, T., Garcia-Lopez, A., Salguero-Lamillar, F.J. (eds) The Theory of Mind Under Scrutiny. Logic, Argumentation & Reasoning, vol 34. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-46742-4_2

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The Eight Most Influential Theory of Mind Papers of All Time

These are the best theories on how we think about others..

Posted March 11, 2019

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Theory of Mind is the term psychologists use to describe the way we think about other people. Theory of Mind is the basis of social behavior: To interact with other people, we have to have some idea of how they work. It is a phenomenon that goes by many names, one of the most telling of which is Intuitive Psychology. When we think about other people’s thoughts, we are essentially doing an informal version of what psychologists do professionally. We are observing their behavior and forming our own explanation—our own theory —about why they behaved like that. What must have been going through their mind to cause them to act in such a way? It is one of the fundamental concepts of social psychology.

The history of Theory of Mind as an idea goes back several centuries, long before psychology became a scientific discipline. However, most of the interest in it has been concentrated in the last 40 or 50 years. Along the way, psychologists have come up with a lot of ideas about the way we think about other minds. They’ve found Theory of Mind present in strange places, and absent in places we’d otherwise expect to find it. Not all of our questions are answered, but there is a lot we do know. And the better part of that knowledge is captured in a handful of papers that altered the way psychologists talk about social behavior and the way we interact with others. These are among the most influential Theory of Mind papers of all time:

8. Does the Chimpanzee have a Theory of Mind?

By Premack & Woodruff (1978)

This is the paper that coined the term Theory of Mind, and it’s not even about humans. The central insight of this paper is something along the lines of Premack and Woodruff musing, Huh, chimpanzees act as if they understand the thoughts of other chimpanzees. Isn’t that peculiar? This was one of those moments in the history of science where we understood something by looking outside the sphere where we normally encounter it. Some things are so ubiquitous, so inescapably everywhere that we don’t notice that they’re there until they aren’t. No one notices the background music in a restaurant or café until it stops playing. The same sort of thing was true of Theory of Mind. It’s so obvious that humans think about the minds of other humans that no one thought it needed much explanation—until we looked at another species, and saw how patently non-obvious a thing Theory of Mind is. It’s necessary for social life , just as wheels are necessary for Soulcycle. The origins go back so far, it might not even occur to us.

7. The Child's Theory of Mind

By Wellman (1990)

The next place that psychologists looked for Theory of Mind was in children. At some point, typically developing children will gain some sort of understanding of other people’s perspectives. The child eventually understands that just because she saw mommy pour a glass of wine before dinner doesn’t mean that daddy saw her do it too. But when the child is an infant, when she’s a newborn, she doesn’t have this understanding. She thinks that the content of her own mind resembles the contents of everyone else’s, as if she were the Matrix and the rest of humanity was hooked up to her consciousness. This essay (it’s a book, really) was the first in-depth theory of the moment that switch flips and the lights began to illuminate the perspectives of others.

6. Empathy: Its Ultimate and Proximate Bases

By Preston & de Waal (2002)

One of the many mental activities under the broad umbrella of Theory of Mind is empathy . Typically, we think of empathy as the ability to understand other people emotionally (and perhaps take on their emotions for ourselves), whereas Theory of Mind, in its stricter meaning, is about understanding their thoughts. How empathy works and whether it’s even a separate thing from Theory of Mind is still a matter of contention for psychologists. This particular article sought to answer a particular question about empathy: Why do we have it? What exactly is it about fellow-feeling with those around us that benefits us? Their answer, which they explicate in 70+ pages of nuance, is that empathy encourages pro-social group behavior . In short, we are more likely to want to play nicely with others if their feeling good makes us feel good in return.

5. Mindblindness: An Essay on Autism and Theory of Mind

By Baron-Cohen (1995)

The paper presents a theory about children who are on the Autism spectrum: They have a different set of mechanisms for understanding other minds than the typically developing child has (as described in Wellman’s paper above). This, for instance, explains why one of the earliest diagnoses of Autism is lack of eye contact. The child’s earliest interest in eye contact is born of their attempts to figure out what other people are thinking. After all, the eyes are the windows to the soul. But if you don’t have the same understanding of how minds work, then you’re not going to show the same pattern of behavior as other people. Of course, Autism is a hugely complicated subject, not lending itself to simple explanations or fixes, but this has provided a unifying theoretical ground for much psychological research into Autism over the past few decades. (It’s also worth noting that this paper’s author, Simon Baron-Cohen, is the cousin of Sacha Baron Cohen, who is something of an influential figure in his own field, with starring roles in Borat and the Ali G Show, among others.)

4. The Cultural Origins of Human Cognition

By Tomasello (1999)

The argument that Tomasello lays down in this essay is that Theory of Mind is not only important but is the foundation for all of human civilization. More specifically, an ability to understand others is the single genetically inspired difference that separates us from the animals; the rest of the differences we learned via culture. Chimps may have a Theory of Mind, but it isn’t as good as ours. Tomasello’s monograph (about 100 pages long) had me flipping through every page and remarking Ooh, Aah! at just about every profound claim he made or incisive observation he put forth. I can’t remark on all of them here, but the basic idea is that when we understand the minds of others, we learn from their experience and not just our own. This allows us, as the saying goes, to stand on the shoulders of giants and learn from the many generations of humans who came before us.

3. An Experimental Study of Apparent Behavior

By Heider & Simmel (1944)

This paper is best understood by watching the video . In it, Heider & Simmel tell a story about a bully , a victim, and a hero. The catch is that they do it only using stop-motion animation of cut-out shapes (this was in 1944; think aerial pictures of an overhead projector), and with no dialogue. The audience infers all of the social information from the movement of the shapes, and we imbue the shapes with emotions, desires, wants, fears, and personalities. This was a revolutionary discovery in the way humans perceived others.

2. The Theory of Moral Sentiments

By Adam Smith (1759)

Adam Smith is best known for his famous treatise, The Wealth of Nations . He is considered the father of free-market economics, which notoriously conceives of people as selfish and rational money-grubbers. What’s often forgotten is that 10 years before The Wealth of Nations , Smith produced a work that considered the exact opposite part of human nature: We often do things just for the sake of making others feel good , with no discernible benefit to ourselves. In other words, empathy. Smith’s is considered the first modern account of such a phenomenon. The ongoing debates in psychology are much the same ones Smith considered in Moral Sentiments . One of my favorite of Smith’s insights is that empathy isn’t so much based on our ability to understand someone else’s emotions—to observe that they’re angry—as it is on our ability to understand the situation that inspired those emotions ( why they’re angry). To put a bow on it, this is where the whole Theory of Mind thing began.

1. The Intentional Stance

By Dennett (1987)

If you want a solid understanding of Theory of Mind, the best use of your time , pound for pound, is to read this paper. All the Theory of Mind papers that follow it are simply variations on the themes put forth in Dennett’s Intentional Stance . In it, Dennett sets the basic terms for how Theory of Mind works: We assume that other people have desires and beliefs. Desires are what they want, beliefs are what they know. And people use what they know to get what they want. There is a whole calculus behind how these beliefs and desires work together, and to perform those calculations is, in Dennett’s words, to assume the intentional stance. I always imagine someone in the intentional stance standing arms akimbo with a pensive, scrunched-up look facial expression, staring into the middle distance at some strange act of human behavior.

But that’s just me. To form your own image take a read through Dennett’s paper.

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Theories of the autistic mind

Simon Baron-Cohen, winner of the Society’s President’s Award, outlines a career at the forefront of thinking over autism and Asperger’s syndrome.

15 February 2008

Classic autism and Asperger's syndrome both share three core diagnostic features: difficulties in social development, and in the development of communication, alongside unusually strong, narrow interests and repetitive behaviour. Since communication is always social, it might be more fruitful to think of autism and Asperger's syndrome as sharing features in two broad areas: social-communication, and narrow interests/repetitive actions. As for distinguishing features, a diagnosis of Asperger's syndrome requires that the child spoke on time and has average IQ or above.

Today the notion of an autistic spectrum is no longer defined by any sharp separation from 'normality' (Wing, 1997). The clearest way of seeing this 'normal' distribution of autistic traits is using the Autism Spectrum Quotient (or AQ) (Baron-Cohen et al., 2006; Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner et al., 2001). This is a screening instrument in the form of a questionnaire, either completed by a parent about their child, or by self-report (if the adult is 'high-functioning'). There are 50 items in total, and when administered to a large population the results resemble a 'normal distribution'. Most people without a diagnosis fall in the range 0–25; most with a diagnosis of an autism spectrum condition fall between 26 and 50. Of those with an autistic spectrum condition, 80 per cent score above 32, and 99 per cent above 26. So the AQ neatly separates the groups – 93 per cent of the general population fall in the average range of the AQ, and 99 per cent of the autistic population fall in the extreme (high-end) of the scale.

In the general population, males score slightly (but statistically significantly) higher than females. Since autism spectrum conditions are far more common in males than in females (classic autism occurs in four males for every one female, and Asperger's syndrome occurs in nine males for every one female), this may suggest that the number of autistic traits a person has is connected to a sex-linked biological factor – genetic or hormonal, or both (Baron-Cohen et al., 2005; Baron-Cohen et al., 2004). These two aspects – the autistic spectrum and the possibility of sex-linked explanations – have been at the core of my research and theorising over recent years.

The mindblindness theory

In my early work I explored the theory that children with autism spectrum conditions are delayed in developing a theory of mind (ToM): the ability to put oneself into someone else's shoes, to imagine their thoughts and feelings (Baron-Cohen, 1995; Baron-Cohen et al., 1985). When we mindread or mentalise, we not only make sense of another person's behaviour (why did their head swivel on their neck? Why did their eyes move left?), but we also imagine a whole set of mental states (they have seen something of interest, they know something or want something) and we can predict what they might do next.

The mindblindness theory proposes that children with autism and Asperger's syndrome are delayed in the development of their ToM, leaving them with degrees of mindblindness. As a consequence, they find other people's behaviour confusing and unpredictable, even frightening. Evidence for this comes from difficulties they show at each point in the development of the capacity to mindread:

• A typical 14-month-old shows joint attention (such as pointing or following another person's gaze), during which they not only look at another person's face and eyes, but pay attention to what the other person is interested in (Scaife & Bruner, 1975). Children with autism and Asperger's syndrome show reduced frequency of joint attention, in toddlerhood (Swettenham et al., 1998).
• The typical 24-month-old engages in pretend play, using their mindreading skills to be able to understand that in the other person's mind, they are just pretending (Leslie, 1987). Children with autism and Asperger's syndrome show less pretend play, or their pretence is limited to more rule-based formats (Baron-Cohen, 1987).
• The typical three-year-old child can pass the seeing leads to knowing test: understanding that merely touching a box is not enough to know what is inside (Pratt & Bryant, 1990). Children with autism and Asperger's syndrome are delayed in this (Baron-Cohen & Goodhart, 1994).
• The typical four-year-old child passes the 'false belief' test, recognising when someone else has a mistaken belief about the world (Wimmer & Perner, 1983). Most children with autism and Asperger's syndrome are delayed in passing this test (Baron-Cohen et al., 1985).
• Deception is easily understood by the typical four-year-old child (Sodian & Frith, 1992). Children with autism and Asperger's syndrome tend to assume everyone is telling the truth, and may be shocked by the idea that other people may not say what they mean (Baron-Cohen, 1992; Baron-Cohen, 2007a).
• The typical nine-year-old can figure out what might hurt another's feelings and what might therefore be better left unspoken – faux pas. Children with Asperger's syndrome are delayed by around three years in this skill, despite their normal IQ (Baron-Cohen, O'Riordan et al., 1999).
• The typical nine-year-old can interpret another person's expressions from their eyes, to figure out what they might be thinking or feeling. Children with Asperger's syndrome tend to find such tests far more difficult (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Scahill et al., 2001), and the same is true when the adult version of the test is used. Adults with autism and Asperger's syndrome score below average on this test of advanced mindreading (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Hill et al., 2001).

A strength of the mindblindness theory is that it can make sense of the social and communication difficulties in autism and Asperger's syndrome, and that it is universal in applying to all individuals on the autistic spectrum. Its shortcoming is that it cannot account for the non-social features. A second shortcoming of this theory is that whilst mindreading is one component of empathy, true empathy also requires an emotional response to another person's state of mind (Davis, 1994). Many people on the autistic spectrum also report that they are puzzled by how to respond to another person's emotions (Grandin, 1996). A final limitation of the mindblindness theory is that a range of clinical conditions show forms of mindblindness, such as patients with schizophrenia (Corcoran & Frith, 1997) or narcissistic and borderline personality disorders (Fonagy, 1989), or children with conduct disorder (Dodge, 1993), so this may not be specific to autism and Asperger's syndrome.

Two key ways to revise this theory have been to explain the non-social areas of strength by reference to a second factor, and to broaden the concept of ToM to include an emotional reactivity dimension. Both of these revisions were behind the development of the next theory.

The empathising-systemising (E-S) theory

This newer theory explains the social and communication difficulties in autism and Asperger's syndrome by reference to delays and deficits in empathy, whilst explaining the areas of strength by reference to intact or even superior skill in systemising (Baron-Cohen, 2002).

ToM is just the cognitive component of empathy. The second component of empathy is the response element: having an appropriate emotional reaction to another person's thoughts and feelings. This is referred to affective empathy (Davis, 1994). On the Empathy Quotient (EQ), a questionnaire either filled out by an adult about themselves, or by a parent about their child, both cognitive empathy and affective empathy are assessed. On this scale, people with autism spectrum conditions score lower than comparison groups.

According to the empathising-systemising (E-S) theory, autism and Asperger's syndrome are best explained not just with reference to empathy (below average) but also with reference to a second psychological factor (systemising), which is either average or even above average. So it is the discrepancy between E and S that determines whether you are likely to develop an autism spectrum condition.

To understand this theory we need to turn to this second factor, the concept of systemising – the drive to analyse or construct any kind of system. What defines a system is that it follows rules, and when we systemise we are trying to identify the rules that govern the system, in order to predict how that system will behave (Baron-Cohen, 2006). These are some of the major kinds of system:

• collectible systems (e.g. distinguishing between types of stones or wood),
• mechanical systems (e.g. a video-recorder or a window lock),
• numerical systems (e.g. a train timetable or a calendar),
• abstract systems (e.g. the syntax of a language, or musical notation),
• natural systems (e.g. the weather patterns, or tidal patterns),
• social systems (e.g. a management hierarchy, or a dance routine with a dance partner)
• motoric systems (e.g. throwing a Frisbee).

In all these cases, you systemise by noting regularities (or structure) and rules. The rules tend to be derived by noting whether A and B are associated in a systematic way. The evidence for intact or even unusually strong systemising in autism and Asperger's syndrome is that, in one study, such children performed above the level that one would expect on a physics test (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright et al., 2001). Children with Asperger's syndrome as young as 8–11 years old scored higher than a comparison group who were older (typical teenagers).

A second piece of evidence comes from studies using the Systemising Quotient (SQ). The higher your score, the stronger your drive to systemise. People with high-functioning autism or Asperger's syndrome score higher on the SQ compared to people in the general population (Baron-Cohen et al., 2003). The above tests of systemising were designed for children or adults with Asperger's syndrome, not classic autism. However, children with classic autism perform better than controls on the Picture Sequencing Test where the stories can be sequenced using physical-causal concepts (Baron-Cohen et al., 1986). They also score above average on a test of how to figure out how a Polaroid camera works (Leslie & Thaiss, 1992), even though they have difficulties figuring out people's thoughts and feelings (Baron-Cohen et al., 1985; Perner et al., 1989). Both of these are signs of their intact or even strong systemising.

The strength of the E-S theory is that it is a two-factor theory that can explain the cluster of both the social and non-social features in autism spectrum conditions. Below-average empathy is a simple way to explain the social-communication difficulties, whilst average or even above-average systemising is a way of explaining the narrow interests, repetitive behaviour, and resistance to change/need for sameness. This is because when you systemise, it is easiest to keep everything constant, and only vary one thing at a time. That way, you can see what might be causing what, rendering the world predictable.

When this theory first came out, one criticism of it was that it might only apply to the high-functioning individuals with autism or Asperger's syndrome. Whilst their obsessions (with computers or maths, for example) could be seen in terms of strong systemising (Baron-Cohen et al., 1999), surely this didn't apply to the low-functioning individuals? However, when we think of a child with autism, many of the classic behaviours can be seen as a reflection of their strong systemising (see box opposite).

Like the weak central coherence (WCC) theory (Frith, 1989), the E-S theory is about a different cognitive style (Happé, 1996). Like that theory, it also posits excellent attention to detail (in perception and memory), since when you systemise you have to pay attention to the tiny details. This is because each tiny detail in a system might have a functional role. Excellent attention to detail in autism has been repeatedly demonstrated (Jolliffe & Baron-Cohen, 2001; O'Riordan et al., 2001; Shah & Frith, 1983, 1993). The difference between these two theories is that whilst the WCC theory sees people with autism spectrum conditions as drawn to detailed information (sometimes called local processing) for negative reasons (an alleged inability to integrate), the E-S theory sees this same quality (excellent attention to detail) as being highly purposeful: it exists in order to understand a system. Attention to detail is occurring for positive reasons: in the service of achieving an ultimate understanding of a system (however small and specific that system might be).

Whereas the WCC theory predicts that people with autism or Asperger's syndrome will be forever lost in the detail, never achieving an understanding of the system as a whole (since this would require a global overview), the E-S theory predicts that over time, the person may achieve an excellent understanding of a whole system, given the opportunity to observe and control all the variables in that system. The existence of talented mathematicians with Asperger's syndrome, like Richard Borcherds, is proof that such individuals can integrate the details into a true understanding of the system (Baron-Cohen, 2003). It is worth noting that the executive dysfunction (ED) theory (e.g. Ozonoff et al., 1991) has even more difficulty in explaining instances of good understanding of a whole system, such as calendrical calculation, or indeed of why the so-called 'obsessions' in autism and Asperger's syndrome should centre on systems at all.

So, when the low-functioning person with classic autism has shaken a piece of string thousands of times close to his eyes, whilst the ED theory sees this as perseveration arising from some neural dysfunction which would normally enable the individual to shift attention, the E-S theory sees the same behaviour as a sign that the individual understands the physics of that string movement. He may be able to make it move in exactly the same way every time. When he makes a long, rapid sequence of sounds, he may know exactly that acoustic pattern, and get some pleasure from the confirmation that the sequence is the same every time. Much as a mathematician might feel an ultimate sense of pleasure at the 'golden ratio', so the child – even with low-functioning autism – who produces the same outcome every time with their repetitive behaviour, appears to derive some emotional pleasure at the predictability of the world. This may be what is clinically described as 'stimming' (Wing, 1997). Autism was originally described as involving 'resistance to change' and 'need for sameness' (Kanner, 1943), and here we see that important clinical observation may be the hallmark of strong systemising.

One final advantage of the E-S theory is that it can explain what is sometimes seen as an inability to 'generalise' in autism spectrum conditions (Plaisted et al., 1998; Rimland, 1964; Wing, 1997). According to the E-S theory, this is exactly what you would expect if the person is trying to understand each system as a unique system. A good systemiser is a splitter, not a lumper, since lumping things together can lead to missing key differences that enable you to predict how these two things behave differently.

The extreme male brain theory

The E-S theory has been extended into the extreme male brain (EMB) theory of autism (Baron-Cohen, 2002). This is because there are clear sex differences in empathising (females performing better on many such tests) and in systemising (males performing better on tests of this). Autism and Asperger's syndrome can be seen as an extreme of the typical male profile, a view first put forward by the paediatrician Hans Asperger. To see how this theory is effectively just an extension of the E-S theory, one needs to understand that that theory posits two independent dimensions (E for empathy and S for systemising) in which individual differences are observed in the population. When you plot these, five different 'brain types' are seen:

• Type E (E > S): individuals whose empathy is stronger than their systemising.
• Type S (S > E): individuals whose systemising is stronger than their empathy.
• Type B (S = E): individuals whose empathy is as good (or as bad) as their systemising. (B stands for 'balanced').
• Extreme Type E (E >> S): individuals whose empathy is above average, but who are challenged when it comes to systemising.
• Extreme Type S (S >> E): individuals whose systemising is above average, but who are challenged when it comes to empathy.

The E-S model predicts that more females have a brain of Type E, and more males have a brain of Type S. People with autism spectrum conditions, if they are an extreme of the male brain, are predicted to be more likely to have a brain of Extreme Type S. If one gives people in the general population measures of empathy and systemising (the EQ and SQ), the results fit this model reasonably well. The majority of males (54 per cent) do have a brain of Type S, whereas the largest group of females (44 per cent) have a brain of Type E, and the majority of people with autism and Asperger's syndrome (65 per cent) have an extreme of the male brain (Goldenfeld et al., 2005). Apart from the evidence from the SQ and EQ, there is other evidence that supports the EMB theory. Regarding tests of empathy, on the faux pas test, where a child has to recognise when someone has said something that could be hurtful, girls typically develop faster than boys, and children with autism spectrum conditions develop even slower than typical boys (Baron-Cohen et al., 1999). On the 'Reading the Mind in the Eyes' Test, on average women score higher than men, and people with autism spectrum conditions score even lower than typical males (Baron-Cohen et al., 1997). Regarding tests of attention to detail, on the Embedded Figures Test, where one has to find a target shape as quickly as possible, on average males are faster than females, and people with autism are even faster than typical males (Jolliffe & Baron-Cohen, 1997).

Recently, the extreme male brain theory has been extended to the level of neurology, with some interesting findings emerging (Baron-Cohen et al., 2005). Thus, in regions of the brain that on average are smaller in males than in females (e.g. the anterior cingulate, superior temporal gyrus, prefrontal cortex and thalamus), people with autism have even smaller brain regions than typical males. In contrast, in regions of the brain that on average are bigger in males than in females (e.g. the amygdala and cerebellum), people with autism have even bigger brain regions than typical males. Also, the male brain on average is larger than in females, and people with autism have been found to have even larger brains than typical males. Not all studies support this pattern but some do, and it will be important to study such patterns further.

In summary, the EMB theory is new and may be important for understanding why more males develop autism and Asperger's syndrome than do females. It remains in need of further examination. It extends the E-S theory, which has the power to explain not just the social-communication deficits in autism spectrum conditions, but also the uneven cognitive profile, repetitive behaviour, islets of ability, savant skills, and unusual narrow interests that are part of the atypical neurology of this subgroup in the population. The E-S theory has implications for intervention, as is being tried by 'systemising empathy', presenting emotions in an autism-friendly format (Baron-Cohen, 2007b; Golan et al., 2006). Finally, the E-S theory destigmatises autism and Asperger's syndrome, relating these to individual differences we see in the population (between the sexes, and within the sexes), rather than as categorically distinct or mysterious.

Examples of systemising in classic autism and/or Asperger's syndrome (italics).

Sensory systemising Tapping surfaces, or letting sand run through one's fingers Insisting on the same foods each day

Motoric systemising Spinning round and round, or rocking back and forth Learning knitting patterns or a tennis technique

Collectible systemising Collecting leaves or football stickers Making lists and catalogues

Numerical systemising Obsessions with calendars or train timetables Solving maths problems

Motion systemising Watching washing machines spin round and round Analysing exactly when a specific event occurs in a repeating cycle

Spatial systemising Obsessions with routes Developing drawing techniques

Environmental systemising Insisting on toy bricks being lined up in an invariant order Insisting that nothing is moved from its usual position

Social systemising Saying the first half of a phrase or sentence and waiting for the other person to complete it Insisting on playing the same game whenever a child comes to play

Natural systemising Asking over and over again what the weather will be today Learning the Latin names of every plant and their optimal growing conditions

Mechanical systemising Learning to operate the VCR Fixing bicycles or taking apart gadgets and reassembling them

Vocal/auditory/verbal systemising Echoing sounds Collecting words and word meanings

Systemising action sequences Watching the same video over and over again Analysing dance techniques

Musical systemising Playing the same tune over and over again Analysing the musical structure of a song?

Simon-Baron Cohen is Professor of Developmental Psychopathology at the Autism Research Centre, Cambridge University. [email protected]

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Theory of Mind in Social Cognition: A Comprehensive Guide

Minds collide in a silent symphony as we navigate the invisible dance of human interaction, guided by an elusive cognitive skill that shapes our social world. This remarkable ability, known as Theory of Mind (ToM), is the cornerstone of our social cognition, allowing us to understand and predict the thoughts, beliefs, and intentions of others. As we delve into the intricate world of Theory of Mind, we’ll explore its significance in human interaction and examine the key books that have shaped our understanding of this fascinating cognitive process.

Theory of Mind refers to our capacity to attribute mental states to ourselves and others, recognizing that people have beliefs, desires, and intentions that may differ from our own. This cognitive skill is fundamental to our ability to navigate social situations, empathize with others, and engage in complex social interactions. Theory of Mind vs. Empathy: Understanding the Key Differences and Their Impact on Social Cognition highlights the distinct yet interconnected nature of these two crucial social-cognitive abilities.

The importance of Theory of Mind in human interaction cannot be overstated. It enables us to understand and predict the behavior of others, facilitates effective communication, and forms the basis for social relationships. Without a well-developed Theory of Mind, individuals may struggle to interpret social cues, understand sarcasm or humor, or engage in cooperative behavior.

Over the years, numerous books have been written on the subject of Theory of Mind, each contributing to our understanding of this complex cognitive skill. These works span various disciplines, including psychology, philosophy, and neuroscience, offering diverse perspectives on the development, function, and implications of Theory of Mind. In this comprehensive guide, we’ll explore some of the most influential Theory of Mind books and their impact on our understanding of social cognition.

Foundational Theory of Mind Books

To truly appreciate the depth and breadth of Theory of Mind research, it’s essential to start with the foundational works that have shaped the field. These seminal books have laid the groundwork for our understanding of Theory of Mind and continue to influence research and practice today.

One of the most influential works in this area is Simon Baron-Cohen’s “Mindblindness: An Essay on Autism and Theory of Mind.” Published in 1995, this groundbreaking book explores the relationship between autism and Theory of Mind, proposing that individuals with autism spectrum disorders may have difficulty understanding and attributing mental states to others. Baron-Cohen’s work has been instrumental in shaping our understanding of social cognition in autism and has inspired countless studies in the field.

Another pivotal book in the Theory of Mind canon is Alison Gopnik’s “The Philosophical Baby: What Children’s Minds Tell Us About Truth, Love, and the Meaning of Life.” Gopnik, a renowned developmental psychologist, delves into the cognitive development of infants and young children, exploring how they construct their understanding of the world and others’ minds. Her work provides fascinating insights into the emergence of Theory of Mind in early childhood and its implications for human cognition and consciousness.

Daniel Dennett’s “The Intentional Stance” offers a philosophical perspective on Theory of Mind, proposing that we understand and predict others’ behavior by treating them as rational agents with beliefs and desires. Dennett’s work has been influential in both philosophy and cognitive science, providing a framework for understanding how we attribute mental states to others and navigate complex social interactions.

These foundational Theory of Mind books have shaped our understanding of social cognition in several ways:

1. They have established the importance of Theory of Mind in human social interaction and cognitive development. 2. They have provided theoretical frameworks for understanding how we attribute mental states to others. 3. They have highlighted the potential consequences of impaired Theory of Mind, particularly in conditions such as autism. 4. They have inspired further research into the development and function of Theory of Mind across different populations and contexts.

Theory of Mind Books for Child Development

Understanding the development of Theory of Mind in children is crucial for parents, educators, and clinicians working with young people. Several books have made significant contributions to this area, offering insights and practical strategies for fostering Theory of Mind skills in children.

Patricia Howlin’s “Teaching Children with Autism to Mind-Read: A Practical Guide for Teachers and Parents” is an invaluable resource for those working with children on the autism spectrum. The book provides practical strategies and exercises designed to help children with autism develop Theory of Mind skills, improving their ability to understand and interpret social situations. Understanding Theory of Mind in Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA): A Comprehensive Guide offers additional insights into how Theory of Mind principles can be incorporated into interventions for children with autism.

Janet Wilde Astington’s “The Child’s Discovery of the Mind” offers a comprehensive overview of how children develop an understanding of mental states. Astington explores the cognitive milestones that contribute to the emergence of Theory of Mind, from early joint attention skills to more complex understanding of beliefs and intentions. This book provides valuable insights for anyone interested in child cognitive development and the foundations of social understanding.

Carol Gray’s “The New Social Story Book” is a practical resource that uses simple stories to help children understand social situations and develop Theory of Mind skills. While not exclusively focused on Theory of Mind, Gray’s approach has been widely adopted in special education and therapy settings to help children with autism and other social-cognitive challenges navigate social interactions more effectively.

These Theory of Mind books offer several practical applications for parents and educators:

1. They provide strategies for teaching children about mental states and perspective-taking. 2. They offer guidance on how to support the development of Theory of Mind skills in children with developmental differences. 3. They highlight the importance of early intervention in fostering social-cognitive skills. 4. They demonstrate how everyday interactions and storytelling can be used to enhance children’s understanding of others’ minds.

The Crucial Role of Theory of Mind in Child Development: Understanding Social Cognition further explores the significance of Theory of Mind in children’s social and cognitive growth.

Theory of Mind Books in Clinical Psychology

The study of Theory of Mind has significant implications for clinical psychology, particularly in understanding and treating conditions that involve social-cognitive challenges. Several influential books have explored the role of Theory of Mind in various clinical contexts, offering valuable insights for researchers and practitioners alike.

Uta Frith’s “Autism: Explaining the Enigma” is a seminal work that explores the cognitive basis of autism, with a particular focus on Theory of Mind deficits. Frith’s book provides a comprehensive overview of autism research, including the development of the Theory of Mind hypothesis in autism. Her work has been instrumental in shaping our understanding of social cognition in autism spectrum disorders and has influenced both research and clinical practice.

Peter Hobson’s “The Cradle of Thought: Exploring the Origins of Thinking” delves into the developmental origins of human thought and social understanding. Hobson argues that early emotional engagement with others is crucial for the development of symbolic thought and Theory of Mind. His work offers important insights into the interplay between emotional development and cognitive skills, with implications for understanding various developmental and psychiatric conditions.

Simon Baron-Cohen’s “The Essential Difference: Men, Women and the Extreme Male Brain” explores the potential role of Theory of Mind in understanding gender differences in cognition and behavior. Baron-Cohen proposes the controversial “extreme male brain” theory of autism, suggesting that some cognitive traits associated with autism may represent an extreme version of typical male cognitive patterns. While this theory has been the subject of much debate, the book offers intriguing perspectives on the relationship between Theory of Mind, empathy, and gender.

These Theory of Mind books have provided several key insights for understanding autism and other conditions:

1. They have highlighted the central role of Theory of Mind deficits in the social challenges faced by individuals with autism. 2. They have explored the developmental trajectories of Theory of Mind and their potential disruption in various clinical conditions. 3. They have offered new perspectives on the relationship between emotional development, social cognition, and broader cognitive skills. 4. They have inspired the development of interventions aimed at enhancing Theory of Mind skills in clinical populations.

Understanding Impaired Theory of Mind: Causes, Consequences, and Interventions provides further information on the clinical implications of Theory of Mind deficits and potential interventions.

Advanced Theory of Mind Books for Researchers

For researchers and advanced students in the field of cognitive science and psychology, several books offer in-depth explorations of Theory of Mind, providing sophisticated theoretical frameworks and detailed empirical findings.

Josef Perner’s “Understanding the Representational Mind” is a seminal work that explores the development of children’s understanding of mental representations. Perner’s book provides a comprehensive theoretical account of how children come to understand that beliefs and other mental states are representations that can be true or false. This work has been highly influential in shaping research on the development of Theory of Mind and metacognition.

Alan Leslie’s “How to Acquire a Representational Theory of Mind” offers a detailed account of the cognitive mechanisms underlying Theory of Mind development. Leslie proposes that Theory of Mind abilities are underpinned by specialized cognitive mechanisms that allow children to represent and reason about mental states. His work has been influential in debates about the innate versus learned nature of Theory of Mind skills.

Ian Apperly’s “Mindreaders: The Cognitive Basis of Theory of Mind” provides a comprehensive overview of contemporary research on Theory of Mind, integrating findings from developmental psychology, cognitive neuroscience, and philosophy. Apperly explores the cognitive processes involved in Theory of Mind reasoning and discusses the implications of this research for understanding social cognition across the lifespan.

These advanced Theory of Mind books have made several important contributions to academic research:

1. They have provided sophisticated theoretical frameworks for understanding the cognitive mechanisms underlying Theory of Mind. 2. They have integrated findings from various disciplines to offer comprehensive accounts of Theory of Mind development and function. 3. They have sparked debates about the nature and origins of Theory of Mind abilities, inspiring further research and theoretical refinement. 4. They have highlighted the complexities of Theory of Mind reasoning, challenging simplistic accounts of social cognition.

Theory of Mind in AP Psychology: Examples and Applications offers additional insights into how these advanced concepts are applied in educational settings.

Theory of Mind Books for General Readers

While many books on Theory of Mind are written for academic or professional audiences, several works have successfully made these complex concepts accessible to general readers, fostering a broader understanding of social cognition.

Nicholas Humphrey’s “The Inner Eye: Social Intelligence in Evolution” offers a fascinating exploration of the evolutionary origins of social intelligence and Theory of Mind. Humphrey argues that our ability to understand and predict others’ behavior was a crucial factor in human evolution, shaping our cognitive abilities and social structures. His engaging writing style makes complex evolutionary and psychological concepts accessible to a general audience.

Rebecca Saxe’s work, while not a book per se, has been influential in popularizing Theory of Mind research. Her TED talk, “How We Read Each Other’s Minds,” provides an engaging introduction to the neuroscience of Theory of Mind, explaining how different brain regions contribute to our ability to reason about others’ thoughts and beliefs. Saxe’s clear and engaging communication style has helped bring Theory of Mind research to a wider audience.

Michael Tomasello’s “A Natural History of Human Thinking” explores the evolutionary and cultural origins of human cognition, with a significant focus on the development of shared intentionality and Theory of Mind. Tomasello argues that our unique cognitive abilities, including Theory of Mind, arose from the need to coordinate and cooperate with others. His work provides a compelling narrative of human cognitive evolution that is accessible to general readers while still offering deep insights.

These Theory of Mind books for general readers have several important qualities that make complex concepts accessible to the public:

1. They use engaging narratives and real-world examples to illustrate abstract concepts. 2. They draw connections between Theory of Mind and everyday social experiences, making the topic relatable. 3. They provide historical and evolutionary context, helping readers understand the broader significance of Theory of Mind. 4. They often incorporate findings from multiple disciplines, offering a holistic view of social cognition.

Understanding Theory of Mind: Examples and the False Belief Test provides additional examples that can help general readers grasp these complex concepts.

As we conclude our exploration of Theory of Mind books, it’s clear that this field of study has produced a rich and diverse body of literature. From foundational works that established the importance of Theory of Mind in human cognition to practical guides for fostering these skills in children, and from clinical perspectives on social-cognitive challenges to advanced theoretical treatises, these books have collectively shaped our understanding of how we navigate the complex social world around us.

Some of the most influential Theory of Mind books we’ve discussed include:

1. Simon Baron-Cohen’s “Mindblindness: An Essay on Autism and Theory of Mind” 2. Alison Gopnik’s “The Philosophical Baby” 3. Uta Frith’s “Autism: Explaining the Enigma” 4. Josef Perner’s “Understanding the Representational Mind” 5. Michael Tomasello’s “A Natural History of Human Thinking”

These works, among others, have contributed significantly to our understanding of social cognition and continue to influence research and practice in various fields.

It’s important to note that Theory of Mind research is an evolving field. As new technologies and methodologies emerge, our understanding of social cognition continues to grow and change. Future directions in Theory of Mind studies may include:

1. Further exploration of the neural basis of Theory of Mind using advanced neuroimaging techniques. 2. Investigation of cultural variations in Theory of Mind development and expression. 3. Examination of the role of Theory of Mind in emerging technologies, such as human-AI interaction. 4. Development of more sophisticated interventions for enhancing Theory of Mind skills across various populations.

As these areas of research develop, we can anticipate new books that will further expand our understanding of Theory of Mind and its implications for human cognition and social interaction.

The enduring importance of Theory of Mind in understanding human cognition and social interaction cannot be overstated. As we continue to navigate an increasingly complex social world, both in person and online, our ability to understand and predict others’ thoughts and behaviors remains crucial. The books we’ve explored in this guide offer valuable insights into this fundamental aspect of human cognition, providing a foundation for further exploration and understanding.

Whether you’re a researcher, clinician, educator, parent, or simply someone interested in understanding the intricacies of human social cognition, these Theory of Mind books offer a wealth of knowledge and insight. They remind us of the remarkable complexity of the human mind and the fascinating dance of social interaction that shapes our daily lives.

Understanding Children with an Advanced Theory of Mind: Insights and Implications and Understanding Theory of Mind Development in Children: Who’s Most Likely to Excel? offer further insights into the development of these crucial skills in children, while Theory of Mind in Speech Therapy: Enhancing Social Communication Skills explores practical applications in therapeutic settings.

As we continue to unravel the mysteries of the mind, Theory of Mind remains a crucial area of study, offering insights not only into how we understand others but also into the very nature of human consciousness and social existence. The books we’ve explored here serve as guideposts on this fascinating journey of discovery, inviting us to delve deeper into the intricate workings of the social mind.

References:

1. Baron-Cohen, S. (1995). Mindblindness: An Essay on Autism and Theory of Mind. MIT Press.

2. Gopnik, A. (2009). The Philosophical Baby: What Children’s Minds Tell Us About Truth, Love, and the Meaning of Life. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

3. Dennett, D. C. (1987). The Intentional Stance. MIT Press.

4. Howlin, P., Baron-Cohen, S., & Hadwin, J. (1999). Teaching Children with Autism to Mind-Read: A Practical Guide for Teachers and Parents. Wiley.

5. Astington, J. W. (1993). The Child’s Discovery of the Mind. Harvard University Press.

6. Gray, C. (2015). The New Social Story Book, Revised and Expanded 15th Anniversary Edition. Future Horizons.

7. Frith, U. (2003). Autism: Explaining the Enigma (2nd ed.). Blackwell Publishing.

8. Hobson, P. (2002). The Cradle of Thought: Exploring the Origins of Thinking. Pan Macmillan.

9. Baron-Cohen, S. (2003). The Essential Difference: Men, Women and the Extreme Male Brain. Penguin UK.

10. Perner, J. (1991). Understanding the Representational Mind. MIT Press.

11. Leslie, A. M. (1987). Pretense and representation: The origins of “theory of mind”. Psychological Review, 94(4), 412-426.

12. Apperly, I. (2010). Mindreaders: The Cognitive Basis of “Theory of Mind”. Psychology Press.

13. Humphrey, N. (2002). The Inner Eye: Social Intelligence in Evolution. Oxford University Press.

14. Saxe, R. (2009). How we read each other’s minds. TED Talk. https://www.ted.com/talks/rebecca_saxe_how_we_read_each_other_s_minds

15. Tomasello, M. (2014). A Natural History of Human Thinking. Harvard University Press.

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The Theory of Mind (ToM): theoretical, neurobiological and clinical profiles

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Review Article | DOI: https://doi.org/10.31579/2578-8868/141

• Giulio Perrotta 1*

Psychologist sp.ing in psychotherapy with a strategic approach, Forensic Criminologist expert in sectarian cults, esoteric and security profiles, Jurist sp.ed SSPL, Essayist.

*Corresponding Author: iulio Perrotta, Psychologist sp.ing in psychotherapy with a strategic approach, Forensic Criminologist expert in sectarian cults, esoteric and security profiles, Jurist sp.ed SSPL, Essayist.

Citation: Perrotta G., (2020) The Theory of Mind (ToM): theoretical, neurobiological and clinical profiles. J Neuroscience and Neurological Surgery. 7(1); DOI:10.31579/2578-8868/141

Copyright: © 2020 Giulio Perrotta, This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Received: 09 October 2020 | Accepted: 31 October 2020 | Published: 06 November 2020

Keywords: Theory of Mind;theoretical;neurobiological

The concept of "Theory of Mind" (ToM) is defined as the cognitive ability to represent one's own and others' mental states, in terms of thoughts and beliefs, but also of desires, demands and feelings, so that one can explain and predict behaviour. In this work the theoretical profiles, the main reference models, the related neurobiological and clinical profiles are analysed, orienting future research on the question whether or not it is interesting to further investigate the theoretical aspects under examination, such as empathy and the perception of the self and the other in relation to the neurobiological components, to draw a common line able to connect the loss of these functions with the accentuation or the onset of certain pathologies, wondering whether it is the functional compromises of these capacities and functions that cause the psychopathological condition to arise or whether it is rather the disease that induces the dysfunctional modification of these capacities or functions .

1. The General Concept of the "Theory of Mind"

The concept of "Theory of Mind" (ToM) is defined as the cognitive ability to represent one's own and others' mental states, in terms of thoughts and beliefs, but also of desires, demands and feelings, so that one can explain and predict behaviour. It therefore seems correct to affirm that the Theory of Mind is a cognitive capacity innate in the human being, whose development process, however, is also influenced in part by the socio-cultural context of the subject, regardless of his intellectual level [1-2].

The Theory of the Mind is therefore a default capacity in humans that allows each person to interpret the signals of the social environment and their own emotions, thus reinforcing beliefs about reality, extracting from time to time the meaning sought (and wanted), in a subjective and arbitrary way, sometimes adhering to the external objective reality, very often the opposite. 3] Such operations, however, also make it possible to distinguish between reality and fiction (and the pretending of/that...), and therefore, if developed, also to recognise lies, false beliefs, to understand metaphors, irony and so-called "faux pas" situations (the so-called gaffes). [1]

2. The theoretical reference models

Historically, the expression "Theory of Mind" was coined by Premack and Woodruff in the article "Does the chimpanzee have a Theory of Mind?", in which the ability of chimpanzees to predict the behaviour of a human actor in purposeful situations is investigated. These researchers used the term ToM to refer to the ability to understand a mental state of another organism based on the analysis of its behaviour. It has been hypothesized, from an evolutionary point of view, that a Theory of the Mind of self and others emerged in the evolution of hominids as an adaptive response to a more complex social environment. It is no coincidence, in fact, that individuals with good mind reading skills would be more capable than others in social relations, thus having greater reproductive success. However, while primates and great apes are considered experts in reading behaviour, gestures, intention of movements and facial expressions, the ability to read the mind and cognitively represent one's own mind and that of others, i.e. the "fullness" of the Theory of Mind, does not necessarily depend on environmental sensory input. [4] In fact, an individual can think what others have in mind, even without seeing them. [5] However, the contrary viewpoint of other authors who do not agree with the statement that monkeys have a ToM. [6]

The development of the Theory of Mind branches out into a few fundamental stages, which several authors have identified and developed, in its complex theoretical articulation:

• Tomasello [7] maintains that the initial capacity at the basis of development, as well as the foundation of the understanding of mental phenomena, is the understanding of intentionality. This ability, in healthy subjects, appears at a very early age, around the year of life, when the child begins to direct his or her attention to the intentional dimension of actions, rather than the mechanical one. This attention to intentionality is demonstrated by the fact that children, intent on imitating a behaviour, almost immediately begin to adjust to the objective of their actions, losing interest in a faithful repetition of the observed behavioural sequences. At two to three years of age the child is able to understand non-epistemic mental states (such as desires, emotions, intentions) and fictional games (for example: pretend that two fingers are a telephone or a gun), while, around the age of four, the full development of the Theory of Mind is achieved, with the ability to understand epistemic mental states and to predict the behaviour of others based on information about the other one, having reached the ability to read the mind of others; finally, at twelve-thirteen months from birth the child is able to recognise and distinguish facial expressions and their emotional meaning.
• Main and Fonagy [8-10] related the development of mental state representation skills to the quality of the child's attachment relationship with the caregivers. According to Fonagy, a good reflective capacity in the caregiver increases the likelihood that the child will establish a secure attachment to the caregiver(s) and develop an adequate capacity for mentalisation. A secure attachment relationship offers the child the opportunity to explore the caregiver's mind and, in this way, to learn to read other people's mental states. If the child does not develop a secure attachment, there will be a vulnerability of the subject to the development of psychic suffering, as well as possibilities for the development of frankly psychopathological forms of attachment.
• Baron-Cohen [11-13] argue that the development of the individual is organised around the progressive biological maturation of brain structures, based on genetically determined phases. Within this genetic-biological current, however, there are some authors who admit that, in certain phenotypic expressions, aspects of interaction with the environment are involved.
• Carpendale and Lewis [14] support a position certainly oriented in favour of the role of social interactions, in which the child is formed not by himself but mainly by progressively learning from interactions with the reference adults in the first instance, and with the peer group in the second instance.

Within the Theory of Mind, however, three main and distinct theoretical models have been elaborated, on which most of the studies have been concentrated: [15-17]

• Theory-Theory theorists, Gopnik and Wellman, suggest that mental activity is based on knowledge comparable to that contained in a scientific theory and that the child acquires different levels of representational abilities during development. By learning to discriminate real situations from hypothetical ones, he builds a theory of the Theory of Mind which allows him to infer other people's mental representations in order to build his own understanding of the mental world, just as a scientist develops a theoretical system for understanding the world. The so-called mental representations have been defined as meta-representations. Unlike the next model (Modular Theory), this approach attributes a greater role in the formation of the skill of Mind Theory to individual experience, which provides tools for reviewing and reorganizing knowledge.
• The theorists of the "Modular" approach, unlike the previous one, support the innatistic thesis using the concept of "modularity" as it is related to Fodor's hypothesis on the "modular mind", according to which the human mind is made up of specialised modules, genetically determined and functioning autonomously. Scholl and Leslie, in this theme, proposed the existence of a separate Mind Theory module (ToM-Module), with the specific function of processing information related to social inference. Moreover, they suggested that the correct functioning of the ToM-Module depends on a "selection processor", able to separate relevant contextual information from irrelevant information, thus increasing the probability of a correct inference of other people's mental states. The development of this ability would depend mainly on the neurological maturation of the brain structures involved, while experience would induce its use.
• The theorists of the "Simulation Theory" approach, including Goldman, believe that mental activity is based on non-theoretical experience and propose that possessing a Theory of Mind is a quality linked to the ability to put oneself in the other's shoes. Inferring other people's mental states would consist in simulating the world in the perspective of the other, experiencing mental states "as if...", replicating them, without necessarily trying or sharing them. This approach also underlines the importance of experience in the formation of Theory of Mind skills. A recent empirical support has been provided by the observation that monkeys and humans possess so-called mirror neurons, brain cells that have the particularity of being activated during the observation of gestures involving hands and mouth. Welsh and Goldman have hypothesized that the ability to read other people's mental states has evolved from the mirror neuron system of primates.

3. The neurobiological basis

Starting with research on primates, many scholars have wondered what areas of the brain are involved in the Theory of Mind. Investigations in this regard have been carried out in different fields. Comparative studies of neuroanatomy and neurophysiology have provided information about which areas of the brain and which corresponding functions have evolved as neural correlates in the Theory of Mind. In addition, studies of functional neuroimaging and brain injury studies can help to locate the brain circuits underlying the Theory of Mind. [1, 18]

In the primate brain, many areas have been identified that have undergone adaptive modifications during the course of evolution, which have then become in man the neural network underlying the Theory of Mind. Studies of macaques have revealed that neurons in the central portion of the temporal lobe, particularly in the posterior temporal fissure (STS), selectively ignite when monkeys observe the direction of other monkeys' gaze. These neurons are also activated when animals observe a direct action for a purpose. [17] Functional imaging studies have revealed that observation of movements of inanimate objects that appear to have a purpose (as opposed to random movements) in humans causes activation of a homologous area of the temporal lobe. The same happens when movement is implicit in the observation of a photograph; therefore, the activity of parts of the STS is linked to the observation of intentional movements. [19]

The temporal lobe also contains a particular type of neurons, called mirror neurons because of their unique quality of discharge both during the execution of a hand or mouth movement and during the simple observation of the same movement made by another person. The discovery of mirror neurons in humans has offered an explanation of how the ability to imitate the actions of others may have evolved into the ability to simulate the mental states of others [20]. However, as Frith [21-22] pointed out, for the Theory of Mind it is not enough to represent actions directed to a purpose, but it is also necessary to know how to distinguish between behaviours generated by oneself or by others. The ability to simulate the mental states of others does not necessarily involve conscious reflection, but can easily be brought back to a plane of consciousness. Conscious reflection on one's own and others' mental states requires computational resources that go beyond the ability to simulate or imitate an action and the candidate structure for this purpose is the lower parietal cortex. And in particular the right inferior parietal cortex would seem to be important to consciously represent the mental states of others, while the left inferior parietal cortex could be involved in the representation of one's own mental states. [23]

Recent fMRI studies show, however, that ToM can be dissociated from other cognitive functions and that this performance is linked to a specialised socio-cognitive brain network, which includes the medial prefrontal cortex and cingulate cortex (MPFC), posterior cingulate cortex and bilateral temporo-parietal regions [24].

The variability of results, often contradictory, in the different tasks aimed at assessing the Theory of Mind, suggests that these tasks involve different processes. If, for example, the performance of false beliefs requires a cognitive understanding of the difference between what the speaker knows and what the listener knows, the tasks of irony and faux pas also require an empathic understanding of the listener's emotional state. The Theory of Mind would thus be formed by two sub-sections: affective aspects and cognitive aspects. A similar distinction between these two aspects was suggested by Brothers and Ring [25], who distinguished between "hot" and "cold" aspects of the Theory of Mind. With the concept of cognitive ToM we mean, therefore, the ability to recognise the mental state of the other in terms of thought and with affective ToM the ability to recognise the mental state in terms of emotion (which in literature is often defined as empathy). Studies on patients with localised ventromedial prefrontal damage have provided evidence for the dissociation between affective and cognitive aspects of Theory of Mind. In fact, it has been reported that patients with lesions in this area have poor performance in tasks assessing affective ToM (faux pas and irony), but not in tasks involving cognitive ToM (second order beliefs). Furthermore, patients' performances in tasks of affective ToM are positively correlated with their empathic abilities, indicating that the ability to make affective representations of the other's mental state is associated with the ability to be empathic [26]. From these results it has been hypothesized that the behavioural deficits of individuals with localized ventromedial damage could be attributed to an affective ToM deficit, rather than to a generalized Mind Theory deficit.

4. Neuropathological and psychopathological profiles

The direct compromise of the Theory of Mind is found in different clinical pictures through a wide range of behavioural anomalies. Specifically in psychopathological conditions such as:

• "Spectrum of autistic disorders" [11-13, 27-29]: in it is evident a specific deficit in the understanding of beliefs as psychological causes of behaviour, which is not due to language difficulties, ignorance of causality or inability to sequencing. Leslie and Frith then showed that autistic children had very poor results in rearranging cartoons that required understanding of belief, while they had no difficulty in sequencing stories about a character's wishes or aims. Since this cognitive defect had been present since birth, it was assumed that these children did not develop a Theory of Mind at all. Underlying this disorder would be the lack of development of the meta-representational mechanism underlying the construction of a Theory of the Mind.
• "Schizophrenia" [27, 30-42]: it is one of the pathologies that show a Deficit Theory of the Deficit Mind and that has awakened more interest in recent years. Regarding the comparison between the mentalisation of autistic people and schizophrenics, Frith suggests a distinction: if the cognitive defect of autism is present in children from birth and, consequently, the overall course of their development will be abnormal, in schizophrenic patients it arises as an effect of psychotic onset, although they may have shown signs of social abnormalities already during childhood. The literature of the last fifteen years has been very interested in assessing and understanding the Mind Theory deficit in schizophrenic patients. Again according to Frith's model, the main characteristic of the processes of mentalisation is the ability to reason about how we represent the world, our thoughts and actions. This characteristic is called meta-representation and is the basis of self-awareness. The model under examination identifies at least three types of meta-representation deficits in people suffering from schizophrenia: a) disturbance of awareness of one's goals: it corresponds to the difficulty of moving and speaking intentionally and of intentionally manifesting feelings. In particular, the negative symptoms would be due to the inability to produce intentional actions and the positive ones to the inability to inhibit inappropriate behaviour. b) Disorder of awareness of one's own intentions: it is represented by the person's perception that their actions are not caused by themselves, but by external forces. This is at the basis of delusions of influence, intrusive thoughts and auditory hallucinations, i.e. the perception of one's own thoughts or of sub-vocal language experienced as foreign to oneself. c) Disturbance of the awareness of others' intentions: it leads to the production of wrong inferences about the intentions of others. There is the appearance of reference delusions (people erroneously perceive by others the will to communicate with them), delusions of persecution (people erroneously perceive by others the will to attack them), inconsistent language (inability to correctly provide information on the topics under discussion) and auditory hallucinations in the third person (information erroneously perceived as coming from an external source). One of the crucial questions in scientific research on the Theory of Mind in schizophrenia is whether the deficits in this faculty are specific or whether they are a consequence of a more general cognitive impairment of attention, executive functions, memory or intelligence. In fact, it is well known that social functioning is extremely influenced by basic cognitive deficits and how a strengthening of these areas also modifies relational aspects. The Mind Theory deficit seems to be specific. In fact, there is consistent evidence that it cannot be explained either by the presence of psychopathology or by a compromise of executive functions or by a general cognitive impairment. The heterogeneity of the symptomatology typical of schizophrenic pathology means that, even when some studies find evidence of ToM impairment, it is not possible to identify specific symptoms, or clusters of symptoms, with which the deficit itself is associated; probably in schizophrenic subjects different symptoms may be linked to different deficits in mentalisation abilities. Finally, research in recent years on the non-verbal behaviour of schizophrenic patients has shown that this type of patient can be significantly distinguished from non-affected subjects on the basis of reduced expressiveness. For example: microanalytical studies of facial movements using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) have revealed that schizophrenic patients have reduced facial expressivity. Taking into account, on the one hand, the association between non-verbal expressivity and social cognition and, on the other hand, the link between social cognition and social competence in schizophrenia, it is possible that the reduction in prosocial expressivity of patients is associated with their poor understanding of other people's mental states. Brune's study is interested in answering the question whether the reduced non-verbal expressiveness in social communication (prosocial behaviour) of schizophrenic patients can be linked to poor social competence and the difficulty of understanding other people's mental states. Therefore, this study starts from the hypothesis that patients suffering from schizophrenia differ from healthy controls in terms of non-verbal expressivity and neurocognition (social and non social) and that, having poor prosocial behaviour, they show reduced social skills in interactions and poor socio-cognitive skills, compared to patients with unaltered non-verbal expressivity. On the other hand, they are not necessarily expected to differ from healthy controls compared to other neurocognitive (non-social) domains. In line with previous studies, reduced non-verbal expressivity was found in patients compared to healthy controls during an evaluation interview. As expected, patients were also less able than controls to understand other people's mental states. In addition, patients with greater difficulty in Mind Theory showed not only more behavioural abnormalities, but also reduced non-verbal expressiveness, which normally serves to facilitate interaction. This study shows that patients with lower levels of non-verbal expressivity have a worse performance in the tasks of false beliefs, when compared to patients whose non-verbal expressivity was found to be normal during the evaluation interview. Significant differences were also found between patients with high and low prosocial behaviour with respect to aspects of psychopathology and social skills. These results show, as already mentioned, that the mentalisation deficit is the best predictor of poor social competence and has a greater power of explanation than executive functioning or IQ. The causes of reduced non-verbal expressiveness in schizophrenic patients are not yet completely clear. The most simplistic explanation is that it is a direct consequence of the severity of negative symptoms, and this would be partially consistent with the conclusions of this study. However, the greatest negative correlation was found between non-verbal expressivity and cognitive disorganisation, and not with the level of negative symptoms. Furthermore, previous studies have shown that mentalisation is more deficient in patients with disorganised symptoms. It is therefore possible that poor Mind Theory skills contribute to the reduced use of non-verbal expressivity in patients.
• "Symptoms related to frontal lobe lesions". [43]
• "Human dementia". [44-46, 74]
• "Bipolar disorder". [47-48]
• "Normal and functional ageing". [49]
• "Personality Disorders". [50] Mentalisation difficulties during therapy have been found in most people with personality disorders, primarily with a diagnosis of borderline personality disorder. Bateman and Fonagy believe that a traumatic life event can produce a partial temporary collapse of interpersonal interpretative function and they advance empirical and clinical evidence to confirm this hypothesis. The ability to mentalise is compromised in a significant percentage of individuals who have experienced trauma, especially in childhood (it was not possible to develop a secure attachment with the caregiver). Bateman and Fonagy also argue that borderline patients who have experienced child abuse will defensively avoid having a thought about their own and others' mental states, as this knowledge has cost them an unbearable amount of suffering during the experience of abuse. The collapse of mentalisation in the face of trauma leads to a partial loss of awareness of the relationship between internal and external reality. When one loses the ability to mentalise, finally, one observes the reappearance of those modes of perception of psychic reality that preceded the conquest of this ability in normal development.

5. The use of standardised tests to get to know ToM

The gold standard of testing to assess the understanding of other people's mental states is the "false-belief task", frequently used to assess Mind Theory during the developmental period, in autism and schizophrenia. It consists of testing a subject's ability to understand that others may have false beliefs about an event of which they have a correct knowledge. It is used to assess both first order false beliefs (the subject must infer inference about a situation by predicting the mental state of another person performing an action) and second order beliefs (which test the understanding of another person's beliefs relative to those of a third person). [51]

The classic Sally and Anne Test experimentally creates a situation in which the subject has to distinguish between knowing that an object has been hidden by one of the two characters (Anne) in the absence of the other (Sally) and the fact that one of the two characters (Sally) does not have this knowledge. Children under four years of age usually have a bad performance, because in order to respond adequately it is necessary to possess the capacity of meta-representation of mental states. The Sally and Anne Test was born as a test to investigate false first order beliefs, but has been extended to second order beliefs. [52] In order to understand higher order false beliefs (e.g. irony, metaphors, faux pas) we need more sophisticated cognitive capacities of Theory of the Mind. It has been shown that to understand metaphors one needs at least the understanding of the first order beliefs of Theory of the Mind, while for irony one also needs the understanding of second order beliefs, because this process is connected with the ability to go beyond the literal meaning and to infer what the speaker really wants to understand. With adults with psychopathological conditions, various visual material has been used (for example: cartoons representing simple stories containing bluff, innocent lies, gaffes, misunderstandings, faux pas, irony) to test the skills of Theory of Mind. [53] Another paradigm employed is the so-called deception task. Also in this case it is possible to distinguish first and second order stories. This deception detection task consists in presenting the patient with a story in which one character provides another with incorrect information (and then tries to manipulate his beliefs and the resulting actions) in order to achieve his own goal. The test subject must explain why the character has provided the other with incorrect information. In second order stories, however, the character ignores the information received because he or she knows that the other is trying to deceive him or her. Like the false-belief task, the discriminating validity of the second-order deception task is better than that of the first-order tasks. In addition, Baron-Choen [11-13] have developed a more realistic test, the Eye Test, in which the subjects' task is to infer the mental state of others by observing the eye region, which is only depicted. This test is designed for the evaluation of the emotional ToM.

A last example is the Theory Of Mind Picture Sequencing Task [54-56], which uses 6 stories, each one composed of 4 cartoons to be rearranged. There are 3 types of stories:

1) a scenario in which two characters cooperate;

2) a scenario in which one character cheats another;

3) a scenario in which two characters cooperate to cheat another character.

The vignettes are presented covered and in a scattered order. The subject examined is asked to discover and rearrange them in the shortest possible time to form a sequence of events that makes logical sense. For each story the reorder time is calculated and 2 points are awarded if the first and fourth cards are in correct order and 1 point if the second and third cards are correct (reorder score). Moreover, the subject has to answer some questions that aim to evaluate the understanding of the mental states, of different complexity, of the characters in the stories. Among these questions there are some that act as control items, because they involve only the generalized ability to process physical information (reality questions). The results consist of the reordering time, the total reordering score and the number of correct answers to the questions. A total score with a maximum of 59 points is given (the total reordering score is a maximum of 36 and the score to questions 23). Specifically, the variables considered in this study are:

a) Understanding First Order False Beliefs: recognition that a character has a false belief in the world;

b) Understanding of Second Order False Beliefs: understanding of the false beliefs of one character on the belief of another character;

c) Understanding of Third Order False Beliefs: understanding of a character's belief in another character's false belief in his belief;

d) Understanding Reality: it is the physical reality of things, what happens in reality (control question);

e) Understanding Reciprocity: Reciprocity is waiting for an expectation of ours (for example, in terms of a material reward) to be fulfilled by another individual of whom we know something;

f) Understanding Deception: understanding of the intention of one character to deceive another (involves a First Order Theory of Mind);

g) Understanding of Deception Detection: understanding of the intention of one character to deceive another (involves a second-order Theory of Mind);

h) Average scores of the answers to the questionnaire: average of all the scores of the questionnaire composed of questions of Mind Theory;

i) Average reordering: average of the 6 reordering scores of the cartoons.

6. The relationship between ToM and social cognition The Theory of Mind is currently considered as a part of the broader concept of social cognition, even more evident in schizophrenic patients. In fact, having difficulties in different domains of social functioning, such as communication, interpersonal relationships, family and work roles, is typical of schizophrenic patients. It has recently been hypothesized that ToM impairment is a trait that is present both in schizophrenic patients and in relatives not suffering from psychosis. As already mentioned, social behaviour includes different integrated skills such as Mind Theory, perception of social signals, recognition of facial expressions, attention, memory, decision making and motivation. Many of these components of social cognition are deficient in schizophrenic patients. However, research in the field of social cognition and Mind Theory still presents many points that have not been sufficiently investigated. One issue concerns the fact that, while for patients the test deficits result in social cognition deficits and real difficulties in everyday life, for non-affected relatives this is not the case and, in most cases, they are in the normal range. Furthermore, the question whether ToM's task performance is an independent function or rather reflects a dysfunction of other cognitive abilities, such as attention, memory and global intelligence, is still a matter of debate. Consequently, impairment in social cognition could also be affected for relatives by impairment in neuropsychological performance, which would affect the skills to be tested. [57]

7. Rehabilitation treatments for dysfunctional and pathological aspects The profiles under examination concern pharmacological, technical and instrumental approaches. [1] In particular:

1) In psychiatric patients [59], the need for association with individual or group psychotherapy [58] also "pharmacological therapy" becomes an essential necessity from the concrete case under examination, in order to better manage the patient's symptomatological picture [60-73], without ever excluding the two opportunities.

2) The use of video-recorded material to evaluate mental states, especially in schizophrenic subjects, appears functional and interesting from a rehabilitation perspective. In fact, Kayser's study uses videos specifically chosen to focus on the training of Mind Theory skills. The material consists of twelve short scenes extrapolated from films, representing interactions between two or more characters. The different mental states present in the various clips include: beliefs, disappointment, surprise, hostility, irony and misunderstanding. Only scenes were chosen in which the characters' intentions were clearly identifiable and understandable independently of the entire film. Each video lasted between twenty and seventy seconds and could be viewed several times, depending on the need reported by the patients. During each session the clinician tries to draw attention to the general context of each scene and then move on to the analysis of the characters' behaviour and intentionality. Each hypothesis is discussed by the whole group and the clinician simply has a guiding and moderating role. Participants are encouraged to reflect on the intentionality of the characters, in order to make hypotheses and support them with appropriate evidence. Each session lasts approximately one hour and includes the analysis of six scenes. This study is based on the hypothesis that training in Mind Theory induces a direct improvement in the ability to infer other people's mental states, communication skills and disorganisation and indirect improvement in general symptomatology. In fact, in the evaluation carried out at the end of the training, patients showed less signs of disorganization and improvements in communication skills and attribution of intentionality to others. This result confirms that the inability to attribute mental states to others, typical of schizophrenia, is to be considered, at least in part, remedial, and this should stimulate further research in this field. On the other hand, however, no improvement in the general symptomatology was found at the end of the training. Surely the short training period is the greatest limit for the observation of changes in the overall state of the patient. [75-76]

3) There are also alternative rehabilitation techniques that focus more on the cognitive deficit mechanisms underlying the perception and interpretation of environmental signals, such as Metacognitive Training which is based on two fundamental components: knowledge translation (where cognitive bias and their relationship with schizophrenic pathology are explained) and the demonstration of the negative consequences of cognitive bias (consisting of exercises focused on individual cognitive bias). Patients are taught to recognise and counter bias through the use of alternative strategies that will help them to arrive at appropriate inferences by dodging "cognitive traps". [77-80]

8. Relationships with other functions and capabilities. Conclusive profiles

The Theory of Mind (ToM), understood as the cognitive capacity to represent one's own and others' mental states (in terms of thoughts and beliefs, but also of desires, requests and feelings) in such a way as to explain and predict behaviour, is part of a framework of psychological functionality together with metacognition and emotions. [1] The new directions in ToM studies (concerning psychopathological and neuroscientific research) provide us with a further possibility to connect ToM to metacognition and emotions.

It is not by chance that the numerous studies mentioned in this work highlight the importance of intersubjective exchange, underlining the importance of the caregiver [81] for the development of ToM, without underestimating the active role that also the child and, subsequently, other adults play in relationships, except for the psychopathological relationships already identified and analysed, directly and indirectly. [82]

In the near future it could be interesting to further investigate the theoretical aspects under examination, such as empathy and the perception of the self and the other in relation to neurobiological components, in order to draw a common line able to connect the loss of these functions with the accentuation or the onset of certain pathologies, wondering if it is the functional compromises of these capacities and functions that cause the psychopathological condition to arise or if it is rather the disease that induces the dysfunctional modification of these capacities or functions.

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How the Theory of Mind Helps Us Understand Others

• Development
• Measurement

In psychology, theory of mind is an important social-cognitive skill that involves the ability to think about mental states, both your own and those of others. It encompasses the ability to attribute mental states, including emotions , desires, beliefs, and knowledge, and recognize that other people's thoughts and beliefs may differ from yours.

Theory of mind considers the factors that have led to those mental states. It also explores some of the factors that might impact a person's theory of mind, including autism and schizophrenia.

Why is it called a "theory" of mind? Psychologists refer to it as such because our beliefs about what might be going on in another person's head are just that—theories. While we can make predictions, we have no direct way of knowing exactly what a person might think.

All we can rely on is our own theories that we develop based on what people say, how they act, what we know about their personalities , and what we can infer about their intentions.

Why Is the Theory of Mind Important?

The emergence of a theory of mind is vital during the developmental process. Very young children tend to be more egocentric and are often unable to think about the mental states of others. As people age, their theory of mind emerges and continues to develop.

Forging a strong theory of mind plays an important role in our social worlds as we work to understand how people think, to predict their behavior, to engage in social relationships, and to solve interpersonal conflicts.

In order to interact with others, it is important to be able to understand their mental states and to think about how those mental states might influence their actions.

Theory of mind allows people to infer the intentions of others, as well as to think about what's going on in someone else's head, including hopes, fears, beliefs, and expectations. Social interactions can be complex, and misunderstandings can make them even more fraught. By being able to develop accurate ideas about what other people are thinking, we are better able to respond accordingly.

Development of Theory of Mind

The greatest growth of this ability to attribute mental states is believed to take place primarily during the preschool years between the ages of 3 and 5. However, a number of different factors are believed to exert some influence on the development of a theory of mind. Some researchers have suggested that gender and the number of siblings in the home can affect how the theory of mind emerges.

Theory of mind develops as children gain greater experience with social interactions. Play, pretend, stories, and relationships with parents and peers allow children to develop stronger insight into how other people's thinking may differ from their own. Social experiences also help children learn more about how thinking influences actions.

The growth of theory of mind skills tends to improve progressively and sequentially with age. While many theory of mind abilities emerge during the preschool years, research has shown that kids between the ages of 6 and 8 are still developing these skills. In studies, children at this age were still not completely proficient at all theory of mind tasks.

Researchers have also found that children under the age of 3 typically answer questions on the theory of mind tasks incorrectly. By age 4, children usually demonstrate a better theory of mind comprehension. For example, by age 4, most children are able to understand that others may hold false beliefs about objects, people, or situations.

Stages of Theory of Mind

One study found that children typically progress through five different theory of mind abilities in sequential, standard order.

Tasks Listed From Easiest to Most Difficult

• The understanding that the reasons why people might want something (i.e. desires) may differ from one person to the next
• The understanding that people can have different beliefs about the same thing or situation
• The understanding that people may not comprehend or have the knowledge that something is true
• The understanding that people can hold false beliefs about the world
• The understanding that people can have hidden emotions, or that they may act one way while feeling another way

Studies have also found that the theory of mind can be unstable. In other words, children may be able to understand mental states in some situations, but struggle in others. While kids may be able to pass most or all theory of mind tasks at the age of 4, their abilities continue to improve and develop through late adolescence and into adulthood.

Some studies also suggest that individual differences in theory of mind abilities are related to a child's social competence.

Perhaps not surprisingly, kids who are more adept at thinking about what other people are thinking tend to have stronger social abilities.

How Do Psychologists Measure It?

So how exactly do psychologists go about measuring how people think about their own thoughts and thoughts of others? One of the most commonly used methods to assess a child's theory of mind abilities is known as a false-belief task. The ability to attribute false belief in others is considered a major milestone in the formation of a theory of mind.

The goal of such tasks is to require children to make inferences about what someone has done or what they are thinking when the other person's beliefs about reality are in conflict with what children currently know. In other words, children may know something is true; an understanding of false belief requires them to understand that other people may not be aware of this truth.

For example, a child might know that there are no cookies left in the cookie jar—but does he understand that his sister has no way of knowing that there are no cookies left?

False Belief Tasks for Measuring Theory of Mind

How do false belief tasks used in psychology experiments work? In the "Sally-Anne test," one of the most frequently used false-belief scenarios, children are shown two dolls named Sally and Anne:

• Sally has a basket while Anne has a box.
• Sally places a marble in her basket and then leaves the room.
• While she is gone, Anne takes the marble from the basket and puts it in the box.
• When Sally returns, children who have watched this scenario are asked where they think Sally will look for the marble.

So what do the children's responses indicate about their theory of mind? Children pass the test if they say that Sally will look in the basket. This demonstrates that these children understand that Sally holds a false belief about where the marble really is. In order to pass the test, children must be able to think about what Sally thinks and believes.

Children who say that the marble is in the box, however, do not pass the test. They fail to demonstrate their own understanding that Sally's knowledge is different from their own .

While the theory of mind has historically been assessed using only false-belief tasks, current approaches involve measuring across a scale of developmental tasks. Doing so better allows researchers to see how different the theory of mind milestones emerges as children age.

For example, the ability to understand what other people desire emerges before the ability to understand hidden emotions that people may be feeling.

Problems With Theory of Mind

While the emergence of a theory of mind tends to follow a fairly predictable sequence over the course of normal development, sometimes things go wrong. Theory of mind problems can have a range of serious complications. When people struggle to understand mental states, social relationships, and interactions can suffer.

Researchers Simon Baron-Cohen and his colleagues have suggested that theory of mind problems are one of the hallmarks of autism. In a study, they looked at how children with autism performed on the theory of mind tasks compared to children with Down's Syndrome as well as neurotypical children .

They found that while around 80% of children who were neurotypical or who had Down's Syndrome were able to answer theory of mind questions correctly, only around 20% of children who had been diagnosed with autism were able to correctly answer such questions.

This problem with perspective-taking and understanding the thoughts of others is thought to contribute to the difficulty that those with autism spectrum disorders have with some types of social interactions.

Schizophrenia

Studies have also shown that people who have been diagnosed with schizophrenia often also demonstrate the theory of mind deficits.

One meta-analysis involving more than 1,500 participants showed significant impairments in theory of mind among those with schizophrenia. These participants showed problems with both the ability to understand false beliefs as well as the ability to infer the intentions of others.

A Word From Verywell

Forming a theory of mind is critical in our ability to understand ourselves and others. This ability to understand mental states allows people to introspect and consider their own thoughts and mental states. Such self-awareness is important in the formation of a strong sense of self .

Our social functioning also hinges on having a theory of mind. By being able to think about what other people are thinking, we can better understand others and predict what they might do next.

Schaafsma SM, Pfaff DW, Spunt RP, Adolphs R. Deconstructing and reconstructing theory of mind . Trends Cogn Sci (Regul Ed). 2015;19(2):65-72. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2014.11.007

Thompson RB, Thornton B. Gender and Theory of Mind in Preschoolers’ Group Effort: Evidence for Timing Differences Behind Children’s Earliest Social Loafing .  The Journal of Social Psychology . 2014;154(6):475-479. doi:10.1080/00224545.2014.933763

Shahaeian A, Nielsen M, Peterson CC, Slaughter V. Cultural and Family Influences on Children’s Theory of Mind Development: A Comparison of Australian and Iranian School-Age Children .  Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology . 2014;45(4):555-568. doi:10.1177/0022022113513921

Calero CI, Salles A, Semelan M, Sigman M. Age and gender dependent development of Theory of Mind in 6- to 8-years old children . Fron Human Neuroscience. 2013;7:281. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00281

Scott RM, Baillargeon R. Early False-Belief Understanding .  Trends in Cognitive Sciences . 2017;21(4):237-249. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2017.01.012

Wellman HM, Fuxi F, Peterson CC. Sequential Progressions in a Theory-of-Mind Scale: Longitudinal Perspectives . Child Dev. 2012;82(3):780-792. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01583.x

Dumontheil I, Apperly IA, Blakemore SJ. Online usage of theory of mind continues to develop in late adolescence . Dev. Sci. 2010;13:331-338. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00888.x

Lecce S, Caputi M, Pagnin A, Banerjee R. Theory of mind and school achievement: The mediating role of social competence .  Cognitive Development . 2017;44:85-97. doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2017.08.010

Richardson H, Lisandrelli G, Riobueno-Naylor A, Saxe R. Development of the social brain from age three to twelve years .  Nat Commun . 2018;9(1):1027. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-03399-2

Jones CRG, Simonoff E, Baird G, et al. The association between theory of mind, executive function, and the symptoms of autism spectrum disorder . Autism Res. 2018;11(1):95-109. doi:10.1002/aur.1873

Baron-Cohen S. The Autistic Child's Theory of Mind: a Case of Specific Developmental Delay . J Child Psychol Psychiatry . 1989;30(2):285-97. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1989.tb00241.x

Ng R, Fish S, Granholm E. Insight and theory of mind in schizophrenia .  Psychiatry Research . 2015;225(1-2):169-174. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2014.11.010

Sprong M, Schothorst P, Vos E, Hox J, Van Engeland H. Theory of mind in schizophrenia . British Journal of Psychiatry. 2007l;191(1):5–13. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.107.035899

Estes D, Bartsch K. Theory of mind: A foundational component of human general intelligence . Behav Brain Sci. 2017;40:e201. doi:10.1017/S0140525X16001618

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Narrative Summary of Limits of Natural Selection

Overview:  

This essay by Chauncey Wright discusses the limitations of Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection as applied to the human mind, particularly in explaining human morality and intellectual capabilities. Wright argues that while Natural Selection can account for many aspects of the biological world, it fails to fully explain the emergence of human consciousness, reason, and morality. He posits that these aspects might be explained by a broader “constitution of nature” that Natural Selection presupposes, or perhaps through other unknown forces.

Main Parts:

• Part 1: Reception and Proof of Natural Selection:  Wright begins by acknowledging the widespread acceptance of Natural Selection despite incomplete proofs, attributing it to Darwin’s skillful presentation and Wallace’s independent observations.
• Part 2: Utility and Adaptation in the Organic World:  Wright explores the principle of utility and adaptation as central to Natural Selection, showcasing how this principle provides explanations for diverse aspects of organic life, such as the brilliant colors of caterpillars, and ultimately proving the theory’s predictive power.
• Part 3: Limits of Natural Selection in Explaining Human Nature:  Wright contends that the human mind, particularly its moral and intellectual capabilities, surpasses the explanatory reach of Natural Selection. He highlights features like the human brain’s size, the absence of hair, and the capacity for abstract thought as examples that defy straightforward explanations by Natural Selection.
• Part 4: The Role of the Will in Human Actions:  Wright engages with the question of the Will and its relationship to physical forces. He argues against the idea that the Will is a physical force, suggesting instead that it is a regulatory force that operates independently of the laws of physics, suggesting that conscious volition might be a purely regulative cause, adding nothing to the physical forces at play.

View on Life:

• Natural Selection:  Natural Selection is a powerful principle that explains a great deal about the biological world, but it has limits, particularly when applied to the human mind.
• Utility:  The principle of utility plays a fundamental role in understanding the adaptations of living beings and how Natural Selection works.
• Metaphysical Views:  Wright’s views suggest a broader “constitution of nature” beyond the realm of Natural Selection, hinting at metaphysical principles that govern the development of life and consciousness.

Scenarios and Situations:

• The Galapagos Islands:  Wright references the unique flora and fauna of the Galapagos as evidence for the transmutation hypothesis, showcasing the role of geographical distribution in shaping life forms.
• The Gaudy Colors of Caterpillars:  This anecdote illustrates how the principle of utility can be used to understand seemingly inexplicable features of living beings.

Challenges:

• The Absence of Hair in Humans:  Wright challenges Natural Selection’s ability to explain this specific feature, arguing that it defies straightforward explanations based on utility or correlated variation.
• The Human Brain’s Size:  Wright questions whether the large size of the human brain, even in primitive humans, is solely a product of Natural Selection, suggesting that it might represent a capacity beyond immediate need.
• Moral Sentiments:  Wright challenges the notion that morality is solely based on utility, suggesting that moral sentiments might stem from more fundamental instincts and social needs.
• Natural Selection vs. Metaphysical Explanations:  The essay’s central conflict revolves around the limitations of Natural Selection in explaining human nature, particularly in light of its intellectual and moral capacities. Wright presents an alternative perspective that embraces a broader “constitution of nature” or other, potentially metaphysical, factors.
• Free Will vs. Determinism:  Wright grapples with the question of free will, suggesting that conscious volition might not be a source of physical energy, but rather a regulative force that operates independently of the physical laws of the universe.

The essay unfolds as a discussion between Wright and the reader, as he examines the arguments for and against Darwin’s theory, highlighting its strengths and limitations. The narrative arc explores the evolution of scientific thought regarding the origin of species, with a focus on the challenges posed by human nature to Darwinian theory.

Point of View:

The essay is written from a first-person perspective, allowing Wright to express his own opinions and insights on the limitations of Natural Selection. He presents his arguments in a reasoned and thoughtful manner, inviting the reader to consider his alternative perspectives.

How It’s Written:

Wright writes in a formal, academic tone, employing a clear and persuasive style. He uses extensive quotations from Darwin and Wallace, engaging with their arguments directly and offering counterarguments. The essay is characterized by its use of precise language, logical reasoning, and a focus on scientific evidence.

The essay maintains a respectful but critical tone towards Darwin’s theory. While acknowledging its strengths and the revolutionary impact it has had on scientific thinking, Wright expresses a sense of cautious optimism about the limitations of the theory and the potential for alternative explanations.

Life Choices:

The essay doesn’t explicitly discuss life choices, but it implicitly raises questions about the relationship between human nature and the choices we make. Wright’s argument that human morality and reason extend beyond the reach of Natural Selection suggests that we possess capacities for ethical action and intellectual pursuit that are not solely determined by our biological instincts.

• Humility:  Wright’s essay highlights the importance of intellectual humility in recognizing the limits of our knowledge and the potential for alternative explanations.
• Open-mindedness:  Wright encourages the reader to engage with diverse perspectives and avoid clinging to pre-conceived notions, even when they are based on popular scientific theories.
• The Complexity of Human Nature:  The essay underscores the complexity of human nature, highlighting how aspects of our being might transcend purely biological explanations and require consideration of broader philosophical and metaphysical principles.

Characters:

• Chauncey Wright:  The author, a philosopher and scientific thinker, who is critical of the limitations of Natural Selection.
• Charles Darwin:  A renowned naturalist whose theory of Natural Selection is the subject of the essay.
• Alfred Russel Wallace:  A fellow naturalist who independently developed similar ideas to Darwin.
• The Nature of Knowledge:  Wright explores the limits of scientific knowledge and the need for ongoing investigation and critical thinking.
• Human Nature:  The essay delves into the complexity of human nature, questioning the extent to which our moral and intellectual capacities can be fully explained by biological processes.
• The Search for Meaning:  Wright’s exploration of the limitations of Natural Selection implicitly raises questions about the search for meaning and purpose in life.

Principles:

• The Principle of Utility:  Wright highlights the importance of understanding the utility and adaptive advantages of features in the biological world.
• The Limits of Scientific Explanation:  He emphasizes the need to recognize the limitations of scientific explanations and the potential for alternative perspectives.
• The Importance of Metaphysical Inquiry:  Wright suggests that an understanding of human nature might require incorporating metaphysical principles beyond the scope of scientific observation.

Intentions:

• Author:  Wright intends to challenge the limitations of Natural Selection in explaining human nature, prompting further exploration of the philosophical and metaphysical dimensions of human existence.
• Reader:  The essay invites the reader to consider the limitations of prevailing scientific theories, to embrace intellectual humility, and to explore the broader questions of human nature and purpose.

Unique Vocabulary:

• Transmutation Hypothesis:  The idea that species change over time, which Darwin and Wallace promoted.
• Final Causes:  The idea that the design and adaptation in the organic world suggest a purpose or intentionality, often linked to theological arguments.
• Correlated Variation:  The concept that the evolution of one trait can influence the evolution of other traits, even seemingly unrelated ones.
• Intuitional Theory:  A school of philosophy that emphasizes the role of innate ideas and instincts in understanding human knowledge.
• Associational Psychology:  A school of psychology that emphasizes the role of association in shaping mental processes and learning.
• The Gaudy Colors of Caterpillars:  Wright uses this anecdote to illustrate how Natural Selection can explain seemingly random or useless traits by demonstrating their adaptive value.
• The Absence of Hair in Humans:  This anecdote highlights a feature of human nature that defies a straightforward explanation by Natural Selection, emphasizing the theory’s limitations.
• The Limitations of Natural Selection:  Wright presents the idea that Natural Selection, while powerful, might not be the sole explanation for the complexity of human nature.
• The Importance of Metaphysical Inquiry:  He suggests that an understanding of human nature might require incorporating metaphysical principles beyond the realm of scientific observation.
• The Nature of the Will:  Wright offers an alternative perspective on the nature of the Will, suggesting that it might be a purely regulative force rather than a source of physical energy.

Facts and Findings:

• Natural Selection’s Widespread Acceptance:  Wright notes the rapid acceptance of Darwin’s theory, despite incomplete proofs, demonstrating its profound impact on scientific thinking.
• Independent Observation:  He highlights the fact that Darwin and Wallace independently arrived at similar conclusions, further reinforcing the theory’s validity.
• The Limits of Variation:  Wright points out that Natural Selection has not significantly impacted human physical evolution in recent times, suggesting that it might be more focused on mental and cultural adaptations.
• The Human Brain’s Size:  He cites evidence that the size of the human brain, even in primitive humans, is not significantly different from modern humans, challenging the notion that brain size is solely a product of Natural Selection.

Points of View:

The text is written from a first-person perspective, allowing Wright to express his own opinions and arguments. This point of view adds a personal and critical dimension to the essay, inviting the reader to consider the limitations of Natural Selection and embrace alternative perspectives.

Perspective:

The essay challenges the prevailing perspective on the origin of species and the development of human nature. Wright offers a more nuanced perspective, highlighting the limitations of Natural Selection and suggesting the need to incorporate broader philosophical and metaphysical considerations into our understanding of human existence.

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Blue Mind Theory: This is why you feel so calm near water

There's science to it...

After spotting The Blue Mind Theory all over our social media feeds, we spoke to Dr Catherine Kelly , Blue Space Expert, Senior Lecturer at the University of Brighton and author of Blue Spaces: How and Why Water Can Make You Feel Better , to learn how blue spaces can boost our physical and mental wellbeing.

So, if you’ve been wondering why you feel so calm any time you’re near or in water, there’s a science to it.

Here’s everything you need to know about The Blue Mind theory, plus how to reap the benefits whether you’re able to get in the water or not...

What is The Blue Mind Theory?

Popularised by the late marine biologist Dr Wallace J. Nichols a decade ago in his 2014 landmark book Blue Mind , the theory focuses on the idea that being in, near or on water can ease your mind into a meditative state and make you happier and healthier.

By helping to soothe the nervous system, it can take you out of your Red Mind state, a place where many of us spend most of our time in this fast-paced world. In this state, your nervous system’s fight or flight response is activated, and if you spend a lot of time here it can lead to chronic stress, depression and anxiety.

The good news is, when you enter a Blue Mind state, this stress response is neutralised, your nervous system begins to relax and you feel calmer and at ease.

Not much of a swimmer? Don’t worry, you can still enjoy the benefits of blue spaces. “It doesn't have to be super active, the research shows you can be in or next to water to reap the benefits,” Dr Kelly tells Country Living .

The benefits of blue spaces

In comparison to green spaces, research into the benefits of blue spaces is relatively new, but there is a growing body of evidence that suggests it can positively impact mental health and wellbeing .

By helping to soothe our nervous system, blue spaces allow us to reach a meditative-like state that helps to reduce stress and boost feelings of calm. “The research is starting to show that water can have an important impact on our hormones too, such as a reduction in our stress hormones adrenaline and cortisol,” explains Dr Kelly.

In 2022 and 2023, the Environment Agency led the Blue Space Forum project in collaboration with organisations across the UK. The project looked at the lived experiences of people who used blue spaces, and showed that blue spaces are calming, restorative and relaxing, and can also promote personal growth.

“Water connection comes within the wider umbrella of nature connection, and research shows that feeling connected to nature can support our wellbeing in a number of ways,” Dr Kelly tells us. In fact, the recent Global Nature Study – in collaboration with All Trails and Unyoked – supports the idea that spending time nature is not enough to improve wellbeing. Feeling connected to nature is key, and can help with everything from managing stress to boosting creativity.

Not only can blue spaces help us feel more connected to nature, they also help us to connect to ourselves and others. “Rather beautifully, it allows us to connect with others too, whether that’s with family on a beach day or a group of wild swimmers,” Dr Kelly says. “This really improves our social wellbeing in particular, because loneliness and disconnection are some of the biggest causes of poor mental health and wellbeing.”

While being near or on water can do wonders for our wellbeing, research shows that spending time in water can have even more benefits for our health. When we’re in water, we’re often engaging in physical activity like swimming, surfing or paddle boarding which can support cardiovascular health and boost feel-good endorphins.

The rise in cold water plunges and anecdotal evidence of a positive impact on mental and physical health has also led to new ongoing research into the effects of cold water swimming on depression. “Depression is an inflammatory response, and many modern ailments are related to inflammation in the body. The vagus nerve (which plays a key role in calming the nervous system) responds well to cold water and anti-inflammatory treatment, so there’s a lot of really interesting research underway in this area,” Dr Kelly adds.

She notes that research councils need to invest more in blue space studies to give us a better overview of the physiological and psychological benefits. “Many people intuitively feel that water makes them feel better. We need to have more evidence based research to back this up, so that more people can access and enjoy blue spaces.”

Our relationship with blue spaces

When it comes to connecting with water, it’s not all give and take.

In 2018, Dr Kelly wrote a journal article titled 'I Need the Sea and the Sea Needs Me' exploring how a focus on the wellbeing benefits of water can encourage pro-environmental and pro-sustainability attitudes. “Our relationship with water should be reciprocal, it shouldn’t be extractive,” Dr Kelly says. “There should be a sense of custodianship and care. If you feel the water makes you feel better, then it’s quite natural to want to look after it too.”

She thinks focusing on this perspective may also be a “softer call to environmentalism,” and something more people can connect with. The government's Blue Space Forum drew this conclusion too, noting that “if being around water makes people feel well, they are more likely to look after it.”

There are lots of ways we can give back to the water, and express our gratitude for blue spaces. From local riverbank and beach cleans to charities supporting marine conservation. “It gives us a sense of connection and wellbeing too, because we are giving something back,” Dr Kelly explains. “As humans, a sense of purpose makes us feel good and is related to our mental wellbeing too.”

How to make the most of blue spaces

You don’t have to live next to the sea to experience the benefits of blue spaces. “You could go swimming in an indoor or outdoor swimming pool or you could walk by water, whether that’s a pond or a lake,” Dr Kelly explains.

If it’s safe to do so, Dr Kelly recommends getting in the water. But, if you’re unable to, don’t worry. “Water is very much a sensory landscape, so if you can’t get in, sit by it, watch it and listen to it,” Dr Kelly advises. “Notice the colours, shapes, movement and sounds. This is what psychologists call soft fascination, which is the notion that the textures of nature engage all our senses and this can improve our wellbeing.”

If an ice cold plunge or wild swimming isn’t for you, you can still reap the benefits of cold water from your sink. “Use water wherever you can, whether that’s splashing cold water on your face first thing in the morning, or turning your shower to cold for the last 30 seconds,” says Dr Kelly. “Focus on your face, head and neck and watch your breathing and gasp reflex as you do so.”

In the winter months, when the weather may restrict access to blue spaces, Dr Kelly suggests connecting with water by enjoying a warm bath or shower.

“No matter what way you are engaging with water, match intention with it,” advises Dr Kelly. “We should aim for mindful engagement with water, whether that’s seeing a warm bath as a way to wash away the worries of the day or a feeling of gratitude for being able to access clean water from our kitchen tap.”

Always take precautions in blue spaces and follow safety guidance from the Royal National Lifeboat Institution or the Royal Life Saving Society UK when spending time in or near water.

The wellbeing edit

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