what is the role research report to you as student

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Research reports

This resource will help you identify the common elements and basic format of a research report.

Research reports generally follow a similar structure and have common elements, each with a particular purpose. Learn more about each of these elements below.

Common elements of reports

Your title should be brief, topic-specific, and informative, clearly indicating the purpose and scope of your study. Include key words in your title so that search engines can easily access your work. For example:  Measurement of water around Station Pier.

An abstract is a concise summary that helps readers to quickly assess the content and direction of your paper. It should be brief, written in a single paragraph and cover: the scope and purpose of your report; an overview of methodology; a summary of the main findings or results; principal conclusions or significance of the findings; and recommendations made.

The information in the abstract must be presented in the same order as it is in your report. The abstract is usually written last when you have developed your arguments and synthesised the results.

The introduction creates the context for your research. It should provide sufficient background to allow the reader to understand and evaluate your study without needing to refer to previous publications. After reading the introduction your reader should understand exactly what your research is about, what you plan to do, why you are undertaking this research and which methods you have used. Introductions generally include:

• The rationale for the present study. Why are you interested in this topic? Why is this topic worth investigating?
• Key terms and definitions.
• An outline of the research questions and hypotheses; the assumptions or propositions that your research will test.

Not all research reports have a separate literature review section. In shorter research reports, the review is usually part of the Introduction.

A literature review is a critical survey of recent relevant research in a particular field. The review should be a selection of carefully organised, focused and relevant literature that develops a narrative ‘story’ about your topic. Your review should answer key questions about the literature:

• What is the current state of knowledge on the topic?
• What differences in approaches / methodologies are there?
• Where are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?
• What further research is needed? The review may identify a gap in the literature which provides a rationale for your study and supports your research questions and methodology.

The review is not just a summary of all you have read. Rather, it must develop an argument or a point of view that supports your chosen methodology and research questions.

The purpose of this section is to detail how you conducted your research so that others can understand and replicate your approach.

You need to briefly describe the subjects (if appropriate), any equipment or materials used and the approach taken. If the research method or method of data analysis is commonly used within your field of study, then simply reference the procedure. If, however, your methods are new or controversial then you need to describe them in more detail and provide a rationale for your approach. The methodology is written in the past tense and should be as concise as possible.

This section is a concise, factual summary of your findings, listed under headings appropriate to your research questions. It’s common to use tables and graphics. Raw data or details about the method of statistical analysis used should be included in the Appendices.

Present your results in a consistent manner. For example, if you present the first group of results as percentages, it will be confusing for the reader and difficult to make comparisons of data if later results are presented as fractions or as decimal values.

In general, you won’t discuss your results here. Any analysis of your results usually occurs in the Discussion section.

Notes on visual data representation:

• Graphs and tables may be used to reveal trends in your data, but they must be explained and referred to in adjacent accompanying text.
• Figures and tables do not simply repeat information given in the text: they summarise, amplify or complement it.
• Graphs are always referred to as ‘Figures’, and both axes must be clearly labelled.
• Tables must be numbered, and they must be able to stand-alone or make sense without your reader needing to read all of the accompanying text.

The Discussion responds to the hypothesis or research question. This section is where you interpret your results, account for your findings and explain their significance within the context of other research. Consider the adequacy of your sampling techniques, the scope and long-term implications of your study, any problems with data collection or analysis and any assumptions on which your study was based. This is also the place to discuss any disappointing results and address limitations.

Checklist for the discussion

• To what extent was each hypothesis supported?
• To what extent are your findings validated or supported by other research?
• Were there unexpected variables that affected your results?
• On reflection, was your research method appropriate?
• Can you account for any differences between your results and other studies?

Conclusions in research reports are generally fairly short and should follow on naturally from points raised in the Discussion. In this section you should discuss the significance of your findings. To what extent and in what ways are your findings useful or conclusive? Is further research required? If so, based on your research experience, what suggestions could you make about improvements to the scope or methodology of future studies?

Also, consider the practical implications of your results and any recommendations you could make. For example, if your research is on reading strategies in the primary school classroom, what are the implications of your results for the classroom teacher? What recommendations could you make for teachers?

A Reference List contains all the resources you have cited in your work, while a Bibliography is a wider list containing all the resources you have consulted (but not necessarily cited) in the preparation of your work. It is important to check which of these is required, and the preferred format, style of references and presentation requirements of your own department.

Appendices (singular ‘Appendix’) provide supporting material to your project. Examples of such materials include:

• Relevant letters to participants and organisations (e.g. regarding the ethics or conduct of the project).
• Background reports.
• Detailed calculations.

Different types of data are presented in separate appendices. Each appendix must be titled, labelled with a number or letter, and referred to in the body of the report.

Appendices are placed at the end of a report, and the contents are generally not included in the word count.

Fi nal ti p

While there are many common elements to research reports, it’s always best to double check the exact requirements for your task. You may find that you don’t need some sections, can combine others or have specific requirements about referencing, formatting or word limits.

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The Importance of Research to Students

Tags: cleveland university-kansas city , Communications Staff , health sciences , research

When exploring the impact of research, consider what it would be like if the automotive industry ceased all investigative efforts. The cars we drive would likely never improve in safety, comfort, or efficiency, and we would never know the benefits of the advancements we often take for granted. The same is true for the health sciences. Without research, advancements that have improved some lives and saved others may not have come to pass.

For universities, the research component allows for a broader educational experience whereby students are able to explore the effects of applying new thought processes through study and testing. Students are able to use that experience to see the practical application of their classroom experience represented in research projects. Cleveland University-Kansas City (CUKC), for example, offers a challenging curriculum, but also the opportunity to participate in various research studies on campus. ( Learn more about chiropractic here .)

Dr. Mark Pfefer, director of research at CUKC, collaborates with students on various projects. He said students have the opportunity to take an active role in research projects while at the same time learning about proper investigative techniques.

“We’ve had numerous students participate as co-authors on recent publications and presentations,” Pfefer said. “Students are taught strategies to search for information and assess the quality of the information found. Students learn good critical appraisal skills; all information is not the same, some information is good, and some is not.”

Research by Students in College

Pfefer said that students interested in research are mentored by faculty and assist in various ways, including literature searching, data collection, data entry, and manuscript development. The collective work between students and administrators has proven to be a successful combination, and he looks forward to the continuation of these efforts in future studies.

While time in the classroom is invaluable, having access to an on-site research department means that students are able to grow and challenge the boundaries that were established by their predecessors in the field. They are encouraged to open their minds and be open to the possibilities that research can reveal. Ultimately, they can become better health care professionals by engaging in work outside the classroom that challenges them in a similar fashion.

This will also have an impact on their future in their chosen profession by putting them in the position to attach their name to efforts that may have reshaped the parameters that were once the norm. Research can light the fire of curiosity that will continue throughout a professional career, and there is no end to what can be learned.

At Cleveland University-Kansas City (CUKC) , those are the exhilarating breakthroughs that research can deliver. It educates our students personally by opening their eyes to new possibilities. It rewards them professionally by getting their name out into the research community before they’ve even graduated.

Get to Know Cleveland University-Kansas City (CUKC )

CUKC is a private, nonprofit chiropractic and health sciences university in Overland Park, Kansas, a major suburb of the Kansas City metropolitan area. In addition to our 100-year legacy of offering the Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C.) degree, CUKC offers two-year degrees Radiologic Technology, and Biological Sciences. CUKC also offers the B.S. in Human Biology, B.S. in Exercise Science, the M.S. in Exercise Physiology and Sports Performance, and a 12-credit-hour Certificate in Sports Performance (CSP).

Explore our academic degrees/certifications here .

Research is a powerful part of the educational experience at CUKC and one we are proud to share with our students. As an example of the topics and issues explored, check out this research blog and our website for evidence-based research on chiropractic issues and topics .

CUKC is a student-focused, high academic quality University. Sound interesting to you? Get more information about CUKC here, and download a free guide to help you plot your college plan: Your Guide to Navigating College Financial Aid .

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Office of Undergraduate Research

Why undergraduate research.

Developing mentoring relationships

Mentors play a critically important role in students’ research and creative experiences, challenging students to try new things and offering a window onto the thinking of an experienced researcher or practitioner. A mentor who knows you well can advise you about your undergraduate career and your next steps after graduation; s/he will also be able to write a more detailed letter of recommendation than a professor who knows you only in a classroom context.

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Making a big campus feel smaller.

Participation in research, scholarship, or creative activity can help you find your niche on campus. The close relationships that are developed through sustained work together give a sense of community to research groups, labs, and teams.

Changing your perspective on ignorance and failure

Scholarly inquiry has a way of putting all that you do not know into stark relief, while rarely working quite as expected. As you learn to think like a researcher, you begin to see ignorance and failure not as personal shortcomings but as opportunities to ask questions, reframe problems, and try new approaches.

Cultivating an understanding of research design and methodology

Hands-on experience conducting original research supports students’ understanding of how to design investigations, how to make appropriate methodological choices, and how to implement different techniques and methods.

Developing a range of transferable skills

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Home » Research Report – Example, Writing Guide and Types

Research Report – Example, Writing Guide and Types

Table of Contents

Research Report

Definition:

Research Report is a written document that presents the results of a research project or study, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions, in a clear and objective manner.

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the findings of the research to the intended audience, which could be other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public.

Components of Research Report

Components of Research Report are as follows:

Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for the research report and provides a brief overview of the research question or problem being investigated. It should include a clear statement of the purpose of the study and its significance or relevance to the field of research. It may also provide background information or a literature review to help contextualize the research.

Literature Review

The literature review provides a critical analysis and synthesis of the existing research and scholarship relevant to the research question or problem. It should identify the gaps, inconsistencies, and contradictions in the literature and show how the current study addresses these issues. The literature review also establishes the theoretical framework or conceptual model that guides the research.

Methodology

The methodology section describes the research design, methods, and procedures used to collect and analyze data. It should include information on the sample or participants, data collection instruments, data collection procedures, and data analysis techniques. The methodology should be clear and detailed enough to allow other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the study in a clear and objective manner. It should provide a detailed description of the data and statistics used to answer the research question or test the hypothesis. Tables, graphs, and figures may be included to help visualize the data and illustrate the key findings.

The discussion section interprets the results of the study and explains their significance or relevance to the research question or problem. It should also compare the current findings with those of previous studies and identify the implications for future research or practice. The discussion should be based on the results presented in the previous section and should avoid speculation or unfounded conclusions.

The conclusion summarizes the key findings of the study and restates the main argument or thesis presented in the introduction. It should also provide a brief overview of the contributions of the study to the field of research and the implications for practice or policy.

The references section lists all the sources cited in the research report, following a specific citation style, such as APA or MLA.

The appendices section includes any additional material, such as data tables, figures, or instruments used in the study, that could not be included in the main text due to space limitations.

Types of Research Report

Types of Research Report are as follows:

Thesis is a type of research report. A thesis is a long-form research document that presents the findings and conclusions of an original research study conducted by a student as part of a graduate or postgraduate program. It is typically written by a student pursuing a higher degree, such as a Master’s or Doctoral degree, although it can also be written by researchers or scholars in other fields.

Research Paper

Research paper is a type of research report. A research paper is a document that presents the results of a research study or investigation. Research papers can be written in a variety of fields, including science, social science, humanities, and business. They typically follow a standard format that includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion sections.

Technical Report

A technical report is a detailed report that provides information about a specific technical or scientific problem or project. Technical reports are often used in engineering, science, and other technical fields to document research and development work.

Progress Report

A progress report provides an update on the progress of a research project or program over a specific period of time. Progress reports are typically used to communicate the status of a project to stakeholders, funders, or project managers.

Feasibility Report

A feasibility report assesses the feasibility of a proposed project or plan, providing an analysis of the potential risks, benefits, and costs associated with the project. Feasibility reports are often used in business, engineering, and other fields to determine the viability of a project before it is undertaken.

Field Report

A field report documents observations and findings from fieldwork, which is research conducted in the natural environment or setting. Field reports are often used in anthropology, ecology, and other social and natural sciences.

Experimental Report

An experimental report documents the results of a scientific experiment, including the hypothesis, methods, results, and conclusions. Experimental reports are often used in biology, chemistry, and other sciences to communicate the results of laboratory experiments.

Case Study Report

A case study report provides an in-depth analysis of a specific case or situation, often used in psychology, social work, and other fields to document and understand complex cases or phenomena.

Literature Review Report

A literature review report synthesizes and summarizes existing research on a specific topic, providing an overview of the current state of knowledge on the subject. Literature review reports are often used in social sciences, education, and other fields to identify gaps in the literature and guide future research.

Research Report Example

Following is a Research Report Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Academic Performance among High School Students

This study aims to investigate the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students. The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The findings indicate that there is a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students. The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers, as they highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities.

Introduction:

Social media has become an integral part of the lives of high school students. With the widespread use of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat, students can connect with friends, share photos and videos, and engage in discussions on a range of topics. While social media offers many benefits, concerns have been raised about its impact on academic performance. Many studies have found a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance among high school students (Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010; Paul, Baker, & Cochran, 2012).

Given the growing importance of social media in the lives of high school students, it is important to investigate its impact on academic performance. This study aims to address this gap by examining the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students.

Methodology:

The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The questionnaire was developed based on previous studies and was designed to measure the frequency and duration of social media use, as well as academic performance.

The participants were selected using a convenience sampling technique, and the survey questionnaire was distributed in the classroom during regular school hours. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis.

The findings indicate that the majority of high school students use social media platforms on a daily basis, with Facebook being the most popular platform. The results also show a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students.

Discussion:

The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. The negative correlation between social media use and academic performance suggests that strategies should be put in place to help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. For example, educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, this study provides evidence of the negative impact of social media on academic performance among high school students. The findings highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. Further research is needed to explore the specific mechanisms by which social media use affects academic performance and to develop effective strategies for addressing this issue.

Limitations:

One limitation of this study is the use of convenience sampling, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other populations. Future studies should use random sampling techniques to increase the representativeness of the sample. Another limitation is the use of self-reported measures, which may be subject to social desirability bias. Future studies could use objective measures of social media use and academic performance, such as tracking software and school records.

Implications:

The findings of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. Educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. For example, teachers could use social media platforms to share relevant educational resources and facilitate online discussions. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. They could also engage in open communication with their children to understand their social media use and its impact on their academic performance. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students. For example, schools could implement social media policies that restrict access during class time and encourage responsible use.

References:

• Kirschner, P. A., & Karpinski, A. C. (2010). Facebook® and academic performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(6), 1237-1245.
• Paul, J. A., Baker, H. M., & Cochran, J. D. (2012). Effect of online social networking on student academic performance. Journal of the Research Center for Educational Technology, 8(1), 1-19.
• Pantic, I. (2014). Online social networking and mental health. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(10), 652-657.
• Rosen, L. D., Carrier, L. M., & Cheever, N. A. (2013). Facebook and texting made me do it: Media-induced task-switching while studying. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 948-958.

Note*: Above mention, Example is just a sample for the students’ guide. Do not directly copy and paste as your College or University assignment. Kindly do some research and Write your own.

Applications of Research Report

Research reports have many applications, including:

• Communicating research findings: The primary application of a research report is to communicate the results of a study to other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public. The report serves as a way to share new knowledge, insights, and discoveries with others in the field.
• Informing policy and practice : Research reports can inform policy and practice by providing evidence-based recommendations for decision-makers. For example, a research report on the effectiveness of a new drug could inform regulatory agencies in their decision-making process.
• Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research in a particular area. Other researchers may use the findings and methodology of a report to develop new research questions or to build on existing research.
• Evaluating programs and interventions : Research reports can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and interventions in achieving their intended outcomes. For example, a research report on a new educational program could provide evidence of its impact on student performance.
• Demonstrating impact : Research reports can be used to demonstrate the impact of research funding or to evaluate the success of research projects. By presenting the findings and outcomes of a study, research reports can show the value of research to funders and stakeholders.
• Enhancing professional development : Research reports can be used to enhance professional development by providing a source of information and learning for researchers and practitioners in a particular field. For example, a research report on a new teaching methodology could provide insights and ideas for educators to incorporate into their own practice.

How to write Research Report

Here are some steps you can follow to write a research report:

• Identify the research question: The first step in writing a research report is to identify your research question. This will help you focus your research and organize your findings.
• Conduct research : Once you have identified your research question, you will need to conduct research to gather relevant data and information. This can involve conducting experiments, reviewing literature, or analyzing data.
• Organize your findings: Once you have gathered all of your data, you will need to organize your findings in a way that is clear and understandable. This can involve creating tables, graphs, or charts to illustrate your results.
• Write the report: Once you have organized your findings, you can begin writing the report. Start with an introduction that provides background information and explains the purpose of your research. Next, provide a detailed description of your research methods and findings. Finally, summarize your results and draw conclusions based on your findings.
• Proofread and edit: After you have written your report, be sure to proofread and edit it carefully. Check for grammar and spelling errors, and make sure that your report is well-organized and easy to read.
• Include a reference list: Be sure to include a list of references that you used in your research. This will give credit to your sources and allow readers to further explore the topic if they choose.
• Format your report: Finally, format your report according to the guidelines provided by your instructor or organization. This may include formatting requirements for headings, margins, fonts, and spacing.

Purpose of Research Report

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the results of a research study to a specific audience, such as peers in the same field, stakeholders, or the general public. The report provides a detailed description of the research methods, findings, and conclusions.

Some common purposes of a research report include:

• Sharing knowledge: A research report allows researchers to share their findings and knowledge with others in their field. This helps to advance the field and improve the understanding of a particular topic.
• Identifying trends: A research report can identify trends and patterns in data, which can help guide future research and inform decision-making.
• Addressing problems: A research report can provide insights into problems or issues and suggest solutions or recommendations for addressing them.
• Evaluating programs or interventions : A research report can evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions, which can inform decision-making about whether to continue, modify, or discontinue them.
• Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies.

When to Write Research Report

A research report should be written after completing the research study. This includes collecting data, analyzing the results, and drawing conclusions based on the findings. Once the research is complete, the report should be written in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

In academic settings, research reports are often required as part of coursework or as part of a thesis or dissertation. In this case, the report should be written according to the guidelines provided by the instructor or institution.

In other settings, such as in industry or government, research reports may be required to inform decision-making or to comply with regulatory requirements. In these cases, the report should be written as soon as possible after the research is completed in order to inform decision-making in a timely manner.

Overall, the timing of when to write a research report depends on the purpose of the research, the expectations of the audience, and any regulatory requirements that need to be met. However, it is important to complete the report in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

Characteristics of Research Report

There are several characteristics of a research report that distinguish it from other types of writing. These characteristics include:

• Objective: A research report should be written in an objective and unbiased manner. It should present the facts and findings of the research study without any personal opinions or biases.
• Systematic: A research report should be written in a systematic manner. It should follow a clear and logical structure, and the information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand and follow.
• Detailed: A research report should be detailed and comprehensive. It should provide a thorough description of the research methods, results, and conclusions.
• Accurate : A research report should be accurate and based on sound research methods. The findings and conclusions should be supported by data and evidence.
• Organized: A research report should be well-organized. It should include headings and subheadings to help the reader navigate the report and understand the main points.
• Clear and concise: A research report should be written in clear and concise language. The information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand, and unnecessary jargon should be avoided.
• Citations and references: A research report should include citations and references to support the findings and conclusions. This helps to give credit to other researchers and to provide readers with the opportunity to further explore the topic.

Advantages of Research Report

Research reports have several advantages, including:

• Communicating research findings: Research reports allow researchers to communicate their findings to a wider audience, including other researchers, stakeholders, and the general public. This helps to disseminate knowledge and advance the understanding of a particular topic.
• Providing evidence for decision-making : Research reports can provide evidence to inform decision-making, such as in the case of policy-making, program planning, or product development. The findings and conclusions can help guide decisions and improve outcomes.
• Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research on a particular topic. Other researchers can build on the findings and conclusions of the report, which can lead to further discoveries and advancements in the field.
• Demonstrating expertise: Research reports can demonstrate the expertise of the researchers and their ability to conduct rigorous and high-quality research. This can be important for securing funding, promotions, and other professional opportunities.
• Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies. Producing a high-quality research report can help ensure compliance with these requirements.

Limitations of Research Report

Despite their advantages, research reports also have some limitations, including:

• Time-consuming: Conducting research and writing a report can be a time-consuming process, particularly for large-scale studies. This can limit the frequency and speed of producing research reports.
• Expensive: Conducting research and producing a report can be expensive, particularly for studies that require specialized equipment, personnel, or data. This can limit the scope and feasibility of some research studies.
• Limited generalizability: Research studies often focus on a specific population or context, which can limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations or contexts.
• Potential bias : Researchers may have biases or conflicts of interest that can influence the findings and conclusions of the research study. Additionally, participants may also have biases or may not be representative of the larger population, which can limit the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Accessibility: Research reports may be written in technical or academic language, which can limit their accessibility to a wider audience. Additionally, some research may be behind paywalls or require specialized access, which can limit the ability of others to read and use the findings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Student responsibilities.

Every undergraduate research and creative project requires thoughtful and sustained collaboration between the student researcher and a faculty mentor. It is the responsibility of the student to seek out an appropriately qualified faculty mentor and obtain their written consent to serve in that role. The essential responsibilities of the student researcher are outlined below.

• Explore possible research topics that reflect your interests and preparation. Pick a topic that truly interests you . If you care about the subject, you will pursue interesting questions because you want to know the answers. That will draw you into the subject, enrich your work, and motivate you to sustain the effort needed to complete the project.
• Identify the knowledge, experience, and skills that you will need to complete the project. Your faculty mentor may advise you to enroll in an appropriate research methods course before embarking upon the project.Work to define and focus your research or creative project, including the development of a timetable to assure that your project can be completed within the time frame allotted.
• Consult with your faculty mentor to determine if your project will require approval from a University review committee. Any projects involving research on human subjects must receive approval from UM-Missoula’s Institutional Review Board (IRB). Similarly, if the research will involve vertebrate animals, infectious agents, hazardous chemicals, radioactive materials, recombinant DNA, and/or patents and copyrights, you will need to submit your research protocol to the appropriate University review committee for approval. (In some cases, your faculty mentor may already have obtained approval for the research project.) For more information about the research approval process, see the Areas of Compliance website .
• Discuss with your faculty mentor the details of how the proposed research project will be carried out and the features of a good project proposal.
• Ask your faculty mentor to review and critique your research proposal. Although it is the responsibility of the student to write the proposal in its entirety, it is important that the faculty mentor review the proposal in time for modifications to be made before you submit it for final approval.
• If you intend to apply for an Undergraduate Research Scholarship or other research funding, then you will need to work with your faculty mentor to develop a budget proposal, showing estimated research expenses for books, materials, equipment, and student travel. Your faculty mentor is authorized to review expenditures and approve changes to the proposed research budget.
• If you intend to apply for an Undergraduate Research Scholarship or other research funding, you may request your faculty mentor to write a letter of support, describing the merits of the proposed project and your ability to carry it out. Ask your faculty mentor to return this letter of support to you in a separate, sealed and signed envelope, to be attached to your research funding application.
• If you plan to conduct research away from UM-Missoula, then you should work with your faculty mentor to identify the resources that will be available at the location of the research, including specific individuals to whom you can turn for guidance.
• Develop a time frame and a system of communication with your faculty mentor during the project period that will allow for an appropriate balance of mentor guidance and student independence. In many cases, regular weekly or biweekly meetings are optimal to keep the project on track.
• Submit your final report, essay, or thesis to your faculty mentor by the agreed deadline.
• Consult with your faculty mentor to identify appropriate forums in which to present your research or creative scholarship. All UM students are encouraged to present their research and creative scholarship at the annual UM Conference on Undergraduate Research (UMCUR). Although many students choose to participate in UMCUR, other research conferences or departmental forums may also be appropriate. Be sure to notify your faculty mentor of the time and location of any public presentation of your research.
• Students should be aware that service in the faculty mentor role is entirely voluntary for any faculty member at UM-Missoula. Bearing in mind the voluntary nature of this commitment, student researchers should always be prompt, courteous, and respectful of their faculty mentor’s time. Students should not rely upon their faculty mentor for basic training in expository writing or research methods; rather, students should enroll in appropriate courses to acquire the requisite skills in those areas before embarking upon a research or creative project. Throughout the project, students should be prepared to carry out independent research, keep appointments, meet deadlines, and present well‑written and carefully edited documents to their faculty mentor.

/images/cornell/logo35pt_cornell_white.svg" alt="what is the role research report to you as student"> Cornell University --> Graduate School

Advising guide for research students.

Success as a graduate student is a shared responsibility between students and faculty. For research students, the relationship with your research advisor, also known as your special committee chair, is extremely important. 

Your responsibility to identify and choose an advisor is one of the most critical tasks you have early in your graduate school career. It’s an opportunity to meet and get to know faculty in your field, to assess your needs for support and supervision, and to collaboratively define your goals, values, and strategic plan for your academic and professional career.

Graduate School Requirement

At Cornell, the faculty advisor in research degree programs is referred to as the special committee chair.

Doctoral students have a special committee of at least three Cornell faculty, which includes the special committee chair and two minor committee members.

Master’s students have a special committee of at least two Cornell faculty, which includes the special committee chair and one minor member.

For both doctoral and master’s degree students, the special committee chair must be a graduate faculty member in the student’s own field.

Definition of an Advisor

Advising  and  mentoring  are often used interchangeably, but understanding the distinctions is important as you choose an advisor.

Advisor Responsibilities

• Guides you in meeting the requirements and expectations for your degree
• Required coursework
• Exams required by the graduate field or the Graduate School
• Research proposal/prospectus
• Research project
• Thesis or dissertation
• Writes informed letters of recommendation for your job applications
• May be a valued colleague or collaborator after you graduate

Mentor Responsibilities

• Provides support and guidance that extends beyond scope of advising
• Demystifies the structure, culture, and unstated expectations of graduate education
• Expands your professional network by introducing you to others
• Provides nominations for awards or other recognitions
• Brings job opportunities to your attention and writes letters of recommendation as you apply for jobs
• Advocates for you within the graduate program and discipline
• May serve as a role model and source of inspiration
• May become a colleague and peer in your discipline and may continue serving a mentoring role

Finding an Advisor

When do i select my first advisor.

At Cornell, the process for obtaining your first advisor varies by field.

Your faculty advisor may be assigned prior to your arrival or you may begin your program with a faculty member you met during the application process.

In some graduate fields, the faculty director of graduate studies (DGS) advises all incoming students. This provides you with time to get to know faculty in your field. By the end of the first semester or year (varying by field), it’s expected that you will have identified your own, long-term advisor. 

In fields where students apply to study with a specific faculty member (rather than do rotations and choose a lab or research group and advisor), you will have chosen an advisor prior to arriving on campus.

You can begin initial conversations about expectations and the advising relationship with your new advisor prior to the start of your program via email.

Start your graduate study and research with clear expectations and thoughtful communication about your plans for an effective advising relationship and success in graduate school.

How do I find an advisor? 

Meet and get to know faculty in your courses and in graduate field seminars and other events.

Talk to advanced students about their experiences and perceptions of the faculty in your programs and ask questions about possible advisors:

• How would you describe their approach to advising?
• What can you tell me about their work style?
• What can you tell me about their research interests?
• How good are their communication skills?
• How clear are their expectations for their graduate students?
• Do they use timeliness in reviewing their students’ writing and their approach to giving feedback?
• How available are they to meet with their graduate students?

After you have gathered information, make an appointment to meet with a potential advisor.

Possible Questions

• Is there a typical timeline you encourage your students to follow in completing their degree programs?
• How often do you meet with your students at different stages of their graduate program? (For example, during coursework, research, and writing stages)
• What are your expectations for students to make conference presentations and submit publications?
• What are your authorship policies? (This is especially relevant in fields where there is collaborative research and publishing involving the student and advisor or a group of students, postdocs, and faculty.)
• How soon should I identify my research project?
• How do you describe the degree of guidance and supervision you provide with regards to your students becoming more independent in their research and scholarship?
• If you are joining a lab or research group: What are the sources of funding for this research? Are there any new or pending research grants?
• How many of your students seek, and secure, external funding? What are your expectations for students to apply for external fellowships?
• Do you have a statement of advising you can share that lists our respective responsibilities and clarifies mutual expectations?
• What’s your advice on how students can manage what they find to be the biggest challenges in their graduate program?

Add other questions to your list based on your own needs and specifics of your program, such as questions about specialized equipment, lab safety, travel to field sites, support and accommodations for special health needs, communication during a faculty member’s sabbatical, funding in fields where there are fewer fellowships and research grants, etc.

Getting Other Mentoring Needs Met

How do i find other mentor(s) .

You may find one faculty member who can serve as both advisor and mentor, but that’s not always the case.

Consider identifying and cultivating additional mentors if that is the case. 

Suggestions on where to look for a mentor:

• The minor members of your special committee
• A faculty member who is not on your committee, and perhaps not even in your graduate field
• Peers and postdoctoral fellows who have knowledge and experience in pertinent issues

No one mentor can meet all your needs.

Good mentors have many protégés and many other demands on their time, such as teaching, research, and university or professional service. They also may not have all the expertise you need, for example, if you decide to search for jobs in multiple employment sectors.

Develop a broad network of mentors whose expertise varies and who provide different functions based on your changing needs as you progress from new student to independent scholar and researcher.

NCFDD offers a webinar, “ Cultivating Your Network of Mentors, Sponsors, and Collaborators “, which students can view after activating a free NCFDD membership through Cornell.

Maximizing the Advising Relationship

A successful relationship with your advisor depends on several different factors and varies with needs and working styles of the individuals. Some of these factors are under your control. But some are not. 

Suggestions for Building a Successful Advising Relationship

• Identify what you need from an advisor.
• Communicate clearly and frequently with your advisor to convey your questions, expectations, goals, challenges, and degree progress. Follow up verbal communication and meetings with an email detailing your understanding of what you both agreed to and next steps.
• Update your written academic plan each semester or whenever major changes or adjustments are needed.
• Consider including your plans to write competitive fellowship applications and co-authored grant proposals.
• Consider including  plans for professional development  that support your skill-building objectives and career goals.
• Recognize that you and your advisor have distinct perspectives, backgrounds, and interests. Share yours. Listen to your advisor’s. There is mutual benefit to sharing and learning from this diversity.
• Work with your advisor to define a regular meeting schedule. Prepare and send written materials in advance of each meeting. These could include: your questions, academic and research plan and timeline, and drafts of current writing projects, such as fellowship applications, manuscripts, or thesis/dissertation chapters.
• Be prepared to negotiate, show flexibility, and compromise, as is important for any successful relationship.
• Be as candid as you are comfortable with about your challenges and concerns. Seek guidance about campus and other resources that can help you manage and address any obstacles.
• Reach out to others for advice. Anticipate challenges and obstacles in your graduate degree program and their impact on the advising relationship.

Be proactive in finding resources and gathering information that can help you and your advisor arrive at solutions to any problems and optimize your time together.

Making Use of Meetings

First meetings.

Your first meeting sets the tone for a productive, satisfying, and enduring relationship with your advisor. Your first meeting is an opportunity to discuss expectations and to review a working draft of your academic plan.

Questions to ask about expectations

• What do your most successful students do to complete their degree on time?
• How often do you want us to meet?
• May I send you questions via email, or do you prefer I just come to your office?
• Would you like weekly (biweekly? monthly?) updates on my research progress?
• Do you prefer reviewing the complete draft of a manuscript or may I send you sections for feedback?
• After each meeting, I’ll make a list of what we each agreed to do before our next meeting, to help me keep moving forward with my research. Would you like a copy of that list, too, via email?

Draft Academic Plan

Prepare and bring a draft plan that outlines your “big picture” plans for your coursework, research, and writing, as well as an anticipated graduation date. (Or, email in advance with a message, such as, “I’m looking forward to meeting with you on [date] at [time], [location]. In advance, I’m sending a copy of my academic plan and proposed schedule for our discussion.”)

Contents of the plan

• Include the requirements and deadlines of your degree program. (This is information you should be able to find online or in your program’s graduate student handbook.)
• Include a general timeline indicating when you plan to meet requirements for courses or seminars, any required papers (such as a second-year paper), exams required by the graduate field (such as the Q exam) or by the Graduate School (the A exam and the B exam for research degree students).
• If your graduate field has a specific set of required courses, indicate the semester you may complete each of them, and be open to suggestions from your advisor.
• If your field does not have required courses, have some idea about the courses you are interested in taking and solicit input and suggestions from your faculty advisor.

Subsequent Meetings

Use each subsequent meeting as an opportunity to update your written academic plan and stay on track to complete your required papers and exams, your research proposal or prospectus, and the chapters or articles that comprise your thesis or dissertation.

In later meetings, you can elaborate on your general initial plan:

• Adding specific coursework or seminars
• Add professional development opportunities that interest you (workshops, dissertation writing boot camp, Summer Success Symposium, Colman Leadership Program, etc.)
• Include intentions to participate in external conferences and travel to research sites
• Identify a semester or summer when you would like to complete an internship.

Your written plan is also important to document what your advisor has agreed to, especially when the deadline to submit a manuscript or your thesis is looming and you are awaiting feedback or approval from your advisor. Use a combination of oral and written communications to stay in touch with your advisor, establish common expectations, and mark your progress toward degree completion.

Meeting Frequency

The frequency of meetings between advisors and advisees varies by field and individual. Assess your own needs and understand your advisor’s expectations for frequency of communication (in person and via email).

• Does your advisor like to provide guidance each step of the way so that he or she is aware of the details of everything you are doing?
• Does your advisor want you to launch your work more independently and report back at pre-determined or regular intervals?
• What do you need to be productive? Are you ready to work more independently?

Be proactive in seeking information. Explicitly ask how often your advisor usually meets with new students and how the advisor prefers to be updated on your progress in between meetings. Ask your peers how frequently they meet with their advisor and whether this has changed over time.

There will be disciplinary differences in meeting frequency.

• In humanities and in some social sciences, where library, archive, and field research take students away from campus, maintaining regular communication is essential, including through scheduled meetings, whether in-person or virtual.
• In life sciences and physical sciences and engineering, students often see their advisors daily in the lab or meet as a research group about externally funded projects; these regular check-ins and conversations may replace formal meetings. Make sure that you are also scheduling one-on-one times to talk about your broader goals and academic and career planning progress, however.

Some of your decisions about meeting frequency will be informed by talking to others, but much of it you learn through experience working together with your advisor. Even this will  change over time  as you become a more independent researcher and scholar. Communicate with your advisor regularly about your changing needs and expectations at each stage of your graduate career.

Resolving Conflict

In any relationship, there can be conflict. And, in the advisor-advisee relationship, the power dynamic created by the supervision, evaluation and, in some cases, funding role of your advisor can make conflicts with your advisor seem especially high.

You have options, however, including:

• Code of Legislation of the Graduate Faculty
• Campus Code of Conduct
• Policy on Academic Misconduct
• Research Misconduct
• Graduate School Grievance Policy
• Intellectual Property policies
• Graduate Student Assistantships (Policy 1.3)
• Talking with your advisor to clarify any miscommunication. Cornell University’s Office of the Ombudsman , one of the offices on campus that offers confidentiality, can also assist you by talking through the issue and helping you gather information you need before you speak directly with your advisor.
• Speaking with someone in the Graduate School, either the associate dean for academics ( [email protected] ) for academic issues, or the associate dean for graduate student life ( [email protected] ) for other issues. These deans will listen, offer advice and support, and coach you through any conversation you might want to have with your advisor. Together, you can brainstorm possible solutions and evaluate alternative plans for resolution.
• Touching base with your director of graduate studies (DGS) – if this person is not also your advisor – to talk to about policies and possible solutions to the conflict.
• Soliciting peer advice. Discuss strategies for managing and resolving conflict with your advisor. “Do you have any suggestions for me?” “Have you ever had an issue like this…?” can be effective questions.
• Identifying a new advisor if the conflict can not be resolved. Your DGS can help with this, and the Graduate School (as above) can help as well.

The National Center for Faculty Development and Diversity offers a webinar, “ How to Engage in Healthy Conflict “, which students can view after activating a free NCFDD membership through Cornell.

Changing Advisors

On occasion, students find that they need or want to change their advisor. An advisor can resign as the student’s special committee chair/faculty advisor. The  Code  of Legislation of the Graduate Faculty describes the rights and responsibilities of students and faculty in each of these situations.

Typical reasons to seek a new advisor include:

• Research interests that veer from the faculty’s expertise or ability to fund a certain project
• Your advisor retires or resigns from the university or takes an extended leave of absence for personal or professional reasons
• Differences in goals, values, or an approach to work or communication style that can’t be resolved
• Serious issues, involving suspected inappropriate behavior, questionable research conduct, or alleged bias, discrimination, or harassment

If you are considering changing advisors:

• Talk to a member of your committee, your director of graduate studies (DGS), or someone in the Graduate School about the proposed change. Some issues, such as funding, require timely attention.
• Identify other faculty members who could serve as your advisor, then meet with one or more of them. The goal is to decide together if you are a good fit with their program. Tips: Discuss or rehearse this conversation with a trusted person, especially if there were issues with your last advisor. Be transparent about these issues and address them going forward with a new advisor. Often prospective advisors are more willing to take on a new graduate student who conveys genuine enthusiasm for their area of study rather than a student who seems to be looking for a way out of a current advising relationship that has gone sour.
• Consider how and when to inform your advisor if you plan to change advisors. Be professional and respectful. Thank your advisor for past support and guidance. Don’t damage, or further damage, the relationship.
• Your DGS, if appropriate
• Office of the University Ombudsman
• Graduate School’s associate dean for graduate student life ( [email protected] )
• Graduate School’s associate dean for academics ( [email protected] )

Forms: 

• Use Student Center if you are changing your advisor before your A exam (for Ph.D. students).
• Use the Post A Committee Change Petition form for changes after the A exam. More information is available on the Graduate School’s Policy pages .

Challenges and Potential Solutions

All good relationships take work. To navigate an advising relationship successfully over time, you should familiarize yourself with some common challenges and possible actions to take.

Challenge: Mismatch in communication needs or style

One example of a communication challenge in an advising relationship is when you want input along the way during a writing project, but you have an advisor who prefers to wait to comment on a complete written draft.

Some possible steps to address this might be to talk to peers about they have handled this in their relationship with their advisor or to explain to your advisor how his or her input at this earlier stage will help speed you along toward having a complete draft for review. It’s important in communicating with your advisor to show that you understand what alternative they are proposing and why (e.g., “I understand that …”).

Challenge: Advisor unavailable or away

Your advisor might be away from campus for a semester or more to conduct research or take a sabbatical leave. Or when a grant proposal deadline or report is looming, your advisor might be less available. Maybe you’ve emailed your advisor several times with no response.

Planning and stating in advance what you need, such as feedback on a manuscript draft or signatures on a fellowship application, can help your advisor anticipate when you will have time-sensitive requests. Making plans in advance to communicate by email or video conference when either of you will be away from campus for a longer period of time is another useful strategy. Your director of graduate studies (DGS) and other faculty who serve as special committee members can also provide advice when your advisor is unavailable.

Challenge: Misaligned expectations

You are ready to submit a manuscript for publication. Your advisor says it needs much more work. Or you begin your job search, applying to liberal arts colleges with very high reputations, or schools in your preferred geographic location, but your advisor insists that you should apply for positions at top research universities.

Discussing your needs and expectations early, and often, in the advising relationship is essential. Get comfortable, and skilled, advocating for yourself with your advisor. Use the annual  Student Progress Review  as an opportunity to communicate your professional interests and goals with your advisor. Use multiple mentors beyond your advisor to get advice and expertise on topics where you need a different perspective or support.

Sometimes challenges can become opportunities for you to develop and refine new skills in communication, negotiation, self-advocacy, and management of conflict, time, and resources. For example, although you might feel abandoned if your advisor is unavailable for a time, even this potentially negative experience could become an opportunity to learn how to advocate for yourself and communicate about your needs and perceived difficulties in the relationship.

Advising Resources

Graduate School deans and directors  are available to answer academic and non-academic questions and provide referrals to useful resources.

Counseling and Psychological Services  (CAPS) staff offer confidential, professional support for students seeking help with stress, anxiety, depression, grief, adjustment challenges, relationship difficulties, questions about identity, and managing existing mental health conditions.

Let’s Talk Drop-in Consultations  are informal, confidential walk-in consultations at various locations around campus.

External Resources

University of Michigan Rackham, How to Get the Mentoring You Want  

Laura Gail Lunsford & Vicki L. Baker, 2016, Great Mentoring in Graduate School: A Quick Start Guide for Protégés

Michigan State University, Guidelines for Graduate Student Advising and Mentoring Relationships  

Michigan State University, Graduate Student Career and Professional Development  

Template for Meeting Notes

Adapted and expanded from Maria Gardiner, Flinders University © Flinders University 2007; used with permission and published in  The Productive Graduate Student Writer  (Allen, 2019). Used here with permission of the author and publisher.  

Use this template for making notes to help you plan for a productive meeting with your advisor, keep track of plans made, and clearly identify next steps that you’ll need to take to follow up on what you discussed.

Mentoring Resources

Graduate school programs focused on mentoring, building mentoring skills for an academic career.

Develop and enhance effective communication and mentorship skills that are broadly transferrable to all careers. Offered by Future Faculty and Academic Careers.

Graduate and Professional Students International (GPSI) Peer Mentoring Program

Share lessons learned as a new international student at Cornell as a peer mentor with new international student peer mentees. Offered by the GPSI in collaboration with the Graduate School Office of Inclusion and Student Engagement.

Graduate Students Mentoring Undergraduates (GSMU)

Share knowledge with and provide support to undergraduate students interested in pursuing further education. Offered in collaboration with the Office of Academic Diversity Initiatives (OADI).

Multicultural Academic Council (MAC) Peer Mentoring Program

Develop strategies to excel academically and personally at Cornell and beyond as a peer mentee or share strategies as a peer mentor. Offered by MAC in collaboration with the Graduate School Office of Inclusion and Student Engagement.

NextGen Professors Program

Learn from faculty in Power Mentoring Sessions and prepare for careers across institutional types. Offered by the Graduate School Office of Inclusion and Student Engagement and Future Faculty and Academic Careers.

Graduate School Programs with a Mentoring Component

Graduate school primer: navigating academia workshop series.

Program for new students on navigating graduate school with sessions on mentoring.

Perspectives: The Complete Graduate Student

Program for continuing students on common issues with some sessions on mentoring.

GPWomeN-PCCW Speaker Series

Series for all students featuring talks by Cornell alumnae with an occasional mentoring focus.

Future Professors Institute

One-day event featuring workshops and guest speakers with occasional mentoring focus.

Intergroup Dialogue Project (IDP)

Peer-led courses blending theory and experiential learning to facilitate meaningful communication with occasional mentoring focus.

Building Allyship Series

Series for the campus community featuring panels designed for productive dialogue with occasional mentoring focus.

Institutional Memberships

Center for the integration of research, teaching, and learning (cirtl) network.

Access to resources on teaching and research mentoring.

Access to career development and mentoring resources.

New York Academy of Sciences (NYAS)

Access to resources, including webinars and articles on mentoring.

Mentoring Programs Across Campus

Give and receive advice as part of a peer mentoring program for all College of Engineering students. Offered by Diversity Programs in Engineering.

Mi Comunidad/My Community

Peer mentoring program run by graduate and professional students affiliated with the Latin@ Graduate Student Coalition (LGSC) and supported by the Latina/o Studies Program (LSP) and Latina/o/x Student Success Office (LSSO) at Cornell University.

Additional Resources:

• Mentoring and Leadership Tips from Graduate School Programs
• Cornell University Office of Faculty Development and Diversity – Resources for Mentors and Mentees
• Careers Beyond Academia LibGuide
• National Research Mentoring Network

Graduate School Articles on Mentoring:

• Alumna Addresses Importance of Mentoring
• Becoming Better Mentors Through Workshop Series
• August Offers Mentoring Advice
• ‘A Better Chance of Providing Access’: Future Professors Institute Fosters Inclusivity

Virtual Training and External Resources

• How to Get the Mentoring You Want: A Guide for Graduate Students – University of Michigan, Rackham Graduate School
• The Science of Effective Mentorship in STEMM – National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, Medicine
• Mentor Training: Online Learning Modules – University of Minnesota Clinical and Translational Science Institute
• Mentor Curricula and Training: Entering Mentoring – Center for the Improvement of Mentored Experiences in Research

For other resources, view the Advising Guide for Research Students.

If there is anything not included on this list that we should consider, please send the information and a link to [email protected] .

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How to Write a Research Paper | A Beginner's Guide

A research paper is a piece of academic writing that provides analysis, interpretation, and argument based on in-depth independent research.

Research papers are similar to academic essays , but they are usually longer and more detailed assignments, designed to assess not only your writing skills but also your skills in scholarly research. Writing a research paper requires you to demonstrate a strong knowledge of your topic, engage with a variety of sources, and make an original contribution to the debate.

This step-by-step guide takes you through the entire writing process, from understanding your assignment to proofreading your final draft.

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Table of contents

Understand the assignment, choose a research paper topic, conduct preliminary research, develop a thesis statement, create a research paper outline, write a first draft of the research paper, write the introduction, write a compelling body of text, write the conclusion, the second draft, the revision process, research paper checklist, free lecture slides.

Completing a research paper successfully means accomplishing the specific tasks set out for you. Before you start, make sure you thoroughly understanding the assignment task sheet:

• Read it carefully, looking for anything confusing you might need to clarify with your professor.
• Identify the assignment goal, deadline, length specifications, formatting, and submission method.
• Make a bulleted list of the key points, then go back and cross completed items off as you’re writing.

Carefully consider your timeframe and word limit: be realistic, and plan enough time to research, write, and edit.

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There are many ways to generate an idea for a research paper, from brainstorming with pen and paper to talking it through with a fellow student or professor.

You can try free writing, which involves taking a broad topic and writing continuously for two or three minutes to identify absolutely anything relevant that could be interesting.

You can also gain inspiration from other research. The discussion or recommendations sections of research papers often include ideas for other specific topics that require further examination.

Once you have a broad subject area, narrow it down to choose a topic that interests you, m eets the criteria of your assignment, and i s possible to research. Aim for ideas that are both original and specific:

• A paper following the chronology of World War II would not be original or specific enough.
• A paper on the experience of Danish citizens living close to the German border during World War II would be specific and could be original enough.

Note any discussions that seem important to the topic, and try to find an issue that you can focus your paper around. Use a variety of sources , including journals, books, and reliable websites, to ensure you do not miss anything glaring.

Do not only verify the ideas you have in mind, but look for sources that contradict your point of view.

• Is there anything people seem to overlook in the sources you research?
• Are there any heated debates you can address?
• Do you have a unique take on your topic?
• Have there been some recent developments that build on the extant research?

In this stage, you might find it helpful to formulate some research questions to help guide you. To write research questions, try to finish the following sentence: “I want to know how/what/why…”

A thesis statement is a statement of your central argument — it establishes the purpose and position of your paper. If you started with a research question, the thesis statement should answer it. It should also show what evidence and reasoning you’ll use to support that answer.

The thesis statement should be concise, contentious, and coherent. That means it should briefly summarize your argument in a sentence or two, make a claim that requires further evidence or analysis, and make a coherent point that relates to every part of the paper.

You will probably revise and refine the thesis statement as you do more research, but it can serve as a guide throughout the writing process. Every paragraph should aim to support and develop this central claim.

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A research paper outline is essentially a list of the key topics, arguments, and evidence you want to include, divided into sections with headings so that you know roughly what the paper will look like before you start writing.

A structure outline can help make the writing process much more efficient, so it’s worth dedicating some time to create one.

Your first draft won’t be perfect — you can polish later on. Your priorities at this stage are as follows:

• Maintaining forward momentum — write now, perfect later.
• Paying attention to clear organization and logical ordering of paragraphs and sentences, which will help when you come to the second draft.
• Expressing your ideas as clearly as possible, so you know what you were trying to say when you come back to the text.

You do not need to start by writing the introduction. Begin where it feels most natural for you — some prefer to finish the most difficult sections first, while others choose to start with the easiest part. If you created an outline, use it as a map while you work.

Do not delete large sections of text. If you begin to dislike something you have written or find it doesn’t quite fit, move it to a different document, but don’t lose it completely — you never know if it might come in useful later.

Paragraph structure

Paragraphs are the basic building blocks of research papers. Each one should focus on a single claim or idea that helps to establish the overall argument or purpose of the paper.

Example paragraph

George Orwell’s 1946 essay “Politics and the English Language” has had an enduring impact on thought about the relationship between politics and language. This impact is particularly obvious in light of the various critical review articles that have recently referenced the essay. For example, consider Mark Falcoff’s 2009 article in The National Review Online, “The Perversion of Language; or, Orwell Revisited,” in which he analyzes several common words (“activist,” “civil-rights leader,” “diversity,” and more). Falcoff’s close analysis of the ambiguity built into political language intentionally mirrors Orwell’s own point-by-point analysis of the political language of his day. Even 63 years after its publication, Orwell’s essay is emulated by contemporary thinkers.

Citing sources

It’s also important to keep track of citations at this stage to avoid accidental plagiarism . Each time you use a source, make sure to take note of where the information came from.

You can use our free citation generators to automatically create citations and save your reference list as you go.

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The research paper introduction should address three questions: What, why, and how? After finishing the introduction, the reader should know what the paper is about, why it is worth reading, and how you’ll build your arguments.

What? Be specific about the topic of the paper, introduce the background, and define key terms or concepts.

Why? This is the most important, but also the most difficult, part of the introduction. Try to provide brief answers to the following questions: What new material or insight are you offering? What important issues does your essay help define or answer?

How? To let the reader know what to expect from the rest of the paper, the introduction should include a “map” of what will be discussed, briefly presenting the key elements of the paper in chronological order.

The major struggle faced by most writers is how to organize the information presented in the paper, which is one reason an outline is so useful. However, remember that the outline is only a guide and, when writing, you can be flexible with the order in which the information and arguments are presented.

One way to stay on track is to use your thesis statement and topic sentences . Check:

• topic sentences against the thesis statement;
• topic sentences against each other, for similarities and logical ordering;
• and each sentence against the topic sentence of that paragraph.

Be aware of paragraphs that seem to cover the same things. If two paragraphs discuss something similar, they must approach that topic in different ways. Aim to create smooth transitions between sentences, paragraphs, and sections.

The research paper conclusion is designed to help your reader out of the paper’s argument, giving them a sense of finality.

Trace the course of the paper, emphasizing how it all comes together to prove your thesis statement. Give the paper a sense of finality by making sure the reader understands how you’ve settled the issues raised in the introduction.

You might also discuss the more general consequences of the argument, outline what the paper offers to future students of the topic, and suggest any questions the paper’s argument raises but cannot or does not try to answer.

You should not :

• Offer new arguments or essential information
• Take up any more space than necessary
• Begin with stock phrases that signal you are ending the paper (e.g. “In conclusion”)

There are four main considerations when it comes to the second draft.

• Check how your vision of the paper lines up with the first draft and, more importantly, that your paper still answers the assignment.
• Identify any assumptions that might require (more substantial) justification, keeping your reader’s perspective foremost in mind. Remove these points if you cannot substantiate them further.
• Be open to rearranging your ideas. Check whether any sections feel out of place and whether your ideas could be better organized.
• If you find that old ideas do not fit as well as you anticipated, you should cut them out or condense them. You might also find that new and well-suited ideas occurred to you during the writing of the first draft — now is the time to make them part of the paper.

The goal during the revision and proofreading process is to ensure you have completed all the necessary tasks and that the paper is as well-articulated as possible. You can speed up the proofreading process by using the AI proofreader .

Global concerns

• Confirm that your paper completes every task specified in your assignment sheet.
• Check for logical organization and flow of paragraphs.
• Check paragraphs against the introduction and thesis statement.

Fine-grained details

Check the content of each paragraph, making sure that:

• each sentence helps support the topic sentence.
• no unnecessary or irrelevant information is present.
• all technical terms your audience might not know are identified.

Next, think about sentence structure , grammatical errors, and formatting . Check that you have correctly used transition words and phrases to show the connections between your ideas. Look for typos, cut unnecessary words, and check for consistency in aspects such as heading formatting and spellings .

Finally, you need to make sure your paper is correctly formatted according to the rules of the citation style you are using. For example, you might need to include an MLA heading  or create an APA title page .

Scribbr’s professional editors can help with the revision process with our award-winning proofreading services.

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Checklist: Research paper

I have followed all instructions in the assignment sheet.

My introduction presents my topic in an engaging way and provides necessary background information.

My introduction presents a clear, focused research problem and/or thesis statement .

My paper is logically organized using paragraphs and (if relevant) section headings .

Each paragraph is clearly focused on one central idea, expressed in a clear topic sentence .

Each paragraph is relevant to my research problem or thesis statement.

I have used appropriate transitions  to clarify the connections between sections, paragraphs, and sentences.

My conclusion provides a concise answer to the research question or emphasizes how the thesis has been supported.

My conclusion shows how my research has contributed to knowledge or understanding of my topic.

My conclusion does not present any new points or information essential to my argument.

I have provided an in-text citation every time I refer to ideas or information from a source.

I have included a reference list at the end of my paper, consistently formatted according to a specific citation style .

I have thoroughly revised my paper and addressed any feedback from my professor or supervisor.

I have followed all formatting guidelines (page numbers, headers, spacing, etc.).

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The essence of student life is lost in the quest to be a class topper. Unfortunately, the world only cares about a report card and top grades. Bereft of choice, students take the easy way out  they lose interest in going above and beyond the academic curriculum. Is a degree just a means to financial independence? What about the fire, the passion for exploring unchartered territory? What about innovations that can change the world?

Only a handful of students understand that research has the power to change the world, to change the very fabric of our being, and to create something innovative and novel.

Every student should go through the journey of research, see why?

Success comes from curiosity, concentration, perseverance and self-criticism  Albert Einstein

The irresistible desire to learn and know new things is the foundation of research. A curious student will observe, question, experiment, and then learn. This will lead him to discover and uncover new things, which may change the face of the world forever.

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Research keeps you from lagging or harbouring inaccurate information about a subject. You might utilise the most recent data to expand on ideas or speak eloquently about a topic. This brings us to the second point about establishing credibility.

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Let us discuss why and how research matters in a students life.

Research for self-sufficiency: Importance

The benefits of scholarly research in higher education are innumerable. With a more functional deep dive into the subject matter under investigation, students improve their capacity to analyse and discuss any topic. The educational journey of research helps students learn all about current discussions. Developing essential library skills is a huge benefit to becoming self-sufficient. Thus, research aids in evaluating other writing styles and improving one’s reading and writing skills. A thoroughly explained bibliography is often an essential initial step in performing scholarly research. Reviewing, assessing, and synthesising information from multiple sources helps students improve their critical thinking power. Research takes effort and time, but it can yield enormous benefits and help students grow personally & professionally.

Find, measure & grab opportunities

Research is a way to nurture students potential and diversify opportunities and goals. This includes obtaining work, receiving scholarships or grants, project funding, beginning a business relationship, or getting other minor victories. These opportunities can help broaden one’s social network, raise awareness or start a new business or a project. Its a way to help people make the right life-changing decisions. This helps in self-growth and productive living.

Industry & research

When in need, industries inadvertently turn to academics to solve vital issues. The need to share knowledge, explore, innovate, and create is paramount to industrial and research interdependency. Without academic research, it is impossible to plan, strategise, and discover solutions. Thus, global development is dependent on research in higher education institutions .

Encourages research-based practice & knowledge production

In-depth research during higher education motivates students to publish their journals, implement research activities in studies, etc. Thus, educational institutes, colleges, and universities should also understand the significance of research and design their academic curriculum accordingly. This can be achieved if individually assigned professors encourage and mentor students in researching and writing high-impact journal publications.

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In the modern age of dynamic globalisation, research cannot be conducted in isolation. As a result, the importance and demand for research-driven universities have grown exponentially.

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Shoolini’s dedicated research centres aid in achieving these goals. These centres offer comprehensive research facilities for producing qualitative research findings. Recognition from major institutes such as SCIMAGO and QS Rankings validate that Shoolini Research Centres have performed splendidly.

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• This is an excellent opportunity to meet faculty members who work in your field of interest and network with fellow researchers. After developing a solid working relationship with them, you can request a letter of recommendation from a faculty mentor.

Also read: Benefits of Conducting Research at Indias No.1 Research University

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• General Sociology
• Research Methodologies

Student Research and Report Writing: From Topic Selection to the Complete Paper

ISBN: 978-1-118-96391-3

January 2016

Wiley-Blackwell

Keumjae Park , Gabe T. Wang

• Allows students to better manage their research projects
• Exercises and worksheets break down the research process into small steps and walk students through each stage of the research project
• Offers real-world and lively examples that are attractive and relevant to students
• Based on twenty years of experience in teaching research techniques to students in a way that avoids the methodology “overkill” from encyclopaedic and intimidating textbooks
• Accompanying website includes powerpoint lecture slides for instructors and helpful links to video resources for student. Visit www.wiley.com\go\wang\researchreportwriting

GABE T. WANG is Professor of Sociology at William Paterson University. He has published four books including China’s Population Problems, Thoughts and Policies (1999), China and the Taiwan Issue (2006) and American Sociology and the Socioeconomic Development of China (2013). His research focuses on population, socioeconomic development, and adolescent deviant behaviours. Professor Wang has given lectures in many universities and research institutes in China. He has over 20 years of experience in teaching research methods and student research.

KEUMJAE PARK is Associate Professor of Sociology at William Paterson University. Her research focuses on immigrant women, migration in comparative perspectives, identities, and social inequality. She is the author of Korean Immigrant Women and the Renegotiation of Identity: Class, Gender, and Politics of Identity (2009). She enjoys teaching and mentoring student research and postgraduate theses. She teaches research methods and data analysis courses on a regular basis.

Curriculum and the Role of Research

• Conference paper
• Open Access
• First Online: 01 January 2015
• Cite this conference paper

You have full access to this open access conference paper

• Gail Burrill 2 ,
• Glenda Lappan 2 &
• Funda Gonulates 2  

41k Accesses

3 Citations

The survey team collected information on the development and use of curriculum from 11 diverse countries around the world. The data show that a common set of mathematics learning goals are established in almost all countries. However, only a few countries report a substantial role for research in designing and monitoring the development of their curriculum. The data also suggest great variation among countries at the implementation level.

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• Teacher support

Introduction

This report is based on an analysis of responses to survey questions on curriculum standards and goals from 11 countries: Australia, Brazil, Egypt, England, China, Honduras, Indonesia, Japan, Namibia, Peru, and six states in the United States. Footnote 1 The paper is organized in five sections: standards/curricular goals; relation of standards to the status quo, the role of textbooks in enacting the curriculum, the role of technology in classrooms, and teacher support related to standards/curricular goals. Footnote 2 The intent of the report is to allow others to examine their standards/curriculum goals relative to those of other countries across the world.

Standards/Curricular Goals

Who is responsible for the development of standards/curricular goals.

In most countries the ministry of education establishes curricular standards. In the United States, however, control of education is a state’s right, and in many states, for example, Montana, state constitutions give control of education to local districts. The federal government influences education through funding initiatives, such as the No Child Left Behind Act in 2001. The 2010 Common Core State Standards (CCSS) initiative is not a federal program but has been adopted and is being implemented by 45 of the 50 states and the District of Columbia. China also does not have a mandated national curriculum. China Mainland, including Shanghai, has common standards; Hong Kong, Taiwan and Macau create their own standards/curriculum goals.

In many countries, standards/curricular goals are set by historical tradition or cultural norms. For example, Namibia used the Cambridge curriculum when they became independent in 1990 and only recently has begun to develop their its own standards. Brazil ‘s standards are attributed to the history of the discipline, the prescribed curricula, and the comparative analysis among national documents from different historical periods and national and international documents. Some countries base their standards and guidelines on those of countries with high achievement scores on recent international exams. For example, both England and the United States cite countries such those from the Pacific Rim and Finland as resources for their new standards. Peru noted that an analysis of documents from other countries in South American and from TIMSS, Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), and National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) contributed to the development of their Diseño Curricular Nacional (CND) (National Curricular Design) ( 2009 ).

Why Standards?

Over time, many countries have changed from local standards to national standards. For example, Brazil found that the lack of national standards contributed to unequal opportunity for education. For much the same reason, the documented difference in the rigor and quality of individual state standards, the state governors in the United States supported the development and adoption of the CCSS. The new US standards are intended to be substantially more focused and coherent.

Standards are viewed as political: i.e., Brazil suggests that mathematics curricular goals depend more on political timing, election campaigns and government administrations, where “the logic of an education agenda that transcends governments and politicians’ mandates, set as a goal for a democratic and developed society, is not the rule” (Response to ICME 12 Curriculum Survey 2011, p. 6). In the United States the two major political parties have different views on education, its funding and its goals. This has recently given rise to the creation of publicly funded schools governed by a group or organization with a legislative contract or charter from a state or jurisdiction that exempts the school from selected state or local regulations in keeping with its charter. Hong Kong also reported that writing standards seems to be more politically based than research based. Many of the changes in England’s National Curriculum (NC) are the result of criticism from the current government that the NC is over-prescriptive, includes non-essential material, and specifies teaching method rather than content. In Peru each new curricular proposal is viewed as an adjustment to the prior curriculum. In this process, radical changes do occur, such as changing the curriculum by capabilities (CND 2005 ) to the curriculum by competencies (CND 2008 ) in the secondary education level. These decisions are often the result of a policy change with each new government.

In most countries surveyed, a diverse team, including mathematics education researchers, ministry of education staff, curriculum supervisors, and representatives of boards of education are responsible for developing the standards/goals. In some countries (Japan, Australia) teachers are involved, but in others the design teams are primarily experts from universities, teaching universities or the ministry of education (Indonesia, Egypt). The design of the framework for the National Curriculum in England is carried out by a panel of four, not necessarily mathematics educators, charged to reflect the view of the broader mathematics education community including teachers.

What Is the Role of Research?

Research has different interpretations and meanings in relation to the development and implementation of standards or curricula guidelines. One common response in the surveys was to cite as research the resources used in preparing standards (for example, other countries’ standards). In addition, the degree to which research is used in compiling the standards often depends on the vision, perspectives and beliefs of the team responsible for the development.

The use of research related to student learning in developing standards/curricular goals is not common among the countries surveyed. A typical description of the process was given by Hong Kong, where the development team might do a literature review and refer to documents of other countries, but the process is not necessarily well structured and often depends on the expertise of the team members. England, however, noted that the first version of their National Curriculum (NC) was largely based on the Concepts in Secondary Mathematics and Science project, (Hart 1981 ) that sought to formulate hierarchies of understanding in 10 mathematical topics normally taught in British secondary schools based on the results of testing 10,000 children in 1976 and 1977. The NC was also based on the ILEA Checkpoints ( 1979 ) and the Graded Assessment in Mathematics ( 1988 – 1990 ) projects. The original research-based design of the NC had many unintended consequences. Although the attainment targets were intended to measure learning outcomes on particular tasks, the levels were used to define the order in which topics should be taught, rather than paying attention to the development of concepts over time. The processes of mathematics, originally called “Using and applying mathematics” were defined in a general way related to progressions and levels that made interpretation difficult. As a consequence, the NC was revised several times and as of summer 2012 was again in the process of revision.

After a 1996 survey showed that social segmentation in Brazil seemed to be an obstacle to access to a quality education, research led to the development of the National Curricular Parameters in Brazil ( 1997 ). The Board of National Standards for Education ( Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan ) in Indonesia examined the national needs for education, the vision of the country, societal demands, challenges for the future, and used their findings in developing the curriculum (Ministry of National Education 2006 ).

What Is the Nature of Standards?

In Brazil, Indonesia, Namibia and Peru, the standards/curricular frameworks are general and provide overarching guidelines for the development of discipline specific content. In the United States, Australia, and Japan, the mathematical standards essentially stand alone, although supporting documents may illustrate how the maths standards fit into the larger national education philosophy and perspective. Some standards include process goals. For example, Australia includes standards for four proficiencies (understanding, fluency, problem solving and reasoning) based on those described in Adding It Up (Kilpatrick et al. 2001 ). The new Australian standards want students to see that mathematics is about creating connections, developing strategies, and effective communication, as well as following rules and procedures. The United States CCSS has mathematical practice standards specifying eight “habits of mind” students should have when doing mathematics. In Brazil ideas such as “learn to learn”, “promote independence”, “learn to solve problems” are being incorporated into new curricula. In Peru and Indonesia the emphasis is primarily on the processes of problem solving, reasoning and proof, and mathematical communication.

In some cases standards reinforce the role of education in responding to the needs of the country. For example, the Curriculum for Basic Education (1st–9th grade) in Honduras (Department of Education 2003 ) was developed under three axes: personal, national and cultural identity, and democracy and work. The four pillars of lifelong learning defined by Delors ( 1996 ) (personal fulfilment, active citizenship, social inclusion and employability/adaptability) were used to define the mathematical content and methodological guides with problem solving as the central umbrella. Namibia’s National Curriculum for a Basic Education outlines the aims of a basic education for the society of the future and specifies a few very general learning outcomes for each educational level (Namibia MoE 2008 ).

Standards span different sets of school grades or levels and differ in generality. Some countries have grade specific standards for what students should know throughout their primary and secondary schooling (i.e., US, Japan). Australia specifies a common curriculum for grades 1–10 and course options for students in upper secondary. Egypt and Honduras have curricular goals for students in grades 1–9 (age 14). At the high school level, Honduras focuses on post high school preparation with more than 53 career- focused schools for students.

The development of fractions in Australia by the Australian Curriculum and Assessment Reporting Authority (ACARA 2011), the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT 2008 ), the Ministry of Education in Namibia (MoE 2005 , 2006 ), and the US (CCSS 2010 ) illustrates the difference in standards across countries In grade 1, the standards/goals in the US, Namibia and Australia introduce words such as half, quarter and whole; this happens in grade 2 in Japan. Both US and Japan treat fraction as a number on the number line beginning in grade 3, emphasize equal partitioning of a unit and consider a fraction as composed of unit fractions: 4/3 = 4 units of 1/3. Australia suggests relating fractions to a number line only for unit fractions in grade 3, while Namibia does not mention fractions in relation to the number line. Equivalent fractions are taught in grade 4 in US, Japan, and Australia and in grade 6 in Namibia. Addition and subtraction of fractions with like denominators occurs in grade 4 in Japan, with unlike denominators in grade 5 in the US and Japan, and grade 7 in Namibia and Australia. Australia and Namibia have fractions as parts of collections in grade 2 and again in grade 4 in Namibia, but fractions as subsets of a collection are not mentioned in the standards/goals in the US and Japan. Students are expected to multiply and divide fractions in grade 5 in the US (with the exception of division of a fraction by a fraction, which happens in grade 6), in grade 6 in Japan, and in grade 7 in Australia and Namibia.

The next section describes what is taught in classrooms and how this relates to the standards/curricular goals of the country.

Examining the Status Quo

How are standards/goals related to the implemented curriculum.

Standards play different roles in shaping curriculum. For example, as described above, Peru does not have National Standards, but the mathematics learning goals for students are set out in the Curriculum National Design. With this as a guide, each of the country’s regions develops a regional curriculum that considers the diversity of cultures and languages. Similarly, since 2005 Indonesia has National Standards for Education, which include standards for content in each subject area and curriculum structure. Based on these and competency standards, every school develops their own curriculum considering the vision of the school, local culture and students’ background. In many of the US states, for example Massachusetts, standards provide a framework with the details of the curriculum, including the materials used for teaching and learning established at the district and school level. Japanese schools base their curricula on the national Course of Study (CS), a “Teaching Guide,” resources and guidelines developed by local boards of education in the prefecture, and planning guides from textbook companies. Adaptions are sometimes made based on the situation of the school and its students. When the prefectural or the municipal boards of education develop their own model plans, such as the “nine year schooling system” (ShoChu-Ikkan-Kyoiku), the school in the prefecture or the municipality follows those plans and makes revisions to the CS accordingly.

In some instances, countries turn to other countries with more resources for support in implementing the standards. For example, the Japan International Cooperation Agency supported Honduras in developing curriculum and resources for teachers. Macau uses resources from China Mainland, Hong Kong and Canada.

What Drives the Implemented Curriculum?

Standards, textbooks, or high-stakes examinations seem to drive what happens in classrooms in the countries surveyed. While Hong Kong indicated that standards play that role, teachers in Brazil, Taiwan, Egypt, Honduras, and Japan rely on textbooks, and China mainland cited both textbooks and practice books.

In several countries high stakes examinations are significant in determining what teachers actually teach. In the United States, with the exception of Montana, the states surveyed indicated they followed the curriculum based on the state standards, but in reality most teachers teach only to what they know from experience will be tested (Au 2007 ). The implemented curriculum in England also seems to be shaped by what is assessed, which determines the nature of the tasks students meet in classrooms. The curriculum in Indonesia is determined both by textbooks and the national examination. Entrance examinations of leading universities impact the curriculum in Brazil and Macau (95 % of the students in Macau attend private schools to prepare for university).

How Do Countries Monitor Implementation of the Curriculum?

Countries use several strategies for monitoring and evaluating the enacted curriculum: large scale research studies conducted by the government or a private agency, small focused research studies on what is being taught and learned, student achievement on high stakes assessments, and approval of textbooks teachers use to deliver the curriculum. Relatively large-scale research studies on students’ achievement are carried out in Honduras under the auspices of the Inter-American Development Bank and USAID. The Ministry of Education in Brazil investigated the incorporation of the National Curricular Parameters (PCN) into textbooks and other materials supporting teachers’ work, but little research has been dedicated to any of the various stages in the process of curriculum development including the curriculum enacted in classrooms.

Japan administers national assessments on a regular basis in mathematics and Japanese for students in the sixth year of elementary school and the third year of lower secondary school. The results often reveal challenges in knowledge and skill utilization, which lead to revisions in educational policies and classroom lesson plans. These assessments are viewed as invaluable in monitoring and revising the curriculum.

In the United States, perhaps the most significant change in the last decade has been the increasing role of high stakes assessments measuring student achievement in elementary/secondary education. Every year each state assesses each student in grades 3–8 and assesses students once in grades 9–12 using a common state assessment, typically consisting of multiple-choice procedural questions. The results are used to evaluate teachers, administrators, and the curriculum. Little or no evidence exists correlating success on these tests with curriculum (or any other factor). This has not deterred federal and state levels policy makers from making use of the assessment results in these ways. The emphasis on high stakes assessment and accountability are seen in England as well, although it is not clear that the results have contributed to changes in the curriculum or standards.

How Are Changes Made to the Standards/Curricular Goals?

Change occurs in different ways. In the US, the most recent change was brought about by entities outside of the government and teachers. Japan bases changes in goals/standards on research examining student learning. Standards teams summarize, examine, and investigate the results of research studies on what has been achieved though the current Course of Study (CS) and the results of pilot trials of new goals/standards in designated “research schools” (Kenkyu-Kaihatsu-Gakko). They monitor emerging trends, societal needs and international assessments. For example, the most recent revisions to the CS in Japan for elementary and lower secondary schools were in March 2008 and for upper secondary and special needs education in March 2009. In this CS, the aim of mathematics education stresses the student’s abilities to express their thinking and utilize mathematics in daily social life. In the CS for lower secondary schools, a new curricular strand “Use of Data” was added to enrich the content of statistics in the compulsory education. International mathematics assessments have helped statistics became a requirement in upper secondary schools. Taiwan and Hong Kong use some research supported by the government to construct and modify the curriculum as well as to inform teacher professional development and resource materials.

The Role of Textbooks

Survey responses indicated commercial publishers, private organizations, and government related organizations were involved in textbook development and distribution but to different degrees. The use of supplementary materials or teacher created worksheets was common in many of the countries. Many countries mentioned national standards/curricular guidelines as tools used in textbook development.

What is the approval or vetting process for textbooks?

In most of the countries with the exception of England and some of the states in the United States, some formal approval is necessary before texts can be used. For example, in Japan, textbooks are edited for adherence to the national curriculum and must be examined and authorized by MEXT. However, each textbook company can design and develop a textbook series with a final draft submitted to MEXT for examination and subsequent revision. During the development process, professionals (such as university researchers and teachers) play a large role in textbook design and development.

Many countries (China, Indonesia, Australia) have multiple textbook options for each grade level. Textbook adoption procedures vary, with decisions made at the national level (Brazil), state level (North Carolina), district level (Japan for elementary and lower secondary), school level (Japan for upper secondary) or even at an individual level (Taiwan). For the most part, the content would be the same across textbook options for each grade level since standards were the main drivers of the textbook development. Textbooks differ in the extent to which the contents are ordered and compiled but often have a similar style. Teachers in England make less use of textbooks than many other countries, and there is no uniform adoption procedure (Askew et al. 2010 ). In addition, public examination bodies produce textbooks that contain exercises from compilations of past examination questions that are popular with British teachers who see them as preparation for high-stakes assessment.

What Is the Role of Research in the Development of Textbooks?

Most countries mentioned an indirect or no use of research in textbook development. In the United States and England textbooks that are developed through large projects typically involve some research. In the United States, some curriculum materials (such as CMP 2012 ) are research based and developed with government or other sources of funding. Designers study trialling in classrooms, identify issues that emerge, what is working and not working to inform the next iteration of materials. The cycle may have several iterations, depending on funding and on commercial sales. (If the materials market poorly, the development is quickly terminated.)

Textbooks authored by individual teachers or commercial publishers did not seem to be noticeably influenced by pilot studies, research or research related to learning. In organizing textbook content, Japan makes use of research on high stakes assessment (the National Assessment of Academic Ability and other assessments implemented by local governments), the content and sequence of the old textbooks, and information obtained from teachers on the usability of the textbook and on the students’ responses to the textbook problems during the lesson. In Brazil, some authors of mathematics textbooks use research, or rely on research results, to develop books.

Focused research projects on aspects of the curriculum, supplements to illustrate the standards, pilot studies of initiatives, action research and/or small seed projects are common in Hong Kong and Japan. In the United States, research studies on student learning typically focus on specific content areas or the development of a single concept, such as understanding cardinality (i.e., Clements 2012 ) and have little direct connection to the curriculum. Graduate students carry out many such projects in the United States and in other countries such as Brazil, England and Australia.

The Role of Technology in the Curriculum

What is the relationship between standards/curricular goals and technology.

From a broad perspective, interacting with technology is seen in most countries as a critical life skill. In Peru, for example, the aim is to develop students’ “skills and attitudes that will enable them to use and benefit from ICT … thus enhancing the autonomous learning throughout life” (MoE 2009 , p. 17). The National Curricular Parameters ( 1997 ) in Brazil cite the value of technology as important for preparing students for their work outside of school. Australia defines Information and Communication Technology (ICT) as one of seven basic capabilities, i.e., the “skills, behaviours and dispositions that, together with curriculum content in each learning area and the cross curriculum priorities, will assist students to live and work successfully in the twenty-first century” (ACARA 2012 , p. 10) Namibia has much the same statement in their National Curriculum for Basic Education emphasizing creating and learning to use software such as Word or Excel. Hong Kong’s Technology Learning Targets calls for technology to enhance learning and teaching; provide platforms for discussions; help students construct knowledge; and engage students in an active role in the learning process, understanding, visualizing and exploring math, experiencing the excitement and joy of learning maths.

Some countries such as Namibia and Peru do not outline how technology should be used in the mathematics curriculum. Others describe the use of technology in mathematics classrooms in very general terms. Indonesia, for example, calls for the use of technology to develop understanding of abstract ideas by simulation and animation. In mainland China, the Nine Year Compulsory Education Mathematics Curriculum Standards emphasized the use of technology to benefit student understanding of the nature of mathematics. In Macau the standards call for educators to consider the impact of computers and calculators on the content and approaches in mathematics teaching and learning. In Taiwan, technology should support understanding, facilitate instruction, and enhance connections to the real world. England’s curriculum documents are more specific, consistently encouraging the use of appropriate ICT tools to solve numerical and graphical problems, to represent and manipulate geometrical configurations and to present and analyse data.

The standards/curricular goals of some countries provide general goals for incorporating technology into the curriculum and then describe specific instances. For example, the United States Common Core State Standards (2010) for mathematical practices call for students to visualize the results of varying assumptions, exploring consequences, and comparing predictions; engage students in activities that deepen understanding of concepts; create opportunities for and learning—comparing and contrasting solutions and strategies, creating patterns, generating simulations of problem situations. These generalizations are followed by statements throughout, such as in grade 7, “Draw (freehand, with ruler and protractor, and with technology) geometric shapes with given conditions” (p. 50) or in algebra, “find the solutions approximately, e.g., using technology to graph the functions, make tables of values, or find successive approximations” (p. 66). The new Australian Mathematics Curriculum specifically calls for the use of calculators to check solutions beginning in grade 3 and, by year 10 includes general statements about the use of technology, “Digital technologies, such as spreadsheets, dynamic geometry software and computer algebra software, can engage students and promote understanding of key concepts (p. 11)”. The curriculum provides specific examples: i.e., students should “Solve linear simultaneous equations, using algebraic and graphical techniques including using digital technology (p. 61).”

Japan has explicit learning goals for the use of technology and its Course of Study provides a guide for teachers that describes how calculators and computers can be used, with specific grade level examples under three headings; (1) as tools for calculation, (2) as teaching materials, and (3) as information/communication networks.

How Is Technology Used in Classrooms?

Respondents cited general issues related to the use of ICT. In England, for example, inspection reports based on evidence from 192 schools between 2005 and 2007 criticized schools’ use of ICT, finding effective usage was decreasing and the potential of ICT to enhance the learning of mathematics rarely realized. In Brazil, the number of schools equipped with technological resources is increasing; however, programs using the technology are still restricted to pilot projects.

In Japan a 2010 survey on ICT facilities found that computers (98.7 %), digital cameras (98.1 %), and CD players (95.2 %) were used almost daily or at least two to three times a week (MEXT 2011 ). Yet, results from international studies such as TIMSS indicate little actual computer use in Japanese mathematics classrooms. At least one computer is typically available in classrooms in Egypt, Peru, China mainland and Macau but rarely used for mathematics instruction. Honduras has a one laptop per child program, but the lack of suitable mathematics related activities limits the use of laptops in classrooms. This was also identified as a problem in England. Brazil reported that a preliminary analysis of research conducted in the country suggests that technologies are used very little. Teachers are uncomfortable with laptops and have few resources for using them.

The availability of technological tools for students varied among countries and within countries. Some have class sets of calculators available; others expect students to provide their own (China Mainland, Macau, Hong Kong). Some schools have computer labs; some have class sets of laptops, while others use a single computer with overheard display (common in China Mainland). Many schools in England have a separate computer suite, where pupils learn to use ICT as a mathematical tool, for example using spreadsheets to generate number patterns or present statistical information but their use to enhance mathematics learning is limited.

Some use computers to provide practice procedures and skills (England, Macau, North Carolina). Some (China mainland, Taiwan, North Carolina) use technology as a way to differentiate instruction. North Caroline describes using interactive sites that allow the learner to manipulate data and objects and then provide immediate feedback; video, games, and other learning activities for struggling students, and providing advanced students with online activities that challenge and invite further learning; real world math practice using tools like Google Earth for measurement, stock market simulations, digital cameras for capturing real-life examples of geometric figures, Skype or other conferencing tools to interact with scientists and mathematicians. Formative and summative assessment was also indicated as a way of bringing technology into the classroom.

Interactive whiteboards are becoming increasingly common, although their role in learning mathematics is not well documented. They are heavily used in Great Britain (in about 75 % of schools) (Schachter 2010 ), and usage is growing in Japan from 16,403 in 2009 to 60,474 in 2011 (MEXT 2011 ) and the United States with 51 % of classrooms (Gray 2010 ). According to England an advantages of interactive white boards include high-quality, diagrams and relevant software to support learning through, for example, construction of graphs or visualization of transformations. A negative effect of interactive whiteboards seemed to be a reduction in pupils’ use of concrete manipulatives.

Teacher Support

What support is provided to teachers to help them know the curriculum.

The survey results from Brazil and Egypt indicated minimum support is provided to teachers to help them learn about the curriculum. Brazil noted the materials are distributed to teachers usually without any actions involving the teachers. The other countries surveyed provide some form of support for teachers although the amount and form as well as who was in charge of providing support differs. Some countries (i.e., England, China, Japan) have ministry driven efforts to help teachers learn about the curriculum. For example, in Japan, once a new course of study (CS) is determined, the Ministry of Education, using a “trainer of trainers” process, conducts “transmission lectures” (Dentatsu-Koshu) on the principles and content of the new CS to superintendents on the prefectural boards of education who in turn give lectures to the superintendents on the municipal boards of education. The local superintendents then give lectures to all schoolteachers within a period of three years. The Ministry makes information available to teachers by showing concrete teaching examples, especially for large changes from an old to a new course of study. A variety of research meetings and conferences as well as lectures and symposiums are offered to educate teachers on the new CS.

A similar trainer of trainers process organized by the Ministry is also used in Honduras and Peru, although in Peru, some question the effectiveness of the process, given the results of five evaluations available on the web page of the Ministry of Education. Since 2010 the Ministry of Education in Mainland China has invested considerable resources to help teachers (over 1.1 million teachers at the primary level) understand the basic ideas of the curriculum standards and main content of the curriculum. The work is organized and financed by the Ministry but carried out at the local level. In Hong Kong, the Ministry of Education organized a professional development series, “Understanding the Curriculum”, to explain the breadth and width of the curriculum. Exemplars, usually a product of collaborative research with schools, are used for illustration.

Other countries have a blend of ministry designed strategies and local initiatives. In Indonesia, the local (district and province) as well as central governments facilitate in-service training for teachers helping them to understand more about the curriculum. District school supervisors, advisors and/or experts from universities do the training and aim to improve the understanding of the Standards of Content, Process and Evaluation. Workshops and sessions on the standards are often organized and provided at the local level by university educators, school districts, curriculum consortia, and non-profit partners for all educators in a region of a state. Web based resources are provided in several countries (Honduras, China Mainland, Hong Kong, Japan). North Carolina provides webinars on the structure, organization, and content of the state standards, and Ohio provides online resources and disseminates curriculum models and other support documents to districts.

What Support Is Provided to Teachers to Help Them Enact the Curriculum?

In some countries support for instruction related to curriculum comes from the ministry of education (China Mainland, Hong King, England, Peru, some states in the United States) and in others it is provided through a combination of ministry of education and local initiatives or at the local level. Support primarily takes three forms: resources, professional development and mentoring.

Resources: Supplemental resources, materials created by outside research-based projects, and documents based on the state/national curriculum or standards are often designed and delivered through university programs. In some areas in Brazil, teachers are given written supporting material, videos, and learning resources, and technical pedagogical teams often help teachers in the implementation of the curriculum.

Professional Development: A variety of forms of professional development were also cited as ways to help teachers enact the curriculum. In Taiwan the curriculum development council provides lectures at the school level, instruction counselling groups and in-service workshops. Teacher training in Indonesia helps teachers develop teaching plans and provides strategies, methods, and approaches that have been adopted from the current research and theory. Honduras uses a “learn by doing” model for in-service, and many districts in the United States support mathematics “learning communities”. Some form of collaborative lesson planning is typical in several of the countries (Japan, Macau, some states in the United States). In many countries (i.e., Hong Kong, United States) universities offer a variety of programs for in-service teacher education; graduate programs are sites for teachers’ professional development. Publishers also organize and deliver professional development workshops (China Mainland, United States).

Japan has a structured system of support. Local boards of education provide training for beginning teachers and for those with five, 10 and 20 years of teaching experiences as well as a variety of professional, non-mandatory training courses to enhance teaching ability and skills; for example, the Tochigi prefectural board of education offers 50 courses a year. Recently, a new teacher training/licensing system has been employed. Ordinary and special licenses are valid for 10 years; teachers need to renew their licenses by attending training courses every 10 years, given by general universities and teacher-training universities. These training courses are required to offer information based on the most recent research.

Mentoring: A third form of support in some countries is individualized, such as the Strategic Program for Learning Achievements in Peru where, since 2010, classroom teachers working with children up through the first two years of Basic Education (grades 6–8) receive advice from a specialist teacher. In the United States, many local districts have mathematics coaches who work with teachers, particularly at the elementary level. Hong Kong has dedicated “research schools” that mentor other schools in the implementation of the curriculum. A slightly different strategy is used in Honduras where teachers travel to Japan to see how the curriculum is enacted in classrooms and to learn about mathematics education.

While some cite a research base for professional development, the connection to research is often very limited (Hong Kong, Massachusetts and North Carolina in the United States). England provided ministry organized teacher support designed with a research perspective and later studies investigated the success of the implementation. The National Strategies (DFE 2011 ) were, from 1998 until 2011, the main delivery vehicle for supporting teachers to understand and implement government teaching and learning priorities. The programme, originally called the National Numeracy Strategy (NNS), was aimed at primary education but was later expanded to include secondary schools with the National Mathematics Strategy (NMS). The National strategies conducted a massive professional development programme, running courses and providing publications, advice and professional development materials such as videos to schools. These also included guidance on course planning, teaching and learning, assessment, subject leadership, inclusion, intervention and mathematics specific content. Detailed assessment guidance, lesson plans, and intervention programs were all provided (DFE 2011 ). An annotated bibliography of research evidence claimed to underpin the National Strategies (Reynolds and Muijs 1999 ). However, the research evidence was described as ambivalent and relatively scarce (Brown et al. 2003 ).

Evaluations of the implementation of the NNS were carried out and indicated some success, but this was contested by many who asserted the gains on National Tests attributed to the programme may be attributed to a careful choice of statistical baseline and to teachers’ increasing tendency to orient their teaching towards the tests. When alternative tests were used, smaller gains were noted. Teaching seemed to have changed mainly in superficial ways, and some evidence suggested that in almost no cases were there ‘deep’ changes. (Brown et al. 2003 , p. 668). In 2008 an inspection service found weaknesses in basic teaching skills and had difficultly assessing which initiatives worked and which did not. The frequent introduction of new initiatives, materials and guidance led to overload and diminished the potential effectiveness of each individual initiative (Ofsted 2010 ). As of March 2012, the Coalition Government abolished the National Strategies programme, and future professional development is decentralized and in the hands of individual schools.

Concluding Remarks

The survey data shows us that a common set of mathematics learning goals are established in almost all countries with a very minor role for research in designing and monitoring the development of their curriculum. Standards, textbooks, or high-stakes examinations seem to drive what happens in classrooms. Countries vary greatly in the amount of support provided to teachers in learning about and implementing the curriculum specified in their standards/goals.

Survey Responders

Australia: Peter Sullivan (Monash University)

Brazil: This report is a result of the collaboration between the Group of Studies and Research on Mathematical Education and Education (USP) & Organization, Curriculum Development and Teacher Education (PUCSP)

Vinício de Macedo Santos (University of Sao Paulo),

Célia Maria Carolino Pires (Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo),

Elenilton Vieira Godoy (Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo and Centro Universitário Fundação Santo André),

João Acácio Busquini (Secretaria de Estado da Educação de São Paulo),

José Carlos Oliveira (Costa Centro Universitário Fundação Santo André).

China: China Mainland—Jiansheng Bao, Xuefen Gao, Likun Sun & Xiaoli Ju (East China Normal University, Shanghai)

Taiwan—Hsin-Mei E. Huang (Taipei Municipal University of Education)

Hong Kong—Polly Lao (Hong Kong Bureau)

Macau—Chunlian Jiang (University of Macau)

Egypt: Fayez Mina (Ain Shams University)

Honduras: Libni Berenice Castellón (Universidad Pedagógica Nacional Francisco Morazán.)

Indonesia: Edy Tri Baskoro (Board of National Standard for Education)

Japan: Keiko Hino (Utsunomiya University)

Namibia: Karen D’Emiljo (Otjiwarongo Secondary School)

Peru: Martha Rosa Villavicencio Ubillus (National University San Marcos); Olimpia Rosa Castro Mora (Ministry of Education)

United Kingdom, England: Malcolm Swan, Sheila Evans (University of Nottingham)

See end of report for list of response teams from each country.

Survey Team: Chair Glenda Lappan (USA), Jiansheng Bao (China), Karen D'Emiljo (Namibia), Keiko Hino (Japan), Vinício de Macedo Santos (Brazil), Malcolm Swan (England), IPC Liaison: Gail Burrill (USA).

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Burrill, G., Lappan, G., Gonulates, F. (2015). Curriculum and the Role of Research . In: Cho, S. (eds) The Proceedings of the 12th International Congress on Mathematical Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12688-3_17

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Medical research: what to expect in a student–supervisor relationship

Alaa althubaiti.

1 College of Medicine, King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, Mail Code 6656, P.O. Box 9515, Jeddah, 21423 Saudi Arabia

2 King Abdullah International Medical Research Centre, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Suha M. Althubaiti

3 College of Science and Health Professions, King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

4 King Abdullah International Medical Research Centre, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Associated Data

The dataset generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to the requirements of the relevant institutional review board. The full dataset and results of statistical analysis following receipt of ethics approval are available from author AA ([email protected]).

A medical research supervisor is of crucial importance to the undergraduate student enrolled in a research methodology course. A solid relationship between the two is vital to the success of the research project and the overall well-being of the student. The structure of the relationship between a student and a research supervisor is seldom discussed in the context of undergraduate medical research. This study evaluates students’ expectations of their research contributions and their supervisors’ roles.

This was an observational study in a large health university in Saudi Arabia. A total of 320 medical students enrolled in a two-year medical research program completed an online survey, of a previously validated instrument, that is, Role Perceptions Rating Scale. Demographic questions such as the current level in the research program (junior or senior) were added.

The results showed that most students expected the responsibility to be equally shared between the supervisor and student during the development and execution of the research project. Additionally, students expected the research supervisor to be responsible for the research themes and contents, ensuring access to facilities, and assisting in the actual writing of the final research manuscript. Furthermore, the results indicated differences in expectations between junior and senior students.

This study demonstrates that medical students expect their research supervisors to support them to a significant extent. Understanding medical students’ expectations in a supervisor–student relationship is essential to successful research and collaboration. The evidence gathered in this study has practical implications for educational institutes to base their research training program on these insights. Providing clarity on the expectations and responsibilities of those participating in the research program is crucial, as this would, in turn likely advance the output of the research program and encourage clinicians to join the program as research supervisors.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12909-022-03851-4.

Research methodology courses are an integral part of the medical curriculum [ 1 ]. These courses provide students with the necessary knowledge to formulate a research question, write a research proposal, conduct data collection and analysis, and prepare a research report. Research-oriented educational programs are increasing to incorporate knowledge and improve exposure to supervised research at an early stage [ 2 ]. Different aspects of these courses have been evaluated to enhance students’ learning experiences and outcomes [ 3 – 8 ]. One of these aspects is students’ satisfaction with respect to their overall experience [ 5 , 8 ]. Key determinants of this is the relationship between the student and the research supervisor and the amount of support received from the supervisor [ 9 – 11 ]. Previous results have revealed that these determinants are crucial in improving students’ research experience and outcomes, regardless of students' knowledge level or attitude towards research [ 8 , 12 , 13 ].

Both students and supervisors have expectations of each other [ 12 ]. Literature has shown that undergraduate students expect more support in data collection, time management, and theoretical research components (such as in writing the discussion or research objectives) [ 8 , 14 ]. On the other hand, supervisors expect students to be responsible for completing their research requirements and perceive adequate supervision to be providing direction and fostering a student’s independence in training [ 15 ]. A study of undergraduate medical students [ 16 ] has identified a range of student concerns, e.g., students feel obliged by their supervisors’ motivations to publish in peer-reviewed academic journals. The priority for publication influences such supervisors to shift from their student’s needs and enhance the student learning experience [ 16 ]. Hence, establishing expectations early and reassessing them as needed is considered one of the practices that contributes to a good supervisory relationship [ 17 ]. Moreover, regarding those essential to the success of student-supervisor relationships, other determinants have been investigated, such as students’ cognitive skills [ 18 ], sex role, level in their research program [ 19 ], and their supervisors’ level of expertise or knowledge [ 20 ].

Much of the literature on the student-supervisor relationship has focused on a postgraduate research course; few studies [ 5 , 21 , 22 ] have addressed this in an undergraduate research course [ 15 ]. Research supervisors in a medical research program are primarily physicians, and although the majority have received adequate research training, [ 5 , 23 – 25 ] they experience a few challenges when participating in research, such as finding adequate time for supervision and availability for their students [ 5 , 26 , 27 ]. When implementing a research course in medical curricula, it is important to assess what students want to do in a research project, what they expect from their research supervisors, and how adequately supervisors are able to meet their needs [ 28 , 29 ]. This will help identify areas of improvement in conducting a research course and possibly enhance the research output of undergraduate medical students.

This study aims to evaluate students’ expectations of their research contributions and their supervisors’ roles using a validated scale. In other words, this study analyses the perceived responsibilities of the supervisors and medical students involved in a research project. The influence of students’ research experiences on their perceived responsibilities is also examined.

We address the following research questions:

• What is the overall satisfaction of medical students with their research supervisors in a medical research program?
• Does satisfaction differ according to academic level in the program?
• What are students’ expectations in terms of their research contribution and their supervisor’s role?
• Finally, do these expectations differ according to academic level in the program and student’s satisfaction with their research supervisors?

The present study was observational and was conducted in a large health university in Saudi Arabia. The six-year curriculum design of the college consists of two pre-medical years, two pre-clinical years in which the medical research program is studied, and finally two clinical years. During the research program, students were given a series of research sessions over two years and expected to complete a research project under their research supervisor [ 5 , 6 , 30 ].

Patient and public involvement

No patients were involved in this study; neither patients nor the public were directly involved in the design, conduct, reporting, or dissemination plans of this research.

Participants

This study included female and male medical students in their pre-clinical years undergoing their first (juniors) and second (seniors) year in the medical research program. The study used a convenience sampling approach. Those willing to participate were recruited in the study.

Data collection tool

The Role Perceptions Rating Scale (RPRS) was used to collect data [ 31 ]. It is a validated scale that has been used in similar studies [ 19 , 32 ]. The survey was distributed online using Google Forms.

The scale included 12 items on the topic/course of study, contact/involvement, and thesis. The word thesis was replaced with research manuscript to match the term used for the final assignment in the first and second year of the program, respectively. A few examples of the items include “It is a supervisor’s responsibility to select a promising topic,” “A supervisor should initiate frequent meetings with a student,” and “A supervisor should insist on seeing drafts of every section of the manuscript to review them in a timely fashion.” All items were measured on a 5-point scale, with the minimum and maximum scores ranging from 1 to 5. Higher scores indicate greater agreement on student responsibilities. A score of 3 denotes a neutral response, indicating that the student expected the task to be shared equally. The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient of the RPRS in this study was 0.84 [ 33 ]. The validity of the RPRS was ensured through the counsel and evaluation of two experts before application.

The data were collected toward the end of the research program during the 2021–2022 academic year, with three reminders over the course of four weeks. Overall satisfaction with the research supervisor was also measured, and answers were classified as “overall satisfied,” “overall dissatisfied,” and “neither satisfied nor dissatisfied.”

Data analysis

Statistical analyses were conducted using the JMP 14 software (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). A p -value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Non-parametric statistical tests were used due to the non-normality of the responses of majority of items based on the Shapiro-Wilk test ( p -values<0.001). Quantitative variables are reported as mean (standard deviation) or median and range, and categorical variables are expressed as proportions. A Mann–Whitney U test was applied to assess differences in responses between groups and the effect size was reported (with values indicating small effect=0.1, medium effect=0.3, and a large effect=0.5) [ 34 , 35 ]. A chi-square test was used to evaluate the association between overall satisfaction and students’ level in the medical research program.

Overall satisfaction with supervisor’s performance

A total of 320 from an approximate of 500 students enrolled in the medical research program participated in the study. The mean age of participants was 21.5 years (standard deviation = 1.4 years), and there were 170 males (53.1%) and 150 females (46.9%). Most students (64.4%) had an excellent academic grade (grade point average (GPA) = 4.5 – 5). Second-year students in the program accounted for 50.9% of the sample.

Students’ overall satisfaction with the research supervisor was as follows: 146 (45.6%) were satisfied and 104 (32.5%) were dissatisfied. In addition, a total of 70 students (21.9%) stated that they were neither satisfied nor dissatisfied. To facilitate the interpretation of results, students with the level of satisfaction being “neither satisfied nor dissatisfied” were excluded from further analysis [ 36 ].

A statistically significant association was found between students’ level in the program and overall satisfaction with the supervisor (chi-square test = 5.56; p-value = 0.018), (Figure ​ (Figure1). 1 ). Students in the first year of the program (juniors) were significantly more satisfied, compared with those in the second year of the program (seniors) (68% versus 53%).

Satisfaction with research supervisor and level in research program

Role perceptions rating

Table ​ Table1 1 shows the distribution of students’ responses regarding expectations. The highest agreement between student responses on supervisors’ responsibility was on that supervisors are expected to ensure that students have access to all necessary facilities ( n = 228, 71.3%). Other items that received high agreement from the students included: maintaining a professional relationship ( n = 202, 63.1%), initiating frequent meetings ( n =168, 52.5%), ensuring that the research is finished within the time limit ( n =166, 51.9%), the direct responsibility of the supervisor toward the methodology of the research ( n =201, 62.8%), expecting the supervisor’s assistance in the actual writing process ( n =216, 67.5%), and reviewing the final draft ( n =223, 69.7%). In addition, the highest disagreement among students was related to the selection of the research topic, where 45.9% stated it is a shared responsibility, 26.6% agreed it is the supervisor’s responsibility, and 18.8% stated it was a student responsibility. Furthermore, the majority (66.6%) of students agreed that the supervisor should support students regardless of their opinion of the students’ capabilities.

Distribution of students’ answers on different responsibilities in medical research. N(%) are presented

Table ​ Table2 2 presents a comparison of responses on role responsibility according to the academic level in the research program. Mann–Whitney U test showed statistically significant differences in six of the role perception’s items. The expectation of supervisor’s support during selection of the research topic differed between junior and senior students (z=-9.352; p -value <0 .001, large effect size: 0.52). For the selection of the research topic, the median score was 3 for the junior students (range, 2–4), while the senior students had a respective median score of 4 (range, 1–5). Additionally, in comparison to the senior students, junior students were significantly in greater agreement that the selection of the theoretical frame of reference ( p -value<0.001; effect size: 0.36), ensuring access to facilities ( p -value<0.001; effect size: 0.31), initiation of meetings ( p -value = 0.008; effect size: 0.15), ensuring the completion of the research within the time limit ( p -value < 0.001), and providing feedback and requesting drafts of the manuscript ( p -value<0.001) are mainly within the supervisor’s responsibility and not a shared responsibility.

Comparison of responses on role responsibility according to academic level in the research program

a Minimum=1, maximum=5

* The p -values were calculated with Mann-Whitney U Test

No statistically significant difference was found in expectations between juniors and senior students in terms of the development of a research plan, preference for professional or personal relationships, checking if the student is on track, possibility to terminate a research candidate, writing methods and content of research manuscript, and assisting in writing manuscript.

We did a subgroup analysis to compare the role perceptions with the overall satisfaction with supervision and determine which items were rated higher by those who were satisfied, and which were rated particularly lower by those who were unsatisfied. Note that a higher rating indicates the perception that the task is a student’s responsibility. Results show that students satisfied with supervisors scored statistically significantly lower compared with unsatisfied students on selection of theorical frame of reference, development of research plan, meeting initiation, termination of research candidate, completion of research within time limit, responsibility for methods and content of research manuscript, and writing/feedback related to research manuscript (all p -values<0.001). Therefore, those unsatisfied with their supervisors were less reliant on them. Results are shown in Supplement Table ​ Table1 1 .

To the best of our knowledge, this study is among the first to address a gap in the literature by investigating undergraduate medical students’ expectations of their research contributions and their supervisors’ roles. The present study raises interesting questions regarding the role expectations of medical students and provides insights to an improved relationship with research supervisors. A validated scale has been used to determine the expectations. The internal consistency of the scale items has been evaluated in this study, and our results show that these items are internally consistent.

Significant differences in terms of satisfaction with research supervisors were observed among junior and senior students, and we found that satisfaction was higher among junior students. At the start of their research course, students are required to determine their research instrument, in addition to planning their research methodology. Frequent meetings with research supervisors are needed to discuss the different aspects of this research plan. In a previous study on postgraduate and undergraduate students, this stage was found to be the most complex and worrisome in a research course, particularly among undergraduate students [ 37 ]. Moreover, our analysis of role perceptions indicated that medical students are highly dependent on their supervisors’ support. Junior students clearly showed greater reliance on their supervisors than seniors. This finding supports the prevailing findings in the literature [ 38 , 39 ]. Their reliance on their supervisors possibly stems from their lack of understanding concerning the correct methodology for conducting research. However, as students gain a clearer understanding of their research with time, their reliance on their supervisors decreases. Hence, medical research supervisors need to consider a supervisory approach that is adapted to students’ level of research experience [ 9 ].

Moreover, our analysis of role perceptions indicated students who were satisfied with their supervisors reported greater reliance on their supervisors than unsatisfied students. Our findings may therefore indicate that supervisors are meeting the expectations of their students and are perhaps readily available to address their questions and concerns.

The increase in the number of undergraduate research programs has created a challenge for educators in terms of providing the best research support and maintaining students’ motivation towards research. Good research is measured by having a clear and important research question and reporting a quality research outcome [ 40 ]. Having clear expectations and identifying the roles of each member in a research project are fundamental parts of research collaboration. Previous studies have shown that the quality of postgraduate research supervision depends on the direct influence of the supervisory process and personal traits of students [ 8 , 41 , 42 ]. For appropriate research supervision, characteristics such as the relationship between the quality and style of supervision and the field of study need to be considered [ 41 ]. Supervision style must be adjusted in each stage of a research program according to its requirements and student needs [ 29 , 43 ]. Regarding supervisory practices, supervisors certainly need adequate professional development to be able to use valid, reliable, and effective evaluation systems [ 42 ]. Thus, implementing formative and summative evaluation will most likely improve teaching and learning. Furthermore, as limited supervisory training workshops are conducted, [ 44 ], more regular faculty enhancement research workshops are needed to support good research practices, particularly for beginning research supervisors [ 21 ].

Both supervisors and medical students should be encouraged to discuss research plan and supervision style at the beginning of a research project, rather than focusing only on the selection of a research topic. The role perceptions rating scale should also be completed by each student and can be discussed with the research supervisor. Open dialogue and discussion between student and supervisor are needed. The benefits of this strategy are important in developing the learning environment, enhancing the research experience of both students and supervisors, and promoting student conflict resolution skills. In addition, for students, some of the important practices in a supervisory relationship are asking assertively about what is needed to succeed, properly preparing for supervision meetings, taking full ownership of research projects, playing an active role in managing the supervisory relationship, submitting timely drafts, and keeping their supervisor(s) adequately informed.

Limitations of the study and future research

The study used a self-report instrument for data collection, which may have introduced response bias [ 45 ]. For future studies, gathering data on supervisors’ expectations and matching them with student expectations could be informative. In the present study, collecting the supervisors’ responses was difficult, as most of the focal supervisors have clinical duties in addition to their teaching activities, which affected their response rate. Moreover, since it is vital to explore the needs of students at the start of supervision to ensure effective guidance and support, future research may develop a tool of evaluation for assessing competencies, interests, and needs.

This study demonstrates that medical students expect greater support from their research supervisors in a range of research activities. These expectations differ as students advance in their research experience, which may imply the important impact supervisors have on beginning students and the further assistance needed by those students. Overall satisfaction with research supervisors was assessed and found to be acceptable. Level of satisfaction was associated with students’ research experience level; junior research students showed a higher level of satisfaction. Instructors and coordinators within a research program should therefore emphasise understanding the relationship between supervisors and students by setting clear roles and clarifying responsibilities and expectations. This in turn will likely advance the output of the research program and encourage clinicians to join the program as research supervisors.

Acknowledgments

Author’s contribution.

AA conceived the idea for the study. AA and SA conducted the statistical analysis and were responsible for the initial and final draft of the report. The authors read and approved the final manuscript.

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Availability of data and materials

Declarations.

The study was approved by the corresponding Institutional Review Board at the King Abdullah International Medical Research Centre (IRB/2682/21) and was also in accordance with Declaration of Helsinki. All participants were provided with an informed consent form. The study was performed in accordance with the STROBE reporting guidelines and regulations.

Not applicable.

None to declare.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Home Market Research

Research Reports: Definition and How to Write Them

Reports are usually spread across a vast horizon of topics but are focused on communicating information about a particular topic and a niche target market. The primary motive of research reports is to convey integral details about a study for marketers to consider while designing new strategies.

Certain events, facts, and other information based on incidents need to be relayed to the people in charge, and creating research reports is the most effective communication tool. Ideal research reports are extremely accurate in the offered information with a clear objective and conclusion. These reports should have a clean and structured format to relay information effectively.

What are Research Reports?

Research reports are recorded data prepared by researchers or statisticians after analyzing the information gathered by conducting organized research, typically in the form of surveys or qualitative methods .

A research report is a reliable source to recount details about a conducted research. It is most often considered to be a true testimony of all the work done to garner specificities of research.

The various sections of a research report are:

• Background/Introduction
• Implemented Methods
• Results based on Analysis
• Deliberation

Learn more: Quantitative Research

Components of Research Reports

Research is imperative for launching a new product/service or a new feature. The markets today are extremely volatile and competitive due to new entrants every day who may or may not provide effective products. An organization needs to make the right decisions at the right time to be relevant in such a market with updated products that suffice customer demands.

The details of a research report may change with the purpose of research but the main components of a report will remain constant. The research approach of the market researcher also influences the style of writing reports. Here are seven main components of a productive research report:

• Research Report Summary: The entire objective along with the overview of research are to be included in a summary which is a couple of paragraphs in length. All the multiple components of the research are explained in brief under the report summary.  It should be interesting enough to capture all the key elements of the report.
• Research Introduction: There always is a primary goal that the researcher is trying to achieve through a report. In the introduction section, he/she can cover answers related to this goal and establish a thesis which will be included to strive and answer it in detail.  This section should answer an integral question: “What is the current situation of the goal?”.  After the research design was conducted, did the organization conclude the goal successfully or they are still a work in progress –  provide such details in the introduction part of the research report.
• Research Methodology: This is the most important section of the report where all the important information lies. The readers can gain data for the topic along with analyzing the quality of provided content and the research can also be approved by other market researchers . Thus, this section needs to be highly informative with each aspect of research discussed in detail.  Information needs to be expressed in chronological order according to its priority and importance. Researchers should include references in case they gained information from existing techniques.
• Research Results: A short description of the results along with calculations conducted to achieve the goal will form this section of results. Usually, the exposition after data analysis is carried out in the discussion part of the report.

Learn more: Quantitative Data

• Research Discussion: The results are discussed in extreme detail in this section along with a comparative analysis of reports that could probably exist in the same domain. Any abnormality uncovered during research will be deliberated in the discussion section.  While writing research reports, the researcher will have to connect the dots on how the results will be applicable in the real world.
• Research References and Conclusion: Conclude all the research findings along with mentioning each and every author, article or any content piece from where references were taken.

Learn more: Qualitative Observation

15 Tips for Writing Research Reports

Writing research reports in the manner can lead to all the efforts going down the drain. Here are 15 tips for writing impactful research reports:

• Prepare the context before starting to write and start from the basics:  This was always taught to us in school – be well-prepared before taking a plunge into new topics. The order of survey questions might not be the ideal or most effective order for writing research reports. The idea is to start with a broader topic and work towards a more specific one and focus on a conclusion or support, which a research should support with the facts.  The most difficult thing to do in reporting, without a doubt is to start. Start with the title, the introduction, then document the first discoveries and continue from that. Once the marketers have the information well documented, they can write a general conclusion.
• Keep the target audience in mind while selecting a format that is clear, logical and obvious to them:  Will the research reports be presented to decision makers or other researchers? What are the general perceptions around that topic? This requires more care and diligence. A researcher will need a significant amount of information to start writing the research report. Be consistent with the wording, the numbering of the annexes and so on. Follow the approved format of the company for the delivery of research reports and demonstrate the integrity of the project with the objectives of the company.
• Have a clear research objective: A researcher should read the entire proposal again, and make sure that the data they provide contributes to the objectives that were raised from the beginning. Remember that speculations are for conversations, not for research reports, if a researcher speculates, they directly question their own research.
• Establish a working model:  Each study must have an internal logic, which will have to be established in the report and in the evidence. The researchers’ worst nightmare is to be required to write research reports and realize that key questions were not included.

Learn more: Quantitative Observation

• Gather all the information about the research topic. Who are the competitors of our customers? Talk to other researchers who have studied the subject of research, know the language of the industry. Misuse of the terms can discourage the readers of research reports from reading further.
• Read aloud while writing. While reading the report, if the researcher hears something inappropriate, for example, if they stumble over the words when reading them, surely the reader will too. If the researcher can’t put an idea in a single sentence, then it is very long and they must change it so that the idea is clear to everyone.
• Check grammar and spelling. Without a doubt, good practices help to understand the report. Use verbs in the present tense. Consider using the present tense, which makes the results sound more immediate. Find new words and other ways of saying things. Have fun with the language whenever possible.
• Discuss only the discoveries that are significant. If some data are not really significant, do not mention them. Remember that not everything is truly important or essential within research reports.

Learn more: Qualitative Data

• Try and stick to the survey questions. For example, do not say that the people surveyed “were worried” about an research issue , when there are different degrees of concern.
• The graphs must be clear enough so that they understand themselves. Do not let graphs lead the reader to make mistakes: give them a title, include the indications, the size of the sample, and the correct wording of the question.
• Be clear with messages. A researcher should always write every section of the report with an accuracy of details and language.
• Be creative with titles – Particularly in segmentation studies choose names “that give life to research”. Such names can survive for a long time after the initial investigation.
• Create an effective conclusion: The conclusion in the research reports is the most difficult to write, but it is an incredible opportunity to excel. Make a precise summary. Sometimes it helps to start the conclusion with something specific, then it describes the most important part of the study, and finally, it provides the implications of the conclusions.
• Get a couple more pair of eyes to read the report. Writers have trouble detecting their own mistakes. But they are responsible for what is presented. Ensure it has been approved by colleagues or friends before sending the find draft out.

Learn more: Market Research and Analysis

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Research Advisor Responsibilities

Any student serving as the principal investigator for a study involving human subjects must have a faculty or staff Research Advisor actively engaged in the research project.

The IRB holds the Research Advisor responsible for the overall management of an approved research protocol in conjunction with the student investigator.

As a Research Advisor, faculty and staff members have a variety of responsibilities to the student investigator and Macalester College in the process.

Before application submission

Research Advisors are expected to work with the student investigator on the following matters before an application is submitted to the IRB.

• Ensure that the student investigator fully understands the importance of the informed consent process and discuss any additional protections and best practices that may be necessary, depending on the intended population and proposed interventions.
• Develop with the student investigator a plan for secure data storage as well as plans to transfer any identifiable data to the advisor prior to the student’s graduation.
• Make sure that the student investigator has secured appropriate permissions from organizations, schools, community leaders, oversight committees, and/or other sites where research activities make take place.
• Review all parts of the research application to check for its completeness, accuracy, and best practices in human subjects research protections. Research proposals should comply with the ethical principles outlined in the Belmont Report, human subject research regulations including 45 CFR 46, College policies, and other applicable federal or state laws.

Once the application is prepared, the Research Advisor must sign a Research Advisor Form , which a student investigator must include with the materials submitted for IRB review.

While the proposal is in review, the Research Advisor must ensure that the investigator does not initiate the research until after receiving notification of IRB approval.

After IRB approval

Once an application receives written IRB approval, the Research Advisor should make adequate time to consult with the student investigator on a regular basis to monitor research progress. Research Advisors are expected to

• Assist and supervise the student investigator with responding to challenges, problems, and questions that arise in the course of conducting research.
• Ensure the confidentiality and security of all information obtained from and about human subjects, and the privacy of subjects is maintained.
• Support the student investigator in communicating with the IRB in a timely manner any request for modifications to approved protocols.
• Ensure all research activities have IRB approval and implement the research activity as it was approved by the IRB.
• Work with student investigators to promptly report any adverse events, protocol deviations, or other unanticipated problems involving risks to participants or others and other reportable events to the IRB.

The Research Advisor is considered the responsible party for assisting the student investigator with making ethical decisions throughout the life of the project. As such, the obligations of the Research Advisor work in conjunction with Investigator Responsibilities .

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Jessica Grant named interim director of Odum Institute

Grant will be the first woman to lead the institute in its 100-year history.

Jessica Grant has been named interim director of the Odum Institute for Research in Social Science, Vice Chancellor for Research Penny Gordon-Larsen announced.

Grant, currently the associate director of research and director of the Certificate in Survey Science, will be the first woman to lead the institute in its 100-year history.

Todd BenDor, who’s served as the Odum Institute director since 2018, is taking a new role as chair of the Department of City and Regional Planning in the College of Arts and Sciences. Both appointments are effective July 1.

As interim director, she’ll be responsible for overseeing research, outreach and grant-development activities for the institute. Grant will continue to build strong, collaborative relationships with departments, schools and other centers and institutes on campus, as well as institutions and organizations outside the University. She will also have primary responsibility for the day-to-day activities of the institute as well as representing Odum at inter-institutional and campus level meetings.

Prior to joining the Odum Institute, Grant worked within RTI International’s Survey Research Division for over 13 years, her most recent role being a research survey scientist and administrative manager in the Public Health and Clinical Research program. She has expertise in quantitative and qualitative modes of data collection and has worked extensively managing survey research projects for federal and state government agencies, universities, private organizations, and foundations.

Grant received a master’s in sociology at Fayetteville State University while working as the survey research center coordinator at Fayetteville State’s Research Center for Health Disparities. She received a bachelor’s in sociology and women’s studies from UNC-Chapel Hill.

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