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Research Methodology on Language Development from a Complex Systems Perspective

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Second Language Willingness to Communicate as a Complex Dynamic System

• First Online: 01 May 2021

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• Shahin Nematizadeh 4 &
• David Wood 4  

Part of the book series: Second Language Learning and Teaching ((SLLT))

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The widely-cited work of MacIntyre et al. (Mod Lang J 82(4):545–562, 1998), which uncovered the underlying layers of willingness to communicate (WTC), engendered a growing series of studies within the field of second language acquisition (SLA). Ever since, a number of perspectives have been adopted to conceptualize this construct including the theory of planned behaviour (MacIntyre et al. 1998 ; Zhong 2013 ), the theory of action control (MacIntyre & Doucette 2010 ), ecological systems theory (Cao 2011 ; Peng 2012 ), social identity theory (Miller and Pearson 2013 ), and sociocognitive theory (Cao 2014 ). More recently, however, dynamically-informed SLA research has gained ground and, therefore, a growing line of inquiry, mainly instigated by the innovative work of MacIntyre and Legatto ( 2011 ), has viewed WTC from a complex dynamic system (CDS) perspective. With a principal focus on the phenomenon of change, this theory mainly accounts for the changing nature of WTC, as opposed to the more traditional conceptualization of it as a stable trait-like predisposition (McCroskey and Baer 1985 ). The dynamic nature of WTC has now been firmly established through a number of studies (e.g., Pawlak and Mystkowska-Wiertelak 2015 ) and even though the application of this theory to WTC research is only in its infancy, a handful of studies (MacIntyre and Legatto 2011 ; Nematizadeh and Wood 2019 ; Wood 2016 ) have demonstrated its enormous potential in exploring countless unchartered territories. The present chapter will, therefore, adopt an evidence-based approach to viewing WTC as a complex dynamic system.

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L2 Motivation and Willingness to Communicate

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Nematizadeh, S., Wood, D. (2021). Second Language Willingness to Communicate as a Complex Dynamic System. In: Zarrinabadi, N., Pawlak, M. (eds) New Perspectives on Willingness to Communicate in a Second Language. Second Language Learning and Teaching. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67634-6_2

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MINI REVIEW article

Revisiting research methods in language learning psychology from a complexity dynamic system theory perspective.

• Center for Second Language Writing Research, School of College English Teaching and Research, Henan University, Kaifeng, China

Language learning is a dynamic and complex process in which different factors and variables are constantly interacting. However, many studies done on constructs related to teacher-learner psychology have used one-shot quantitative research designs, while it is impossible to capture the complexity and dynamism of such variables via one-time measurements. Against this gap, complexity dynamic system theory (CDST) has recently been applied to explore processes and changes that a construct may undergo. To shed more light, the present study examined the current research methods used in this research domain and presented the contributions and different conceptualizations that can be made through CDST. In the end, some implications and future directions are suggested for passionate scholars.

Introduction

Language learning is known as a complex process that requires different cognitive and linguistic skills and competencies to successfully occur ( Larsen-Freeman and Cameron, 2008 ). When it is combined with psychology, emotions, and communication skills, this complexity is multiplied in human beings. Many of the underlying factors of language learning and learner's affect are in close relationships with other variables which are constantly interacting with each other ( Xie and Derakhshan, 2021 ). The story gets more complicated when most of the factors and constructs involved in the language learning process develop through time and vary across contexts ( MacIntyre et al., 2020 ). As a result, researching language learning, in general, and constructs related to learner-teacher psychology, in particular, are a demanding task that is impossible via traditional and simplistic approaches. To capture the dynamism of many variables in second language acquisition (SLA) and language learning psychology (LLP),scholars are recommended to use Complexity Dynamic System Theory (CDST) which grew out of Larsen-Freeman's (1997) seminal work.

The propositions of CDST have been widely applied in different fields such as humanities, social sciences, physics, natural sciences, psychology, and communication ( Fogel, 2006 ; Wang et al., 2021 ). In contrast, SLA and applied linguistics have mainly used CDST as a theoretical lens instead of an empirical research basis ( MacIntyre et al., 2017 ). As pinpointed by Larsen-Freeman (2017) , the reason behind this gap is that in these two fields, running empirical studies on CDST has long been perceived as meta-theoretical in essence. That is to say, CDST is not a language learning theory, but instead an approach to develop a theory. Nevertheless, with the groundbreaking works of a number of SLA researchers (e.g., De Bot et al., 2007 ; Dörnyei et al., 2014 ; Larsen-Freeman, 2017 ; Hiver et al., 2021 , among others), the applicability of this meta-theory in the field of SLA has been scientifically substantiated. Language education, owing to its inherent dynamism, variation, and stability, is a fertile ground to spread the seeds of CDST on. It goes well with CDST in that language learning and development is not solely a matter of language competence occurring in a vacuum, yet the offshoot of the interaction of numerous intervening factors which are continuously influencing each other as well as the language learning process.

Drawing on these conceptualizations, recently, SLA scholars have examined CDST in relation to the different learner and teacher psychology constructs including anxiety, motivation, willingness to communicate (WTC), agency, self-efficacy, demotivation, and enjoyment ( Almutlaq and Etherington, 2018 ; Boudreau et al., 2018 ; Hiver and Papi, 2019 ; Larsen-Freeman, 2019 ; Syed and Kuzborska, 2020 ). In a similar manner, the impact of CDST on L2 students' listening ( Dong, 2016 ), speaking ( Dou et al., 2021 ), and writing skills ( Fogal and Verspoor, 2020 ) has caught duly attention among researchers in this domain. However, most of the conducted studies in this area have collected their data without referring to the perspectives of CDST which can generate novel interpretations and methodological suggestions. Against this lack, the current study aimed to explain the research benefits of applying CDST to learner/teacher psychology and summons researchers for a revision in choosing their data collection methods.

Complexity Dynamic System Theory (CDST)

CDST is a comprehensive approach to study the complicated systems and sub-systems of a phenomenon. It aims to unpack the underlying processes and factors which dynamically interact to cause an event, change, or development. This meta-theory has its roots in natural sciences such as biology, physics, chemistry, and mathematics where it has been implemented to justify simple systems ( Amerstorfer, 2020 ). CDST takes a holistic approach to deal with dynamic and complex systems in which the incidents are no longer viewed as predictable, fixed, isolated, and in a simple cause-and-effect relationship ( Larsen-Freeman, 1997 ). The theory brought fresh insights to SLA as its features were significantly fit with the tenets of CDST. The language was approved as a system in which numerous factors constantly interact and the collective outcome is the result of individual, intertwined components ( Mercer, 2011 ). Based on this theory, language learning and development is no longer a linear, predictable, and identical process among all people. Instead, it is a complex system with many interconnected sub-systems which mutually affect each other in non-predictable trajectories ( De Bot et al., 2007 ). In other words, language learning is the by-product of a network of personal, cultural, social, psychological, and contextual factors which are involved in a nested and co-adaptive relationship with blurry boundaries ( Ushioda, 2015 ; Mercer, 2016 ). A tiny change in one of these components and sub-systems can drastically affect the whole system and cause unpredictable outcomes.

Characteristics of CDST

As put by Mercer (2016) , for a system to be considered as complex and dynamic some criteria must be met. These attributes that form the basis of CDST include; timescales, openness, predictability, stability, variability, attractor and repeller states, emergence, self-organization, soft assembly, fractalization, non-linearity, and sensitive dependence on initial conditions (the butterfly effect). Timescales , as the most pivotal contribution, points to the effects of time on a process or attribute. Some constructs like anxiety, stress, and motivation may manifest themselves short-run, long-run, or even moment-by-moment. These timescales are nested in each other as seconds in minutes, minutes in hours, hours in days, days in weeks, weeks in months, months in years ( Larsen-Freeman and Cameron, 2008 ). Openness refers to the impact of unpredicted sources on the functionality of a process or construct which brings clarity to their dynamics and unfolds their nature. Unpredictability of CDST argues that even by knowing the whole system and its interactions, one cannot predict the upcoming event or process. Stability concerns the relatively constant state of the overall system, for a period of time, despite the existing fluctuations. Variability of a system means that the current state of the system is the offshoot of the modifications to a previous state. Attractor state is what a system is doing at a particular moment whether it is pleasant or not. Repeller state is a state in which the system pushes something away regardless of its valence (positive or negative). Emergence proposes that the overall state of a system is something greater than the sum of its interacting components. Self-organization posits that systems do not follow a pre-specified plan but are intrinsically predisposed to organize themselves and show coherent patterns. Soft assembly suggests that the underlying components of a system can be re-configured into clear patterns as systems self-organize. Another feature of CDST is fractalization which refers to the ability of a system to exhibit and predict self-similar patterns/behaviors across various levels and timescales. Non-linearity suggests that the relationship between two factors in language learning is not always linear and straightforward. Finally, sensitive dependence on initial conditions or the butterfly effect argues that small features of the initial system can influence its subsequent evolution and functionality. Hence, small variations between two L2 students may entirely affect their language learning outcomes.

The Nature of Research in CDST

Research in CDST perspective differs from simple quantitative and qualitative studies common in exploring teacher-learner psychology. The unique research properties of this meta-theory include; its substantially different research questions which are emergent and dynamically re-phraseable, process-oriented approach to understand an event considering one's cognition, emotion, social context, culture, and interactions, focus on individual-experiences rather than generalizable patterns of behavior, different analytical tools , and favoring dense, longitudinal , and individual data instead of large samples. Moreover, CDST research highlights ongoing and retrospective data collection techniques in place of self-report data in interviews, journals, and narratives to capture the dynamics of behavior. Likewise, CDST takes a holistic perspective which is against the reduction and fragmentation of factors and processes. It should be noted that referring to CDST as a conceptual framework to explain the data is not enough and it must be followed in the research design, data collection procedure, and data analysis phases.

Researching LLP

Over the last decades, numerous studies have been conducted on different variables related to teacher-learner psychology mainly using one-shot and quantitative research designs ( MacIntyre et al., 2020 ). Among many constructs in L2 learning, anxiety, motivation, stress, efficacy, WTC, interpersonal communication skills, resilience, stroke, enjoyment, engagement etc. have been substantially explored in different educational contexts ( Dewaele and MacIntyre, 2014 ; Almutlaq and Etherington, 2018 ; Boudreau et al., 2018 ; Derakhshan et al., 2019 ; Derakhshan, 2021 ; Pishghadam et al., 2021 ). However, these studies have mostly been correlational and based on quantitative data. In scrutinizing LLP, some qualitative methods such as interviews, observations, and journals have also been employed to examine the process of change in these variables, but normally they have not captured the dynamism of change in action which is the heart of CDST.

It is evident that many of these constructs related to emotions and interpersonal communication skills (e.g., clarity, credibility, immediacy, rapport, and care) are unlikely to be measured via simple quantitative, one-shot, and pre/post-test designs. The nature of these variables in SLA is extremely complicated which takes a long period of time to be (re)constructed in a learner. Hence, the use of traditional quantitative-qualitative research designs falls short of scientific standards in this scholarly domain. That is why, when the same variables are examined by CDST, contradictory results may be obtained when the researcher scrutinizes the nature of a variable and its interacting sub-systems.

The Applications of CDST to LLP Research

Despite its existing logistic challenges and the generalizability of findings, CDST has different applications to research in SLA and LLP. As a case in point, researchers can investigate constructs related to teacher-learner psychology focusing on different timescales to see if the observed patterns of behavior occur at other levels. Similarly, CDST provides fresh insights for running idiodynamic studies to explore the nature of dynamic, stable, and variable changes in a construct ( Boudreau et al., 2018 ). Moreover, this theory urges avid scholars to focus on unusual, unpredictable, unique, and outlier cases. They can also integrate social and cognitive dimensions of SLA using CDST ( Larsen-Freeman, 2010 ). Additionally, CDST opposes a priori determination and definition of constructs and their measurements and stresses that LLP constructs must be put in motion to see how they interact and go together leaving a space for the potential influences from other sources on their development. Methodologically, CDST has introduced novel quantitative and qualitative research methods to applied linguistics including panel designs, latent growth curve modeling, multilevel modeling, idiodynamic method, qualitative comparative analysis, process tracing, retrodictive qualitative modeling, agent-based modeling, and socialnetwork analysis ( Hiver and Al-Hoorie, 2020 ). Each of these methods can significantly capture the complexity and dynamism of LLP variables. Nevertheless, CDST is still a nascent approach to research the dynamics of teacher-learner psychology which requires complementary studies at various levels to have substantial contributions. Otherwise, it fades away as time passes, and if nothing valuable is offered by the theory.

Implications and Future Directions

In this study, it was concluded that language learning psychology is a complicated phenomenon that is not measurable via one-shot research instruments. To capture its complexity and dynamism, CDST approach was introduced to SLA and LLP research to detect the developmental process of many social, cognitive, and psychological teacher-learner variables. Although this theory seems technical, complicated, and with logistic problems, its application to L2 education is advantageous in that it can increase the awareness of L2 teachers, students, materials developers, and researchers. Teachers can use the findings to improve students' language learning by using teaching methods and classroom activities that are in tune with the principles of CDST. Similarly, students would find this study of value in that they can realize that language learning is the result of an interplay of numerous interacting components and takes a logical time to develop. Materials developers can develop textbooks and activities which reflect the dynamism and non-linearity of language competence. Finally, researchers can use the ideas of this study to run comparable studies in other fields and contexts as CDST is context-specific. Moreover, running cross-cultural studies is a fresh topic for research to see the applicability of CDST in different cultures. Additionally, future studies can be conducted on teacher-related and interpersonal communication variables from the perspective of CDST. Likewise, emotions in language education can be explored longitudinally through the lens of CDST. Finally, CDST research designs can be employed by future scholars to drive the field forward regarding the dynamics of SLA.

Author Contributions

JY independently drafted the first manuscript and revised meticulously before it was submitted to this special issue for Frontiers in Psychology.

This article was sponsored by the Academic Affairs Office of Henan University. The research project is entitled The Exploration and Practice of Implementation of Moral Education in College English Follow-on Courses: A Case Study of Exploring the Charm of Yellow River Civilization (Grant No. HDXJJG2020-05).

Conflict of Interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

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PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Keywords: language learning psychology, complexity dynamic system theory, data collection methods, research methods, complexity and dynamism

Citation: Yang J (2021) Revisiting Research Methods in Language Learning Psychology From a Complexity Dynamic System Theory Perspective. Front. Psychol. 12:741045. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.741045

Received: 14 July 2021; Accepted: 27 July 2021; Published: 19 August 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Yang. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Jianbo Yang, yangjianbo@henu.edu.cn

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Research methodology on language development from a complex systems perspective.

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Larsen-Freeman, Diane and Cameron, Lynne (2008). Research methodology on language development from a complex systems perspective. Modern Language Journal , 92(2) pp. 200–213.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00714.x

Changes to research methodology motivated by the adoption of a complexity theory perspective on language development are considered. The dynamic, nonlinear, and open nature of complex systems, together with their tendency to self-organization and interaction across levels and time scales, require changes in traditional views of the functions and roles of theory, hypothesis, data, and analysis. Traditional views of causality are shifted to focus on co-adaptation and emergence. Context is not seen as a backdrop, but rather as a complex system itself, connected to other complex systems, and variability in system behavior takes on increased importance. A set of general methodological principles is offered, and an overview of specific methods is given, with particular attention to validity in simulation modeling.

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• DOI: 10.1111/J.1540-4781.2008.00712.X
• Corpus ID: 145403950

Introduction: Second Language Development as a Dynamic Process

• Published 1 June 2008
• Linguistics
• The Modern Language Journal

196 Citations

Complex dynamic systems theory (cdst), exploring regularities and dynamic systems in l2 development, complex, dynamic systems: a new transdisciplinary theme for applied linguistics, exploring the variability of the preposition “in” in written communication, second language developmental dynamics: how dynamic systems theory accounts for issues in second language learning, a dynamical system approach to research in second language acquisition.

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COMPLEX DYNAMIC SYSTEMS THEORY IN LANGUAGE LEARNING

Complexity in multilingual systems, beyond global englishes: teaching english as a dynamic language, the research on second language acquisition model based on the dynamic systems theory, 47 references, a dynamic systems theory approach to second language acquisition, variability in second language development from a dynamic systems perspective, dynamic systems theory and universal grammar: holding up a turbulent mirror to development in grammars, a dst model of multilingualism and the role of metalinguistic awareness, the dynamic systems approach in the study of l1 and l2 acquisition: an introduction, disentangling early language development: modeling lexical and grammatical acquisition using an extension of case-study methodology., the dynamics of second language emergence: cycles of language use, language change, and language acquisition, research methodology on language development from a complex systems perspective, connectionism and dynamic systems: are they really different, linguistic attractors: the cognitive dynamics of language acquisition and change (review), related papers.

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Research Methodology on Language Development from a Complex Systems Perspective

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Alternative approaches to second language acquisition, individual differences: interplay of learner characteristics and learning environment, researching complex dynamic systems: ‘retrodictive qualitative modelling’ in the language classroom, focus on multilingualism: a study of trilingual writing, parallel distributed processing: explorations in the microstructure of cognition: foundations, a dynamic systems approach to the development of cognition and action, how nature works: the science of self-organized criticality, book review: a dynamic systems approach to the development of cognition and action by, esther thelen and linda b. smith, cambridge, ma: the mit press, 1994, hardbound, 376 pages, $50.00. isbn 0-262-70059-x, simulation for the social scientist, related papers (5).

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• > A Dynamic Systems Theory approach to second language...

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A dynamic systems theory approach to second language acquisition.

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 March 2007

In this article it is argued that language can be seen as a dynamic system, i.e. a set of variables that interact over time, and that language development can be seen as a dynamic process. Language development shows some of the core characteristics of dynamic systems: sensitive dependence on initial conditions, complete interconnectedness of subsystems, the emergence of attractor states in development over time and variation both in and among individuals. The application of tools and instruments developed for the study of dynamic systems in other disciplines calls for different approaches to research, which allow for the inclusion of both the social and the cognitive, and the interaction between systems. There is also a need for dense data bases on first and second language development to enhance our understanding of the fine-grained patterns of change over time. Dynamic Systems Theory is proposed as a candidate for an overall theory of language development.

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• Volume 10, Issue 1
• KEES DE BOT (a1) , WANDER LOWIE (a1) and MARJOLIJN VERSPOOR (a1)
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728906002732

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