meaning of ethics essay

What is Ethics?

• Markkula Center for Applied Ethics
• Ethics Resources
• Ethical Decision Making

Ethics is based on well-founded standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do, usually in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness, or specific virtues.

Some years ago, sociologist Raymond Baumhart asked business people, "What does ethics mean to you?" Among their replies were the following:

"Ethics has to do with what my feelings tell me is right or wrong." "Ethics has to do with my religious beliefs." "Being ethical is doing what the law requires." "Ethics consists of the standards of behavior our society accepts." "I don't know what the word means."

These replies might be typical of our own. The meaning of "ethics" is hard to pin down, and the views many people have about ethics are shaky.

Like Baumhart's first respondent, many people tend to equate ethics with their feelings. But being ethical is clearly not a matter of following one's feelings. A person following his or her feelings may recoil from doing what is right. In fact, feelings frequently deviate from what is ethical.

Nor should one identify ethics with religion. Most religions, of course, advocate high ethical standards. Yet if ethics were confined to religion, then ethics would apply only to religious people. But ethics applies as much to the behavior of the atheist as to that of the devout religious person. Religion can set high ethical standards and can provide intense motivations for ethical behavior. Ethics, however, cannot be confined to religion nor is it the same as religion.

Being ethical is also not the same as following the law. The law often incorporates ethical standards to which most citizens subscribe. But laws, like feelings, can deviate from what is ethical. Our own pre-Civil War slavery laws and the old apartheid laws of present-day South Africa are grotesquely obvious examples of laws that deviate from what is ethical.

Finally, being ethical is not the same as doing "whatever society accepts." In any society, most people accept standards that are, in fact, ethical. But standards of behavior in society can deviate from what is ethical. An entire society can become ethically corrupt. Nazi Germany is a good example of a morally corrupt society.

Moreover, if being ethical were doing "whatever society accepts," then to find out what is ethical, one would have to find out what society accepts. To decide what I should think about abortion, for example, I would have to take a survey of American society and then conform my beliefs to whatever society accepts. But no one ever tries to decide an ethical issue by doing a survey. Further, the lack of social consensus on many issues makes it impossible to equate ethics with whatever society accepts. Some people accept abortion but many others do not. If being ethical were doing whatever society accepts, one would have to find an agreement on issues which does not, in fact, exist.

What, then, is ethics? Ethics is two things. First, ethics refers to well-founded standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do, usually in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness, or specific virtues. Ethics, for example, refers to those standards that impose the reasonable obligations to refrain from rape, stealing, murder, assault, slander, and fraud. Ethical standards also include those that enjoin virtues of honesty, compassion, and loyalty. And, ethical standards include standards relating to rights, such as the right to life, the right to freedom from injury, and the right to privacy. Such standards are adequate standards of ethics because they are supported by consistent and well-founded reasons.

Secondly, ethics refers to the study and development of one's ethical standards. As mentioned above, feelings, laws, and social norms can deviate from what is ethical. So it is necessary to constantly examine one's standards to ensure that they are reasonable and well-founded. Ethics also means, then, the continuous effort of studying our own moral beliefs and our moral conduct, and striving to ensure that we, and the institutions we help to shape, live up to standards that are reasonable and solidly-based.

This article appeared originally in  Issues in Ethics  IIE V1 N1 (Fall 1987). Revised in 2010.

• Essay Guides
• Other Essays
• How to Write an Ethics Paper: Guide & Ethical Essay Examples
• Speech Topics
• Basics of Essay Writing
• Essay Topics
• Main Academic Essays
• Research Paper Topics
• Basics of Research Paper Writing
• Miscellaneous
• Chicago/ Turabian
• Data & Statistics
• Methodology
• Admission Writing Tips
• Admission Advice
• Other Guides
• Student Life
• Studying Tips
• Understanding Plagiarism
• Academic Writing Tips
• Basics of Dissertation & Thesis Writing

• Research Paper Guides
• Formatting Guides
• Basics of Research Process
• Admission Guides
• Dissertation & Thesis Guides

How to Write an Ethics Paper: Guide & Ethical Essay Examples

Table of contents

Use our free Readability checker

An ethics essay is a type of academic writing that explores ethical issues and dilemmas. Students should evaluates them in terms of moral principles and values. The purpose of an ethics essay is to examine the moral implications of a particular issue, and provide a reasoned argument in support of an ethical perspective.

Writing an essay about ethics is a tough task for most students. The process involves creating an outline to guide your arguments about a topic and planning your ideas to convince the reader of your feelings about a difficult issue. If you still need assistance putting together your thoughts in composing a good paper, you have come to the right place. We have provided a series of steps and tips to show how you can achieve success in writing. This guide will tell you how to write an ethics paper using ethical essay examples to understand every step it takes to be proficient. In case you don’t have time for writing, get in touch with our professional essay writers for hire . Our experts work hard to supply students with excellent essays.

What Is an Ethics Essay?

An ethics essay uses moral theories to build arguments on an issue. You describe a controversial problem and examine it to determine how it affects individuals or society. Ethics papers analyze arguments on both sides of a possible dilemma, focusing on right and wrong. The analysis gained can be used to solve real-life cases. Before embarking on writing an ethical essay, keep in mind that most individuals follow moral principles. From a social context perspective, these rules define how a human behaves or acts towards another. Therefore, your theme essay on ethics needs to demonstrate how a person feels about these moral principles. More specifically, your task is to show how significant that issue is and discuss if you value or discredit it.

Purpose of an Essay on Ethics

The primary purpose of an ethics essay is to initiate an argument on a moral issue using reasoning and critical evidence. Instead of providing general information about a problem, you present solid arguments about how you view the moral concern and how it affects you or society. When writing an ethical paper, you demonstrate philosophical competence, using appropriate moral perspectives and principles.

Things to Write an Essay About Ethics On

Before you start to write ethics essays, consider a topic you can easily address. In most cases, an ethical issues essay analyzes right and wrong. This includes discussing ethics and morals and how they contribute to the right behaviors. You can also talk about work ethic, code of conduct, and how employees promote or disregard the need for change. However, you can explore other areas by asking yourself what ethics mean to you. Think about how a recent game you watched with friends started a controversial argument. Or maybe a newspaper that highlighted a story you felt was misunderstood or blown out of proportion. This way, you can come up with an excellent topic that resonates with your personal ethics and beliefs.

Ethics Paper Outline

Sometimes, you will be asked to submit an outline before writing an ethics paper. Creating an outline for an ethics paper is an essential step in creating a good essay. You can use it to arrange your points and supporting evidence before writing. It also helps organize your thoughts, enabling you to fill any gaps in your ideas. The outline for an essay should contain short and numbered sentences to cover the format and outline. Each section is structured to enable you to plan your work and include all sources in writing an ethics paper. An ethics essay outline is as follows:

• Background information
• Thesis statement
• Restate thesis statement
• Summarize key points
• Final thoughts on the topic

Using this outline will improve clarity and focus throughout your writing process.

Ethical Essay Structure

Ethics essays are similar to other essays based on their format, outline, and structure. An ethical essay should have a well-defined introduction, body, and conclusion section as its structure. When planning your ideas, make sure that the introduction and conclusion are around 20 percent of the paper, leaving the rest to the body. We will take a detailed look at what each part entails and give examples that are going to help you understand them better.  Refer to our essay structure examples to find a fitting way of organizing your writing.

Ethics Paper Introduction

An ethics essay introduction gives a synopsis of your main argument. One step on how to write an introduction for an ethics paper is telling about the topic and describing its background information. This paragraph should be brief and straight to the point. It informs readers what your position is on that issue. Start with an essay hook to generate interest from your audience. It can be a question you will address or a misunderstanding that leads up to your main argument. You can also add more perspectives to be discussed; this will inform readers on what to expect in the paper.

Ethics Essay Introduction Example

You can find many ethics essay introduction examples on the internet. In this guide, we have written an excellent extract to demonstrate how it should be structured. As you read, examine how it begins with a hook and then provides background information on an issue. 

Imagine living in a world where people only lie, and honesty is becoming a scarce commodity. Indeed, modern society is facing this reality as truth and deception can no longer be separated. Technology has facilitated a quick transmission of voluminous information, whereas it's hard separating facts from opinions.

In this example, the first sentence of the introduction makes a claim or uses a question to hook the reader.

Ethics Essay Thesis Statement

An ethics paper must contain a thesis statement in the first paragraph. Learning how to write a thesis statement for an ethics paper is necessary as readers often look at it to gauge whether the essay is worth their time.

When you deviate away from the thesis, your whole paper loses meaning. In ethics essays, your thesis statement is a roadmap in writing, stressing your position on the problem and giving reasons for taking that stance. It should focus on a specific element of the issue being discussed. When writing a thesis statement, ensure that you can easily make arguments for or against its stance.

Ethical Paper Thesis Example

Look at this example of an ethics paper thesis statement and examine how well it has been written to state a position and provide reasons for doing so:

The moral implications of dishonesty are far-reaching as they undermine trust, integrity, and other foundations of society, damaging personal and professional relationships. 

The above thesis statement example is clear and concise, indicating that this paper will highlight the effects of dishonesty in society. Moreover, it focuses on aspects of personal and professional relationships.

Ethics Essay Body

The body section is the heart of an ethics paper as it presents the author's main points. In an ethical essay, each body paragraph has several elements that should explain your main idea. These include:

• A topic sentence that is precise and reiterates your stance on the issue.
• Evidence supporting it.
• Examples that illustrate your argument.
• A thorough analysis showing how the evidence and examples relate to that issue.
• A transition sentence that connects one paragraph to another with the help of essay transitions .

When you write an ethics essay, adding relevant examples strengthens your main point and makes it easy for others to understand and comprehend your argument. 

Body Paragraph for Ethics Paper Example

A good body paragraph must have a well-defined topic sentence that makes a claim and includes evidence and examples to support it. Look at part of an example of ethics essay body paragraph below and see how its idea has been developed:

Honesty is an essential component of professional integrity. In many fields, trust and credibility are crucial for professionals to build relationships and success. For example, a doctor who is dishonest about a potential side effect of a medication is not only acting unethically but also putting the health and well-being of their patients at risk. Similarly, a dishonest businessman could achieve short-term benefits but will lose their client’s trust.

Ethics Essay Conclusion

A concluding paragraph shares the summary and overview of the author's main arguments. Many students need clarification on what should be included in the essay conclusion and how best to get a reader's attention. When writing an ethics paper conclusion, consider the following:

• Restate the thesis statement to emphasize your position.
• Summarize its main points and evidence.
• Final thoughts on the issue and any other considerations.

You can also reflect on the topic or acknowledge any possible challenges or questions that have not been answered. A closing statement should present a call to action on the problem based on your position.

Sample Ethics Paper Conclusion

The conclusion paragraph restates the thesis statement and summarizes the arguments presented in that paper. The sample conclusion for an ethical essay example below demonstrates how you should write a concluding statement.  

In conclusion, the implications of dishonesty and the importance of honesty in our lives cannot be overstated. Honesty builds solid relationships, effective communication, and better decision-making. This essay has explored how dishonesty impacts people and that we should value honesty. We hope this essay will help readers assess their behavior and work towards being more honest in their lives.

In the above extract, the writer gives final thoughts on the topic, urging readers to adopt honest behavior.

How to Write an Ethics Paper?

As you learn how to write an ethics essay, it is not advised to immediately choose a topic and begin writing. When you follow this method, you will get stuck or fail to present concrete ideas. A good writer understands the importance of planning. As a fact, you should organize your work and ensure it captures key elements that shed more light on your arguments. Hence, following the essay structure and creating an outline to guide your writing process is the best approach. In the following segment, we have highlighted step-by-step techniques on how to write a good ethics paper.

1. Pick a Topic

Before writing ethical papers, brainstorm to find ideal topics that can be easily debated. For starters, make a list, then select a title that presents a moral issue that may be explained and addressed from opposing sides. Make sure you choose one that interests you. Here are a few ideas to help you search for topics:

• Review current trends affecting people.
• Think about your personal experiences.
• Study different moral theories and principles.
• Examine classical moral dilemmas.

Once you find a suitable topic and are ready, start to write your ethics essay, conduct preliminary research, and ascertain that there are enough sources to support it.

2. Conduct In-Depth Research

Once you choose a topic for your essay, the next step is gathering sufficient information about it. Conducting in-depth research entails looking through scholarly journals to find credible material. Ensure you note down all sources you found helpful to assist you on how to write your ethics paper. Use the following steps to help you conduct your research:

• Clearly state and define a problem you want to discuss.
• This will guide your research process.
• Develop keywords that match the topic.
• Begin searching from a wide perspective. This will allow you to collect more information, then narrow it down by using the identified words above.

3. Develop an Ethics Essay Outline

An outline will ease up your writing process when developing an ethic essay. As you develop a paper on ethics, jot down factual ideas that will build your paragraphs for each section. Include the following steps in your process:

• Review the topic and information gathered to write a thesis statement.
• Identify the main arguments you want to discuss and include their evidence.
• Group them into sections, each presenting a new idea that supports the thesis.
• Write an outline.
• Review and refine it.

Examples can also be included to support your main arguments. The structure should be sequential, coherent, and with a good flow from beginning to end. When you follow all steps, you can create an engaging and organized outline that will help you write a good essay.

4. Write an Ethics Essay

Once you have selected a topic, conducted research, and outlined your main points, you can begin writing an essay . Ensure you adhere to the ethics paper format you have chosen. Start an ethics paper with an overview of your topic to capture the readers' attention. Build upon your paper by avoiding ambiguous arguments and using the outline to help you write your essay on ethics. Finish the introduction paragraph with a thesis statement that explains your main position.  Expand on your thesis statement in all essay paragraphs. Each paragraph should start with a topic sentence and provide evidence plus an example to solidify your argument, strengthen the main point, and let readers see the reasoning behind your stance. Finally, conclude the essay by restating your thesis statement and summarizing all key ideas. Your conclusion should engage the reader, posing questions or urging them to reflect on the issue and how it will impact them.

5. Proofread Your Ethics Essay

Proofreading your essay is the last step as you countercheck any grammatical or structural errors in your essay. When writing your ethic paper, typical mistakes you could encounter include the following:

• Spelling errors: e.g., there, they’re, their.
• Homophone words: such as new vs. knew.
• Inconsistencies: like mixing British and American words, e.g., color vs. color.
• Formatting issues: e.g., double spacing, different font types.

While proofreading your ethical issue essay, read it aloud to detect lexical errors or ambiguous phrases that distort its meaning. Verify your information and ensure it is relevant and up-to-date. You can ask your fellow student to read the essay and give feedback on its structure and quality.

Ethics Essay Examples

Writing an essay is challenging without the right steps. There are so many ethics paper examples on the internet, however, we have provided a list of free ethics essay examples below that are well-structured and have a solid argument to help you write your paper. Click on them and see how each writing step has been integrated. Ethics essay example 1

Ethics essay example 2

Ethics essay example 3

Ethics essay example 4

College ethics essay example 5

Ethics Essay Writing Tips

When writing papers on ethics, here are several tips to help you complete an excellent essay:

• Choose a narrow topic and avoid broad subjects, as it is easy to cover the topic in detail.
• Ensure you have background information. A good understanding of a topic can make it easy to apply all necessary moral theories and principles in writing your paper.
• State your position clearly. It is important to be sure about your stance as it will allow you to draft your arguments accordingly.
• When writing ethics essays, be mindful of your audience. Provide arguments that they can understand.
• Integrate solid examples into your essay. Morality can be hard to understand; therefore, using them will help a reader grasp these concepts.

Bottom Line on Writing an Ethics Paper

Creating this essay is a common exercise in academics that allows students to build critical skills. When you begin writing, state your stance on an issue and provide arguments to support your position. This guide gives information on how to write an ethics essay as well as examples of ethics papers. Remember to follow these points in your writing:

• Create an outline highlighting your main points.
• Write an effective introduction and provide background information on an issue.
• Include a thesis statement.
• Develop concrete arguments and their counterarguments, and use examples.
• Sum up all your key points in your conclusion and restate your thesis statement.

Contact our academic writing platform and have your challenge solved. Here, you can order essays and papers on any topic and enjoy top quality. 

Daniel Howard is an Essay Writing guru. He helps students create essays that will strike a chord with the readers.

You may also like

Essay on Ethics for Students and Children

500+ words essay on ethics.

Essay on Ethics – Ethics refers to the concepts of right and wrong conduct. Furthermore, ethics is basically a branch of philosophy dealing with the issue of morality. Moreover, ethics consist of the rules of behavior. It certainly defines how a person should behave in specific situations. The origin of ethics is old and it started from the Stone Age . Most noteworthy, over the centuries many religions and philosophers have made contributions to ethics.

Branches of Ethics

First of all, comes the descriptive branch of ethics. Descriptive ethics involve what people actually believe to be right or wrong. On the basis of this, the law decides whether certain human actions are acceptable or not. Most noteworthy, the moral principles of society keep changing from time to time. Therefore, descriptive ethics are also known as comparative ethics. This is because; it compares the ethics of past and present as well as ethics of one society and another.

Normative ethics is another important branch of ethics. Moreover, Normative ethics deals with certain norms or set of considerations. Furthermore, these norms or set of considerations dictate how one should act. Therefore, normative ethics sets out the rightness or wrongness of actions or behaviours. Another name for normative ethics is prescriptive ethics. This is because; it has principles which determine whether an action is right or wrong.

Meta-ethics consists of the origin of the ethical concepts themselves. Meta-ethics is not concerned whether an action is good or evil. Rather, meta-ethics questions what morality itself is. Therefore, meta-ethics questions the very essence of goodness or rightness. Most noteworthy, it is a highly abstract way of analyzing ethics.

Applied ethics involves philosophical examination or certain private and public life issues. Furthermore, this examination of issues takes place from a moral standpoint. Moreover, this branch of ethics is very essential for professionals. Also, these professionals belong to different walks of life and include doctors , teachers , administrators, rulers.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Applications of Ethics

Bioethicists deal with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among life sciences, biotechnology, medicine, politics, and philosophy. Furthermore, Bioethics refers to the study of controversial ethics brought about by advances in biology and medicine .

Ethics also have a significant application in business. Moreover, business ethics examines ethical principles in relation to a business environment.

Military ethics involve the questions regarding the application of ethos of the soldier. Furthermore, military ethics involves the laws of war. Moreover, it also includes the question of justification of initiating military force.

Public sector ethics deals with a set of principles that guide public officials in their service. Furthermore, the public sector involves the morality of decision making. Most noteworthy, it consists of the question of what best serves the public’s interests.

In conclusion, ethics is certainly one of the most important requirements of humanity. Furthermore, without ethics, the world would have been an evil and chaotic place. Also, the advancement of humanity is not possible without ethics. There must be widespread awareness of ethics among the youth of society.

Customize your course in 30 seconds

Which class are you in.

• Travelling Essay
• Picnic Essay
• Our Country Essay
• My Parents Essay
• Essay on Favourite Personality
• Essay on Memorable Day of My Life
• Essay on Knowledge is Power
• Essay on Gurpurab
• Essay on My Favourite Season
• Essay on Types of Sports

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Download the App

Home — Essay Samples — Philosophy — Ethics — Ethics and Its Effective Importance

Ethics and Its Effective Importance

• Categories: Ethics

About this sample

Words: 1032 |

Published: Oct 23, 2018

Words: 1032 | Pages: 2 | 6 min read

Table of contents

Ethics essay outline, ethics essay example, introduction.

• Definition of ethics as systematic moral principles
• Importance of ethics in decision-making and its impact on individuals and society
• Brief overview of the essay's aims and topics

Understanding Ethics

• Origin of the word "ethics" from the Greek word "ethos"
• Overview of the general dilemmas covered by ethics
• Role of ethics in guiding individuals in leading a good life and making ethical decisions
• The language of right and wrong in ethics

Sources of Ethics

• Discussion of how ethics is derived from religions, philosophies, and cultures
• Mention of the ethical debates on topics such as abortion, human rights, and professional conduct
• Ethics as a moral map and framework for addressing complex moral issues

Disagreements and Ambiguity in Ethics

• Explanation of how ethics can pinpoint disagreements and clarify moral issues
• Acknowledgment that ethics doesn't always provide definitive answers
• The challenge of moral ambiguity and taking responsibility for ethical choices

Approaches to Ethical Problem Solving

• Historical perspectives on solving ethical problems, including divine guidance and philosophical reasoning
• Modern view emphasizing ethical decisions rather than fixed conclusions
• The role of philosophy in clarifying ethical issues and ethical methods

Objective vs. Subjective Ethics

• Debate between ethical realists and ethical non-realists
• Ethical realists' belief in the discovery of objective ethical truths
• Ethical non-realists' perspective that humans invent ethical truths
• The challenge of diverse ethical codes and behaviors among humans
• Summary of key points discussed in the essay
• The existence of ethical properties in the world regardless of human opinions
• How to customize a healthy good life
• How to generalize our own
• How to choose right sucessful path.
• How to make our own right decision
• And also of course about the language of right and wrong
• Dalton, Derek 2011 “Gender Differences in Ethics Research; Importance of Controlling Social Desirability Response” Volume 103 pg 73-93. Toronto, Canada.
• Ferell, 20017 ‘'Business Ethics'’ Edition 11 Boston, USA.
• Jeanes, Emmal 2017 “Are We Ethical? Approaches to Ethics in Management and Organization” Volume 24.2017 pg. 174-197. London.
• Mulder, Laetitia 2015 “Effect of Specific and General Rules on Ethical Decisions” Vol. 126.2015 pg. 115-129. Amsterdam.
• Razaha Juhaida Johari 2017 “Ethical Issues and their Relevence of Auditions” Vol 5.2017 pg 205-214. London.
• Velasquez, Manual 1996 “Why Ethics Matters a Defence of Ethics in Business Organization” Vol. 6 1996 pg. 201-227. Chicago, Illinois, USA.
• Wild, Nigel 2011 “Ethical Strategies for Organization” Vol. 16.2011 pg 110-127 Bingley.

Cite this Essay

Let us write you an essay from scratch

• 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
• Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

Get high-quality help

Dr. Karlyna PhD

Verified writer

• Expert in: Philosophy

+ 120 experts online

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

Related Essays

4 pages / 1847 words

3 pages / 1530 words

7 pages / 3071 words

2 pages / 919 words

Remember! This is just a sample.

You can get your custom paper by one of our expert writers.

121 writers online

Still can’t find what you need?

Browse our vast selection of original essay samples, each expertly formatted and styled

Related Essays on Ethics

Being a responsible person means taking the necessary steps to ensure that one is doing the right thing in the right way. It involves being accountable for one's actions and making wise considerations when faced with difficult [...]

Adams, J. S., Tashchian, A., & Shore, T. H. (2001). Codes of ethics as signals for ethical behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, 29(3), 199–211.Fraedrich, J., Thorne, D. M., & Ferrell, O. C. (1994). Assessing the application of [...]

De La Cruz, R. A. 'Ecological and Interspecies Ethics'.Regan, T. (1983). The Case for Animal Rights. University of California Press.

The case of Baby Theresa, a newborn born with anencephaly in 1992, ignited a profound ethical debate regarding organ donation, the definition of death, and the boundaries of medical intervention. This essay delves into the [...]

As readers, we generally presume journalists are a reliable source for news and information. Given this general assumption, it is important that journalists uphold a certain standard of ethics to ensure they are a trustworthy [...]

Overview of the author's moral and ethical stance based on Levinas' theory Connection to biblical passage "Thou shalt not kill" Discussion of how scripture and Catholic teachings inform the author's conscience [...]

Related Topics

By clicking “Send”, you agree to our Terms of service and Privacy statement . We will occasionally send you account related emails.

Where do you want us to send this sample?

By clicking “Continue”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy.

Be careful. This essay is not unique

This essay was donated by a student and is likely to have been used and submitted before

Download this Sample

Free samples may contain mistakes and not unique parts

Sorry, we could not paraphrase this essay. Our professional writers can rewrite it and get you a unique paper.

Please check your inbox.

We can write you a custom essay that will follow your exact instructions and meet the deadlines. Let's fix your grades together!

Get Your Personalized Essay in 3 Hours or Less!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free

• Table of Contents
• Random Entry
• Chronological
• Editorial Information
• About the SEP
• Editorial Board
• How to Cite the SEP
• Special Characters
• Advanced Tools
• Support the SEP
• PDFs for SEP Friends
• Make a Donation
• SEPIA for Libraries
• Entry Contents

Bibliography

Academic tools.

• Friends PDF Preview
• Author and Citation Info
• Back to Top

Aristotle’s Ethics

Aristotle conceives of ethical theory as a field distinct from the theoretical sciences. Its methodology must match its subject matter—good action—and must respect the fact that in this field many generalizations hold only for the most part. We study ethics in order to improve our lives, and therefore its principal concern is the nature of human well-being. Aristotle follows Socrates and Plato in taking the virtues to be central to a well-lived life. Like Plato, he regards the ethical virtues (justice, courage, temperance and so on) as complex rational, emotional and social skills. But he rejects Plato’s idea that to be completely virtuous one must acquire, through a training in the sciences, mathematics, and philosophy, an understanding of what goodness is. What we need, in order to live well, is a proper appreciation of the way in which such goods as friendship, pleasure, virtue, honor and wealth fit together as a whole. In order to apply that general understanding to particular cases, we must acquire, through proper upbringing and habits, the ability to see, on each occasion, which course of action is best supported by reasons. Therefore practical wisdom, as he conceives it, cannot be acquired solely by learning general rules. We must also acquire, through practice, those deliberative, emotional, and social skills that enable us to put our general understanding of well-being into practice in ways that are suitable to each occasion.

1. Preliminaries

2. the human good and the function argument, 3.1 traditional virtues and the skeptic, 3.2 differences from and affinities to plato, 4. virtues and deficiencies, continence and incontinence, 5.1 ethical virtue as disposition, 5.2 ethical theory does not offer a decision procedure, 5.3 the starting point for practical reasoning, 6. intellectual virtues, 8. pleasure, 9. friendship, 10. three lives compared, a. single-authored overviews, b. anthologies, c.1 the chronological order of aristotle’s ethical treatises, c.2 the methodology and metaphysics of ethical theory, c.3 the human good and the human function, c.4 the nature of virtue and accounts of particular virtues, c.5 practical reasoning, moral psychology, and action, c.6 pleasure, c.7 friendship, c.8 feminism and aristotle, c.9 aristotle and contemporary ethics, d. bibliographies, primary literature, secondary literature, other internet resources, related entries.

Aristotle wrote two ethical treatises: the Nicomachean Ethics and the Eudemian Ethics . He does not himself use either of these titles, although in the Politics (1295a36) he refers back to one of them—probably the Eudemian Ethics —as “ ta êthika ”—his writings about character. The words “ Eudemian ” and “ Nicomachean ” were added later, perhaps because the former was edited by his friend, Eudemus, and the latter by his son, Nicomachus. In any case, these two works cover more or less the same ground: they begin with a discussion of eudaimonia (“happiness”, “flourishing”), and turn to an examination of the nature of aretê (“virtue”, “excellence”) and the character traits that human beings need in order to live life at its best. Both treatises examine the conditions in which praise or blame are appropriate, and the nature of pleasure and friendship; near the end of each work, we find a brief discussion of the proper relationship between human beings and the divine.

Though the general point of view expressed in each work is the same, there are many subtle differences in organization and content as well. Clearly, one is a re-working of the other, and although no single piece of evidence shows conclusively what their order is, it is widely assumed that the Nicomachean Ethics is a later and improved version of the Eudemian Ethics . (Not all of the Eudemian Ethics was revised: its Books IV, V, and VI re-appear as V, VI, VII of the Nicomachean Ethics .) Perhaps the most telling indication of this ordering is that in several instances the Nicomachean Ethics develops a theme about which its Eudemian cousin is silent. Only the Nicomachean Ethics discusses the close relationship between ethical inquiry and politics; only the Nicomachean Ethics critically examines Solon’s paradoxical dictum that no man should be counted happy until he is dead; and only the Nicomachean Ethics gives a series of arguments for the superiority of the philosophical life to the political life. The remainder of this article will therefore focus on this work. [Note: Page and line numbers shall henceforth refer to this treatise.]

A third treatise, called the Magna Moralia (the “Big Ethics”) is included in complete editions of Aristotle’s works, but its authorship is disputed by scholars. It ranges over topics discussed more fully in the other two works and its point of view is similar to theirs. (Why, being briefer, is it named the Magna Moralia ? Because each of the two papyrus rolls into which it is divided is unusually long. Just as a big mouse can be a small animal, two big chapters can make a small book. This work was evidently named “big” with reference to its parts, not the whole.) A few authors in antiquity refer to a work with this name and attribute it to Aristotle, but it is not mentioned by several authorities, such as Cicero and Diogenes Laertius, whom we would expect to have known of it. Some scholars hold that it is Aristotle’s earliest course on ethics—perhaps his own lecture notes or those of a student; others regard it as a post-Aristotelian compilation or adaption of one or both of his genuine ethical treatises.

Although Aristotle is deeply indebted to Plato’s moral philosophy, particularly Plato’s central insight that moral thinking must be integrated with our emotions and appetites, and that the preparation for such unity of character should begin with childhood education, the systematic character of Aristotle’s discussion of these themes was a remarkable innovation. No one had written ethical treatises before Aristotle. Plato’s Republic , for example, does not treat ethics as a distinct subject matter; nor does it offer a systematic examination of the nature of happiness, virtue, voluntariness, pleasure, or friendship. To be sure, we can find in Plato’s works important discussions of these phenomena, but they are not brought together and unified as they are in Aristotle’s ethical writings.

The principal idea with which Aristotle begins is that there are differences of opinion about what is best for human beings, and that to profit from ethical inquiry we must resolve this disagreement. He insists that ethics is not a theoretical discipline: we are asking what the good for human beings is not simply because we want to have knowledge, but because we will be better able to achieve our good if we develop a fuller understanding of what it is to flourish. In raising this question—what is the good?—Aristotle is not looking for a list of items that are good. He assumes that such a list can be compiled rather easily; most would agree, for example, that it is good to have friends, to experience pleasure, to be healthy, to be honored, and to have such virtues as courage at least to some degree. The difficult and controversial question arises when we ask whether certain of these goods are more desirable than others. Aristotle’s search for the good is a search for the highest good, and he assumes that the highest good, whatever it turns out to be, has three characteristics: it is desirable for itself, it is not desirable for the sake of some other good, and all other goods are desirable for its sake.

Aristotle thinks everyone will agree that the terms “ eudaimonia ” (“happiness”) and “ eu zên ” (“living well”) designate such an end. The Greek term “ eudaimon ” is composed of two parts: “ eu ” means “well” and “ daimon ” means “divinity” or “spirit”. To be eudaimon is therefore to be living in a way that is well-favored by a god. But Aristotle never calls attention to this etymology in his ethical writings, and it seems to have little influence on his thinking. He regards “ eudaimon ” as a mere substitute for eu zên (“living well”). These terms play an evaluative role, and are not simply descriptions of someone’s state of mind.

No one tries to live well for the sake of some further goal; rather, being eudaimon is the highest end, and all subordinate goals—health, wealth, and other such resources—are sought because they promote well-being, not because they are what well-being consists in. But unless we can determine which good or goods happiness consists in, it is of little use to acknowledge that it is the highest end. To resolve this issue, Aristotle asks what the ergon (“function”, “task”, “work”) of a human being is, and argues that it consists in activity of the rational part of the soul in accordance with virtue (1097b22–1098a20). One important component of this argument is expressed in terms of distinctions he makes in his psychological and biological works. The soul is analyzed into a connected series of capacities: the nutritive soul is responsible for growth and reproduction, the locomotive soul for motion, the perceptive soul for perception, and so on. The biological fact Aristotle makes use of is that human beings are the only species that has not only these lower capacities but a rational soul as well. The good of a human being must have something to do with being human; and what sets humanity off from other species, giving us the potential to live a better life, is our capacity to guide ourselves by using reason. If we use reason well, we live well as human beings; or, to be more precise, using reason well over the course of a full life is what happiness consists in. Doing anything well requires virtue or excellence, and therefore living well consists in activities caused by the rational soul in accordance with virtue or excellence.

Aristotle’s conclusion about the nature of happiness is in a sense uniquely his own. No other writer or thinker had said precisely what he says about what it is to live well. But at the same time his view is not too distant from a common idea. As he himself points out, one traditional conception of happiness identifies it with virtue (1098b30–1). Aristotle’s theory should be construed as a refinement of this position. He says, not that happiness is virtue, but that it is virtuous activity . Living well consists in doing something, not just being in a certain state or condition. It consists in those lifelong activities that actualize the virtues of the rational part of the soul.

At the same time, Aristotle makes it clear that in order to be happy one must possess others goods as well—such goods as friends, wealth, and power. And one’s happiness is endangered if one is severely lacking in certain advantages—if, for example, one is extremely ugly, or has lost children or good friends through death (1099a31–b6). But why so? If one’s ultimate end should simply be virtuous activity, then why should it make any difference to one’s happiness whether one has or lacks these other types of good? Aristotle’s reply is that one’s virtuous activity will be to some extent diminished or defective, if one lacks an adequate supply of other goods (1153b17–19). Someone who is friendless, childless, powerless, weak, and ugly will simply not be able to find many opportunities for virtuous activity over a long period of time, and what little he can accomplish will not be of great merit. To some extent, then, living well requires good fortune; happenstance can rob even the most excellent human beings of happiness. Nonetheless, Aristotle insists, the highest good, virtuous activity, is not something that comes to us by chance. Although we must be fortunate enough to have parents and fellow citizens who help us become virtuous, we ourselves share much of the responsibility for acquiring and exercising the virtues.

3. Methodology

A common complaint about Aristotle’s attempt to defend his conception of happiness is that his argument is too general to show that it is in one’s interest to possess any of the particular virtues as they are traditionally conceived. Suppose we grant, at least for the sake of argument, that doing anything well, including living well, consists in exercising certain skills; and let us call these skills, whatever they turn out to be, virtues. Even so, that point does not by itself allow us to infer that such qualities as temperance, justice, courage, as they are normally understood, are virtues. They should be counted as virtues only if it can be shown that actualizing precisely these skills is what happiness consists in. What Aristotle owes us, then, is an account of these traditional qualities that explains why they must play a central role in any well-lived life.

But perhaps Aristotle disagrees, and refuses to accept this argumentative burden. In one of several important methodological remarks he makes near the beginning of the Nicomachean Ethics , he says that in order to profit from the sort of study he is undertaking, one must already have been brought up in good habits (1095b4–6). The audience he is addressing, in other words, consists of people who are already just, courageous, and generous; or, at any rate, they are well on their way to possessing these virtues. Why such a restricted audience? Why does he not address those who have serious doubts about the value of these traditional qualities, and who therefore have not yet decided to cultivate and embrace them?

Addressing the moral skeptic, after all, is the project Plato undertook in the Republic : in Book I he rehearses an argument to show that justice is not really a virtue, and the remainder of this work is an attempt to rebut this thesis. Aristotle’s project seems, at least on the surface, to be quite different. He does not appear to be addressing someone who has genuine doubts about the value of justice or kindred qualities. Perhaps, then, he realizes how little can be accomplished, in the study of ethics, to provide it with a rational foundation. Perhaps he thinks that no reason can be given for being just, generous, and courageous. These are qualities one learns to love when one is a child, and having been properly habituated, one no longer looks for or needs a reason to exercise them. One can show, as a general point, that happiness consists in exercising some skills or other, but that the moral skills of a virtuous person are what one needs is not a proposition that can be established on the basis of argument.

This is not the only way of reading the Ethics , however. For surely we cannot expect Aristotle to show what it is about the traditional virtues that makes them so worthwhile until he has fully discussed the nature of those virtues. He himself warns us that his initial statement of what happiness is should be treated as a rough outline whose details are to be filled in later (1098a20–22). His intention in Book I of the Ethics is to indicate in a general way why the virtues are important; why particular virtues—courage, justice, and the like—are components of happiness is something we should be able to better understand only at a later point.

In any case, Aristotle’s assertion that his audience must already have begun to cultivate the virtues need not be taken to mean that no reasons can be found for being courageous, just, and generous. His point, rather, may be that in ethics, as in any other study, we cannot make progress towards understanding why things are as they are unless we begin with certain assumptions about what is the case. Neither theoretical nor practical inquiry starts from scratch. Someone who has made no observations of astronomical or biological phenomena is not yet equipped with sufficient data to develop an understanding of these sciences. The parallel point in ethics is that to make progress in this sphere we must already have come to enjoy doing what is just, courageous, generous and the like. We must experience these activities not as burdensome constraints, but as noble, worthwhile, and enjoyable in themselves. Then, when we engage in ethical inquiry, we can ask what it is about these activities that makes them worthwhile. We can also compare these goods with other things that are desirable in themselves—pleasure, friendship, honor, and so on—and ask whether any of them is more desirable than the others. We approach ethical theory with a disorganized bundle of likes and dislikes based on habit and experience; such disorder is an inevitable feature of childhood. But what is not inevitable is that our early experience will be rich enough to provide an adequate basis for worthwhile ethical reflection; that is why we need to have been brought up well. Yet such an upbringing can take us only so far. We seek a deeper understanding of the objects of our childhood enthusiasms, and we must systematize our goals so that as adults we have a coherent plan of life. We need to engage in ethical theory, and to reason well in this field, if we are to move beyond the low-grade form of virtue we acquired as children.

Read in this way, Aristotle is engaged in a project similar in some respects to the one Plato carried out in the Republic . One of Plato’s central points is that it is a great advantage to establish a hierarchical ordering of the elements in one’s soul; and he shows how the traditional virtues can be interpreted to foster or express the proper relation between reason and less rational elements of the psyche. Aristotle’s approach is similar: his “function argument” shows in a general way that our good lies in the dominance of reason, and the detailed studies of the particular virtues reveal how each of them involves the right kind of ordering of the soul. Aristotle’s goal is to arrive at conclusions like Plato’s, but without relying on the Platonic metaphysics that plays a central role in the argument of the Republic . He rejects the existence of Plato’s forms in general and the form of the good in particular; and he rejects the idea that in order to become fully virtuous one must study mathematics and the sciences, and see all branches of knowledge as a unified whole. Even though Aristotle’s ethical theory sometimes relies on philosophical distinctions that are more fully developed in his other works, he never proposes that students of ethics need to engage in a specialized study of the natural world, or mathematics, or eternal and changing objects. His project is to make ethics an autonomous field, and to show why a full understanding of what is good does not require expertise in any other field.

There is another contrast with Plato that should be emphasized: In Book II of the Republic , we are told that the best type of good is one that is desirable both in itself and for the sake of its results (357d–358a). Plato argues that justice should be placed in this category, but since it is generally agreed that it is desirable for its consequences, he devotes most of his time to establishing his more controversial point—that justice is to be sought for its own sake. By contrast, Aristotle assumes that if A is desirable for the sake of B , then B is better than A (1094a14–16); therefore, the highest kind of good must be one that is not desirable for the sake of anything else. To show that A deserves to be our ultimate end, one must show that all other goods are best thought of as instruments that promote A in some way or other. Accordingly, it would not serve Aristotle’s purpose to consider virtuous activity in isolation from all other goods. He needs to discuss honor, wealth, pleasure, and friendship in order to show how these goods, properly understood, can be seen as resources that serve the higher goal of virtuous activity. He vindicates the centrality of virtue in a well-lived life by showing that in the normal course of things a virtuous person will not live a life devoid of friends, honor, wealth, pleasure, and the like. Virtuous activity makes a life happy not by guaranteeing happiness in all circumstances, but by serving as the goal for the sake of which lesser goods are to be pursued. Aristotle’s methodology in ethics therefore pays more attention than does Plato’s to the connections that normally obtain between virtue and other goods. That is why he stresses that in this sort of study one must be satisfied with conclusions that hold only for the most part (1094b11–22). Poverty, isolation, and dishonor are normally impediments to the exercise of virtue and therefore to happiness, although there may be special circumstances in which they are not. The possibility of exceptions does not undermine the point that, as a rule, to live well is to have sufficient resources for the pursuit of virtue over the course of a lifetime.

Aristotle distinguishes two kinds of virtue (1103a1–10): those that pertain to the part of the soul that engages in reasoning (virtues of mind or intellect), and those that pertain to the part of the soul that cannot itself reason but is nonetheless capable of following reason (ethical virtues, virtues of character). Intellectual virtues are in turn divided into two sorts: those that pertain to theoretical reasoning, and those that pertain to practical thinking (1139a3–8). He organizes his material by first studying ethical virtue in general, then moving to a discussion of particular ethical virtues (temperance, courage, and so on), and finally completing his survey by considering the intellectual virtues (practical wisdom, theoretical wisdom, etc.).

All free males are born with the potential to become ethically virtuous and practically wise, but to achieve these goals they must go through two stages: during their childhood, they must develop the proper habits; and then, when their reason is fully developed, they must acquire practical wisdom ( phronêsis ). This does not mean that first we fully acquire the ethical virtues, and then, at a later stage, add on practical wisdom. Ethical virtue is fully developed only when it is combined with practical wisdom (1144b14–17). A low-grade form of ethical virtue emerges in us during childhood as we are repeatedly placed in situations that call for appropriate actions and emotions; but as we rely less on others and become capable of doing more of our own thinking, we learn to develop a larger picture of human life, our deliberative skills improve, and our emotional responses are perfected. Like anyone who has developed a skill in performing a complex and difficult activity, the virtuous person takes pleasure in exercising his intellectual skills. Furthermore, when he has decided what to do, he does not have to contend with internal pressures to act otherwise. He does not long to do something that he regards as shameful; and he is not greatly distressed at having to give up a pleasure that he realizes he should forego.

Aristotle places those who suffer from such internal disorders into one of three categories: (A) Some agents, having reached a decision about what to do on a particular occasion, experience some counter-pressure brought on by an appetite for pleasure, or anger, or some other emotion; and this countervailing influence is not completely under the control of reason. (1) Within this category, some are typically better able to resist these counter-rational pressures than is the average person. Such people are not virtuous, although they generally do what a virtuous person does. Aristotle calls them “continent” ( enkratês ). But (2) others are less successful than the average person in resisting these counter-pressures. They are “incontinent” ( akratês ). (The explanation of akrasia is a topic to which we will return in section 7.) In addition, (B) there is a type of agent who refuses even to try to do what an ethically virtuous agent would do, because he has become convinced that justice, temperance, generosity and the like are of little or no value. Such people Aristotle calls evil ( kakos , phaulos ). He assumes that evil people are driven by desires for domination and luxury, and although they are single-minded in their pursuit of these goals, he portrays them as deeply divided, because their pleonexia —their desire for more and more—leaves them dissatisfied and full of self-hatred.

It should be noticed that all three of these deficiencies—continence, incontinence, vice—involve some lack of internal harmony. (Here Aristotle’s debt to Plato is particularly evident, for one of the central ideas of the Republic is that the life of a good person is harmonious, and all other lives deviate to some degree from this ideal.) The evil person may wholeheartedly endorse some evil plan of action at a particular moment, but over the course of time, Aristotle supposes, he will regret his decision, because whatever he does will prove inadequate for the achievement of his goals (1166b5–29). Aristotle assumes that when someone systematically makes bad decisions about how to live his life, his failures are caused by psychological forces that are less than fully rational. His desires for pleasure, power or some other external goal have become so strong that they make him care too little or not at all about acting ethically. To keep such destructive inner forces at bay, we need to develop the proper habits and emotional responses when we are children, and to reflect intelligently on our aims when we are adults. But some vulnerability to these disruptive forces is present even in more-or-less virtuous people; that is why even a good political community needs laws and the threat of punishment. Clear thinking about the best goals of human life and the proper way to put them into practice is a rare achievement, because the human psyche is not a hospitable environment for the development of these insights.

5. The Doctrine of the Mean

Aristotle describes ethical virtue as a “ hexis ” (“state” “condition” “disposition”)—a tendency or disposition, induced by our habits, to have appropriate feelings (1105b25–6). Defective states of character are hexeis (plural of hexis ) as well, but they are tendencies to have inappropriate feelings. The significance of Aristotle’s characterization of these states as hexeis is his decisive rejection of the thesis, found throughout Plato’s early dialogues, that virtue is nothing but a kind of knowledge and vice nothing but a lack of knowledge. Although Aristotle frequently draws analogies between the crafts and the virtues (and similarly between physical health and eudaimonia ), he insists that the virtues differ from the crafts and all branches of knowledge in that the former involve appropriate emotional responses and are not purely intellectual conditions.

Furthermore, every ethical virtue is a condition intermediate (a “golden mean” as it is popularly known) between two other states, one involving excess, and the other deficiency (1106a26–b28). In this respect, Aristotle says, the virtues are no different from technical skills: every skilled worker knows how to avoid excess and deficiency, and is in a condition intermediate between two extremes. The courageous person, for example, judges that some dangers are worth facing and others not, and experiences fear to a degree that is appropriate to his circumstances. He lies between the coward, who flees every danger and experiences excessive fear, and the rash person, who judges every danger worth facing and experiences little or no fear. Aristotle holds that this same topography applies to every ethical virtue: all are located on a map that places the virtues between states of excess and deficiency. He is careful to add, however, that the mean is to be determined in a way that takes into account the particular circumstances of the individual (1106a36–b7). The arithmetic mean between 10 and 2 is 6, and this is so invariably, whatever is being counted. But the intermediate point that is chosen by an expert in any of the crafts will vary from one situation to another. There is no universal rule, for example, about how much food an athlete should eat, and it would be absurd to infer from the fact that 10 lbs. is too much and 2 lbs. too little for me that I should eat 6 lbs. Finding the mean in any given situation is not a mechanical or thoughtless procedure, but requires a full and detailed acquaintance with the circumstances.

It should be evident that Aristotle’s treatment of virtues as mean states endorses the idea that we should sometimes have strong feelings—when such feelings are called for by our situation. Sometimes only a small degree of anger is appropriate; but at other times, circumstances call for great anger. The right amount is not some quantity between zero and the highest possible level, but rather the amount, whatever it happens to be, that is proportionate to the seriousness of the situation. Of course, Aristotle is committed to saying that anger should never reach the point at which it undermines reason; and this means that our passion should always fall short of the extreme point at which we would lose control. But it is possible to be very angry without going to this extreme, and Aristotle does not intend to deny this.

The theory of the mean is open to several objections, but before considering them, we should recognize that in fact there are two distinct theses each of which might be called a doctrine of the mean. First, there is the thesis that every virtue is a state that lies between two vices, one of excess and the other of deficiency. Second, there is the idea that whenever a virtuous person chooses to perform a virtuous act, he can be described as aiming at an act that is in some way or other intermediate between alternatives that he rejects. It is this second thesis that is most likely to be found objectionable. A critic might concede that in some cases virtuous acts can be described in Aristotle’s terms. If, for example, one is trying to decide how much to spend on a wedding present, one is looking for an amount that is neither excessive nor deficient. But surely many other problems that confront a virtuous agent are not susceptible to this quantitative analysis. If one must decide whether to attend a wedding or respect a competing obligation instead, it would not be illuminating to describe this as a search for a mean between extremes—unless “aiming at the mean” simply becomes another phrase for trying to make the right decision. The objection, then, is that Aristotle’s doctrine of the mean, taken as a doctrine about what the ethical agent does when he deliberates, is in many cases inapplicable or unilluminating.

A defense of Aristotle would have to say that the virtuous person does after all aim at a mean, if we allow for a broad enough notion of what sort of aiming is involved. For example, consider a juror who must determine whether a defendant is guilty as charged. He does not have before his mind a quantitative question; he is trying to decide whether the accused committed the crime, and is not looking for some quantity of action intermediate between extremes. Nonetheless, an excellent juror can be described as someone who, in trying to arrive at the correct decision, seeks to express the right degree of concern for all relevant considerations. He searches for the verdict that results from a deliberative process that is neither overly credulous nor unduly skeptical. Similarly, in facing situations that arouse anger, a virtuous agent must determine what action (if any) to take in response to an insult, and although this is not itself a quantitative question, his attempt to answer it properly requires him to have the right degree of concern for his standing as a member of the community. He aims at a mean in the sense that he looks for a response that avoids too much or too little attention to factors that must be taken into account in making a wise decision.

Perhaps a greater difficulty can be raised if we ask how Aristotle determines which emotions are governed by the doctrine of the mean. Consider someone who loves to wrestle, for example. Is this passion something that must be felt by every human being at appropriate times and to the right degree? Surely someone who never felt this emotion to any degree could still live a perfectly happy life. Why then should we not say the same about at least some of the emotions that Aristotle builds into his analysis of the ethically virtuous agent? Why should we experience anger at all, or fear, or the degree of concern for wealth and honor that Aristotle commends? These are precisely the questions that were asked in antiquity by the Stoics, and they came to the conclusion that such common emotions as anger and fear are always inappropriate. Aristotle assumes, on the contrary, not simply that these common passions are sometimes appropriate, but that it is essential that every human being learn how to master them and experience them in the right way at the right times. A defense of his position would have to show that the emotions that figure in his account of the virtues are valuable components of any well-lived human life, when they are experienced properly. Perhaps such a project could be carried out, but Aristotle himself does not attempt to do so.

He often says, in the course of his discussion, that when the good person chooses to act virtuously, he does so for the sake of the “ kalon ”—a word that can mean “beautiful”, “noble”, or “fine” (see for example 1120a23–4). This term indicates that Aristotle sees in ethical activity an attraction that is comparable to the beauty of well-crafted artifacts, including such artifacts as poetry, music, and drama. He draws this analogy in his discussion of the mean, when he says that every craft tries to produce a work from which nothing should be taken away and to which nothing further should be added (1106b5–14). A craft product, when well designed and produced by a good craftsman, is not merely useful, but also has such elements as balance, proportion and harmony—for these are properties that help make it useful. Similarly, Aristotle holds that a well-executed project that expresses the ethical virtues will not merely be advantageous but kalon as well—for the balance it strikes is part of what makes it advantageous. The young person learning to acquire the virtues must develop a love of doing what is kalon and a strong aversion to its opposite—the aischron , the shameful and ugly. Determining what is kalon is difficult (1106b28–33, 1109a24–30), and the normal human aversion to embracing difficulties helps account for the scarcity of virtue (1104b10–11).

It should be clear that neither the thesis that virtues lie between extremes nor the thesis that the good person aims at what is intermediate is intended as a procedure for making decisions. These doctrines of the mean help show what is attractive about the virtues, and they also help systematize our understanding of which qualities are virtues. Once we see that temperance, courage, and other generally recognized characteristics are mean states, we are in a position to generalize and to identify other mean states as virtues, even though they are not qualities for which we have a name. Aristotle remarks, for example, that the mean state with respect to anger has no name in Greek (1125b26–7). Though he is guided to some degree by distinctions captured by ordinary terms, his methodology allows him to recognize states for which no names exist.

So far from offering a decision procedure, Aristotle insists that this is something that no ethical theory can do. His theory elucidates the nature of virtue, but what must be done on any particular occasion by a virtuous agent depends on the circumstances, and these vary so much from one occasion to another that there is no possibility of stating a series of rules, however complicated, that collectively solve every practical problem. This feature of ethical theory is not unique; Aristotle thinks it applies to many crafts, such as medicine and navigation (1104a7–10). He says that the virtuous person “sees the truth in each case, being as it were a standard and measure of them” (1113a32–3); but this appeal to the good person’s vision should not be taken to mean that he has an inarticulate and incommunicable insight into the truth. Aristotle thinks of the good person as someone who is good at deliberation, and he describes deliberation as a process of rational inquiry. The intermediate point that the good person tries to find is

determined by logos (“reason”, “account”) and in the way that the person of practical reason would determine it. (1107a1–2)

To say that such a person “sees” what to do is simply a way of registering the point that the good person’s reasoning does succeed in discovering what is best in each situation. He is “as it were a standard and measure” in the sense that his views should be regarded as authoritative by other members of the community. A standard or measure is something that settles disputes; and because good people are so skilled at discovering the mean in difficult cases, their advice must be sought and heeded.

Although there is no possibility of writing a book of rules, however long, that will serve as a complete guide to wise decision-making, it would be a mistake to attribute to Aristotle the opposite position, namely that every purported rule admits of exceptions, so that even a small rule-book that applies to a limited number of situations is an impossibility. He makes it clear that certain emotions (spite, shamelessness, envy) and actions (adultery, theft, murder) are always wrong, regardless of the circumstances (1107a8–12). Although he says that the names of these emotions and actions convey their wrongness, he should not be taken to mean that their wrongness derives from linguistic usage. He defends the family as a social institution against the criticisms of Plato ( Politics II.3–4), and so when he says that adultery is always wrong, he is prepared to argue for his point by explaining why marriage is a valuable custom and why extra-marital intercourse undermines the relationship between husband and wife. He is not making the tautological claim that wrongful sexual activity is wrong, but the more specific and contentious point that marriages ought to be governed by a rule of strict fidelity. Similarly, when he says that murder and theft are always wrong, he does not mean that wrongful killing and taking are wrong, but that the current system of laws regarding these matters ought to be strictly enforced. So, although Aristotle holds that ethics cannot be reduced to a system of rules, however complex, he insists that some rules are inviolable.

We have seen that the decisions of a practically wise person are not mere intuitions, but can be justified by a chain of reasoning. (This is why Aristotle often talks in term of a practical syllogism, with a major premise that identifies some good to be achieved, and a minor premise that locates the good in some present-to-hand situation.) At the same time, he is acutely aware of the fact that reasoning can always be traced back to a starting point that is not itself justified by further reasoning. Neither good theoretical reasoning nor good practical reasoning moves in a circle; true thinking always presupposes and progresses in linear fashion from proper starting points. And that leads him to ask for an account of how the proper starting points of reasoning are to be determined. Practical reasoning always presupposes that one has some end, some goal one is trying to achieve; and the task of reasoning is to determine how that goal is to be accomplished. (This need not be means-end reasoning in the conventional sense; if, for example, our goal is the just resolution of a conflict, we must determine what constitutes justice in these particular circumstances. Here we are engaged in ethical inquiry, and are not asking a purely instrumental question.) But if practical reasoning is correct only if it begins from a correct premise, what is it that insures the correctness of its starting point?

Aristotle replies: “Virtue makes the goal right, practical wisdom the things leading to it” (1144a7–8). By this he cannot mean that there is no room for reasoning about our ultimate end. For as we have seen, he gives a reasoned defense of his conception of happiness as virtuous activity. What he must have in mind, when he says that virtue makes the goal right, is that deliberation typically proceeds from a goal that is far more specific than the goal of attaining happiness by acting virtuously. To be sure, there may be occasions when a good person approaches an ethical problem by beginning with the premise that happiness consists in virtuous activity. But more often what happens is that a concrete goal presents itself as his starting point—helping a friend in need, or supporting a worthwhile civic project. Which specific project we set for ourselves is determined by our character. A good person starts from worthwhile concrete ends because his habits and emotional orientation have given him the ability to recognize that such goals are within reach, here and now. Those who are defective in character may have the rational skill needed to achieve their ends—the skill Aristotle calls cleverness (1144a23–8)—but often the ends they seek are worthless. The cause of this deficiency lies not in some impairment in their capacity to reason—for we are assuming that they are normal in this respect—but in the training of their passions.

Since Aristotle often calls attention to the imprecision of ethical theory (see e.g. 1104a1–7), it comes as a surprise to many readers of the Ethics that he begins Book VI with the admission that his earlier statements about the mean need supplementation because they are not yet clear ( saphes ). In every practical discipline, the expert aims at a mark and uses right reason to avoid the twin extremes of excess and deficiency. But what is this right reason, and by what standard ( horos ) is it to be determined? Aristotle says that unless we answer that question, we will be none the wiser—just as a student of medicine will have failed to master his subject if he can only say that the right medicines to administer are the ones that are prescribed by medical expertise, but has no standard other than this (1138b18–34).

It is not easy to understand the point Aristotle is making here. Has he not already told us that there can be no complete theoretical guide to ethics, that the best one can hope for is that in particular situations one’s ethical habits and practical wisdom will help one determine what to do? Furthermore, Aristotle nowhere announces, in the remainder of Book VI, that we have achieved the greater degree of accuracy that he seems to be looking for. The rest of this Book is a discussion of the various kinds of intellectual virtues: theoretical wisdom, science ( epistêmê ), intuitive understanding ( nous ), practical wisdom, and craft expertise. Aristotle explains what each of these states of mind is, draws various contrasts among them, and takes up various questions that can be raised about their usefulness. At no point does he explicitly return to the question he raised at the beginning of Book VI; he never says, “and now we have the standard of right reason that we were looking for”. Nor is it easy to see how his discussion of these five intellectual virtues can bring greater precision to the doctrine of the mean.

We can make some progress towards solving this problem if we remind ourselves that at the beginning of the Ethics , Aristotle describes his inquiry as an attempt to develop a better understanding of what our ultimate aim should be. The sketchy answer he gives in Book I is that happiness consists in virtuous activity. In Books II through V, he describes the virtues of the part of the soul that is rational in that it can be attentive to reason, even though it is not capable of deliberating. But precisely because these virtues are rational only in this derivative way, they are a less important component of our ultimate end than is the intellectual virtue—practical wisdom—with which they are integrated. If what we know about virtue is only what is said in Books II through V, then our grasp of our ultimate end is radically incomplete, because we still have not studied the intellectual virtue that enables us to reason well in any given situation. One of the things, at least, towards which Aristotle is gesturing, as he begins Book VI, is practical wisdom. This state of mind has not yet been analyzed, and that is one reason why he complains that his account of our ultimate end is not yet clear enough.

But is practical wisdom the only ingredient of our ultimate end that has not yet been sufficiently discussed? Book VI discusses five intellectual virtues, not just practical wisdom, but it is clear that at least one of these—craft knowledge—is considered only in order to provide a contrast with the others. Aristotle is not recommending that his readers make this intellectual virtue part of their ultimate aim. But what of the remaining three: science, intuitive understanding, and the virtue that combines them, theoretical wisdom? Are these present in Book VI only in order to provide a contrast with practical wisdom, or is Aristotle saying that these too must be components of our goal? He does not fully address this issue, but it is evident from several of his remarks in Book VI that he takes theoretical wisdom to be a more valuable state of mind than practical wisdom.

It is strange if someone thinks that politics or practical wisdom is the most excellent kind of knowledge, unless man is the best thing in the cosmos. (1141a20–22)

He says that theoretical wisdom produces happiness by being a part of virtue (1144a3–6), and that practical wisdom looks to the development of theoretical wisdom, and issues commands for its sake (1145a8–11). So it is clear that exercising theoretical wisdom is a more important component of our ultimate goal than practical wisdom.

Even so, it may still seem perplexing that these two intellectual virtues, either separately or collectively, should somehow fill a gap in the doctrine of the mean. Having read Book VI and completed our study of what these two forms of wisdom are, how are we better able to succeed in finding the mean in particular situations?

The answer to this question may be that Aristotle does not intend Book VI to provide a full answer to that question, but rather to serve as a prolegomenon to an answer. For it is only near the end of Book X that he presents a full discussion of the relative merits of these two kinds of intellectual virtue, and comments on the different degrees to which each needs to be provided with resources. In X.7–8, he argues that the happiest kind of life is that of a philosopher—someone who exercises, over a long period of time, the virtue of theoretical wisdom, and has sufficient resources for doing so. (We will discuss these chapters more fully in section 10 below.) One of his reasons for thinking that such a life is superior to the second-best kind of life—that of a political leader, someone who devotes himself to the exercise of practical rather than theoretical wisdom—is that it requires less external equipment (1178a23–b7). Aristotle has already made it clear in his discussion of the ethical virtues that someone who is greatly honored by his community and commands large financial resources is in a position to exercise a higher order of ethical virtue than is someone who receives few honors and has little property. The virtue of magnificence is superior to mere liberality, and similarly greatness of soul is a higher excellence than the ordinary virtue that has to do with honor. (These qualities are discussed in IV.1–4.) The grandest expression of ethical virtue requires great political power, because it is the political leader who is in a position to do the greatest amount of good for the community. The person who chooses to lead a political life, and who aims at the fullest expression of practical wisdom, has a standard for deciding what level of resources he needs: he should have friends, property, and honors in sufficient quantities to allow his practical wisdom to express itself without impediment. But if one chooses instead the life of a philosopher, then one will look to a different standard—the fullest expression of theoretical wisdom—and one will need a smaller supply of these resources.

This enables us to see how Aristotle’s treatment of the intellectual virtues does give greater content and precision to the doctrine of the mean. The best standard is the one adopted by the philosopher; the second-best is the one adopted by the political leader. In either case, it is the exercise of an intellectual virtue that provides a guideline for making important quantitative decisions. This supplement to the doctrine of the mean is fully compatible with Aristotle’s thesis that no set of rules, no matter how long and detailed, obviates the need for deliberative and ethical virtue. If one chooses the life of a philosopher, one should keep the level of one’s resources high enough to secure the leisure necessary for such a life, but not so high that one’s external equipment becomes a burden and a distraction rather than an aid to living well. That gives one a firmer idea of how to hit the mean, but it still leaves the details to be worked out. The philosopher will need to determine, in particular situations, where justice lies, how to spend wisely, when to meet or avoid a danger, and so on. All of the normal difficulties of ethical life remain, and they can be solved only by means of a detailed understanding of the particulars of each situation. Having philosophy as one’s ultimate aim does not put an end to the need for developing and exercising practical wisdom and the ethical virtues.

In VII.1–10 Aristotle investigates character traits—continence and incontinence—that are not as blameworthy as the vices but not as praiseworthy as the virtues. (We began our discussion of these qualities in section 4.) The Greek terms are akrasia (“incontinence”; literally: “lack of mastery”) and enkrateia (“continence”; literally “mastery”). An akratic person goes against reason as a result of some pathos (“emotion”, “feeling”). Like the akratic, an enkratic person experiences a feeling that is contrary to reason; but unlike the akratic, he acts in accordance with reason. His defect consists solely in the fact that, more than most people, he experiences passions that conflict with his rational choice. The akratic person has not only this defect, but has the further flaw that he gives in to feeling rather than reason more often than the average person.

Aristotle distinguishes two kinds of akrasia: impetuosity ( propeteia ) and weakness ( astheneia ). The person who is weak goes through a process of deliberation and makes a choice; but rather than act in accordance with his reasoned choice, he acts under the influence of a passion. By contrast, the impetuous person does not go through a process of deliberation and does not make a reasoned choice; he simply acts under the influence of a passion. At the time of action, the impetuous person experiences no internal conflict. But once his act has been completed, he regrets what he has done. One could say that he deliberates, if deliberation were something that post-dated rather than preceded action; but the thought process he goes through after he acts comes too late to save him from error.

It is important to bear in mind that when Aristotle talks about impetuosity and weakness, he is discussing chronic conditions. The impetuous person is someone who acts emotionally and fails to deliberate not just once or twice but with some frequency; he makes this error more than most people do. Because of this pattern in his actions, we would be justified in saying of the impetuous person that had his passions not prevented him from doing so, he would have deliberated and chosen an action different from the one he did perform.

The two kinds of passions that Aristotle focuses on, in his treatment of akrasia , are the appetite for pleasure and anger. Either can lead to impetuosity and weakness. But Aristotle gives pride of place to the appetite for pleasure as the passion that undermines reason. He calls the kind of akrasia caused by an appetite for pleasure “unqualified akrasia ”—or, as we might say, akrasia “full stop”; akrasia caused by anger he considers a qualified form of akrasia and calls it akrasia “with respect to anger”. We thus have these four forms of akrasia : (A) impetuosity caused by pleasure, (B) impetuosity caused by anger, (C) weakness caused by pleasure (D) weakness caused by anger. It should be noticed that Aristotle’s treatment of akrasia is heavily influenced by Plato’s tripartite division of the soul in the Republic . Plato holds that either the spirited part (which houses anger, as well as other emotions) or the appetitive part (which houses the desire for physical pleasures) can disrupt the dictates of reason and result in action contrary to reason. The same threefold division of the soul can be seen in Aristotle’s approach to this topic.

Although Aristotle characterizes akrasia and enkrateia in terms of a conflict between reason and feeling, his detailed analysis of these states of mind shows that what takes place is best described in a more complicated way. For the feeling that undermines reason contains some thought, which may be implicitly general. As Aristotle says, anger “reasoning as it were that one must fight against such a thing, is immediately provoked” (1149a33–4). And although in the next sentence he denies that our appetite for pleasure works in this way, he earlier had said that there can be a syllogism that favors pursuing enjoyment: “Everything sweet is pleasant, and this is sweet” leads to the pursuit of a particular pleasure (1147a31–30). Perhaps what he has in mind is that pleasure can operate in either way: it can prompt action unmediated by a general premise, or it can prompt us to act on such a syllogism. By contrast, anger always moves us by presenting itself as a bit of general, although hasty, reasoning.

But of course Aristotle does not mean that a conflicted person has more than one faculty of reason. Rather his idea seems to be that in addition to our full-fledged reasoning capacity, we also have psychological mechanisms that are capable of a limited range of reasoning. When feeling conflicts with reason, what occurs is better described as a fight between feeling-allied-with-limited-reasoning and full-fledged reason. Part of us—reason—can remove itself from the distorting influence of feeling and consider all relevant factors, positive and negative. But another part of us—feeling or emotion—has a more limited field of reasoning—and sometimes it does not even make use of it.

Although “passion” is sometimes used as a translation of Aristotle’s word pathos (other alternatives are “emotion” and “feeling”), it is important to bear in mind that his term does not necessarily designate a strong psychological force. Anger is a pathos whether it is weak or strong; so too is the appetite for bodily pleasures. And he clearly indicates that it is possible for an akratic person to be defeated by a weak pathos —the kind that most people would easily be able to control (1150a9–b16). So the general explanation for the occurrence of akrasia cannot be that the strength of a passion overwhelms reason. Aristotle should therefore be acquitted of an accusation made against him by J.L. Austin in a well-known footnote to his paper, “A Plea For Excuses”. Plato and Aristotle, he says, collapsed all succumbing to temptation into losing control of ourselves—a mistake illustrated by this example:

I am very partial to ice cream, and a bombe is served divided into segments corresponding one to one with the persons at High Table: I am tempted to help myself to two segments and do so, thus succumbing to temptation and even conceivably (but why necessarily?) going against my principles. But do I lose control of myself? Do I raven, do I snatch the morsels from the dish and wolf them down, impervious to the consternation of my colleagues? Not a bit of it. We often succumb to temptation with calm and even with finesse. (1957: 24, fn 13 [1961: 146])

With this, Aristotle can agree: the pathos for the bombe can be a weak one, and in some people that will be enough to get them to act in a way that is disapproved by their reason at the very time of action.

What is most remarkable about Aristotle’s discussion of akrasia is that he defends a position close to that of Socrates. When he first introduces the topic of akrasia , and surveys some of the problems involved in understanding this phenomenon, he says (1145b25–8) that Socrates held that there is no akrasia , and he describes this as a thesis that clearly conflicts with the appearances ( phainomena ). Since he says that his goal is to preserve as many of the appearances as possible (1145b2–7), it may come as a surprise that when he analyzes the conflict between reason and feeling, he arrives at the conclusion that in a way Socrates was right after all (1147b13–17). For, he says, the person who acts against reason does not have what is thought to be unqualified knowledge; in a way he has knowledge, but in a way does not.

Aristotle explains what he has in mind by comparing akrasia to the condition of other people who might be described as knowing in a way, but not in an unqualified way. His examples are people who are asleep, mad, or drunk; he also compares the akratic to a student who has just begun to learn a subject, or an actor on the stage (1147a10–24). All of these people, he says, can utter the very words used by those who have knowledge; but their talk does not prove that they really have knowledge, strictly speaking.

These analogies can be taken to mean that the form of akrasia that Aristotle calls weakness rather than impetuosity always results from some diminution of cognitive or intellectual acuity at the moment of action. The akratic says, at the time of action, that he ought not to indulge in this particular pleasure at this time. But does he know or even believe that he should refrain? Aristotle might be taken to reply: yes and no. He has some degree of recognition that he must not do this now, but not full recognition. His feeling, even if it is weak, has to some degree prevented him from completely grasping or affirming the point that he should not do this. And so in a way Socrates was right. When reason remains unimpaired and unclouded, its dictates will carry us all the way to action, so long as we are able to act.

But Aristotle’s agreement with Socrates is only partial, because he insists on the power of the emotions to rival, weaken or bypass reason. Emotion challenges reason in all three of these ways. In both the akratic and the enkratic, it competes with reason for control over action; even when reason wins, it faces the difficult task of having to struggle with an internal rival. Second, in the akratic, it temporarily robs reason of its full acuity, thus handicapping it as a competitor. It is not merely a rival force, in these cases; it is a force that keeps reason from fully exercising its power. And third, passion can make someone impetuous; here its victory over reason is so powerful that the latter does not even enter into the arena of conscious reflection until it is too late to influence action.

Supplementary Document: Alternate Readings of Aristotle on Akrasia

Aristotle frequently emphasizes the importance of pleasure to human life and therefore to his study of how we should live (see for example 1099a7–20 and 1104b3–1105a16), but his full-scale examination of the nature and value of pleasure is found in two places: VII.11–14 and X.1–5. It is odd that pleasure receives two lengthy treatments; no other topic in the Ethics is revisited in this way. Book VII of the Nicomachean Ethics is identical to Book VI of the Eudemian Ethics ; for unknown reasons, the editor of the former decided to include within it both the treatment of pleasure that is unique to that work (X.1–5) and the study that is common to both treatises (VII.11–14). The two accounts are broadly similar. They agree about the value of pleasure, defend a theory about its nature, and oppose competing theories. Aristotle holds that a happy life must include pleasure, and he therefore opposes those who argue that pleasure is by its nature bad. He insists that there are other pleasures besides those of the senses, and that the best pleasures are the ones experienced by virtuous people who have sufficient resources for excellent activity.

Book VII offers a brief account of what pleasure is and is not. It is not a process but an unimpeded activity of a natural state (1153a7–17). Aristotle does not elaborate on what a natural state is, but he obviously has in mind the healthy condition of the body, especially its sense faculties, and the virtuous condition of the soul. Little is said about what it is for an activity to be unimpeded, but Aristotle does remind us that virtuous activity is impeded by the absence of a sufficient supply of external goods (1153b17–19). One might object that people who are sick or who have moral deficiencies can experience pleasure, even though Aristotle does not take them to be in a natural state. He has two strategies for responding. First, when a sick person experiences some degree of pleasure as he is being restored to health, the pleasure he is feeling is caused by the fact that he is no longer completely ill. Some small part of him is in a natural state and is acting without impediment (1152b35–6). Second, Aristotle is willing to say that what seems pleasant to some people may in fact not be pleasant (1152b31–2), just as what tastes bitter to an unhealthy palate may not be bitter. To call something a pleasure is not only to report a state of mind but also to endorse it to others. Aristotle’s analysis of the nature of pleasure is not meant to apply to every case in which something seems pleasant to someone, but only to activities that really are pleasures. All of these are unimpeded activities of a natural state.

It follows from this conception of pleasure that every instance of pleasure must be good to some extent. For how could an unimpeded activity of a natural state be bad or a matter of indifference? On the other hand, Aristotle does not mean to imply that every pleasure should be chosen. He briefly mentions the point that pleasures compete with each other, so that the enjoyment of one kind of activity impedes other activities that cannot be carried out at the same time (1153a20–22). His point is simply that although some pleasures may be good, they are not worth choosing when they interfere with other activities that are far better. This point is developed more fully in Ethics X.5.

Furthermore, Aristotle’s analysis allows him to speak of certain pleasures as “bad without qualification” (1152b26–33), even though pleasure is the unimpeded activity of a natural state. To call a pleasure “bad without qualification” is to insist that it should be avoided, but allow that nonetheless it should be chosen in constraining circumstances. The pleasure of recovering from an illness, for example, is bad without qualification—meaning that it is not one of the pleasures one would ideally choose, if one could completely control one’s circumstances. Although it really is a pleasure and so something can be said in its favor, it is so inferior to other goods that ideally one ought to forego it. Nonetheless, it is a pleasure worth having—if one adds the qualification that it is only worth having in undesirable circumstances. The pleasure of recovering from an illness is good, because some small part of oneself is in a natural state and is acting without impediment; but it can also be called bad, if what one means by this is that one should avoid getting into a situation in which one experiences that pleasure.

Aristotle indicates several times in VII.11–14 that merely to say that pleasure is a good does not do it enough justice; he also wants to say that the highest good is a pleasure. Here he is influenced by an idea expressed in the opening line of the Ethics : the good is that at which all things aim. In VII.13, he hints at the idea that all living things imitate the contemplative activity of god (1153b31–2). Plants and non-human animals seek to reproduce themselves because that is their way of participating in an unending series, and this is the closest they can come to the ceaseless thinking of the unmoved mover. Aristotle makes this point in several of his works (see for example De Anima 415a23–b7), and in Ethics X.7–8 he gives a full defense of the idea that the happiest human life resembles the life of a divine being. He conceives of god as a being who continually enjoys a “single and simple pleasure” (1154b26)—the pleasure of pure thought—whereas human beings, because of their complexity, grow weary of whatever they do. He will elaborate on these points in X.8; in VII.11–14, he appeals to his conception of divine activity only in order to defend the thesis that our highest good consists in a certain kind of pleasure. Human happiness does not consist in every kind of pleasure, but it does consist in one kind of pleasure—the pleasure felt by a human being who engages in theoretical activity and thereby imitates the pleasurable thinking of god.

Book X offers a much more elaborate account of what pleasure is and what it is not. It is not a process, because processes go through developmental stages: building a temple is a process because the temple is not present all at once, but only comes into being through stages that unfold over time. By contrast, pleasure, like seeing and many other activities, is not something that comes into existence through a developmental process. If I am enjoying a conversation, for example, I do not need to wait until it is finished in order to feel pleased; I take pleasure in the activity all along the way. The defining nature of pleasure is that it is an activity that accompanies other activities, and in some sense brings them to completion. Pleasure occurs when something within us, having been brought into good condition, is activated in relation to an external object that is also in good condition. The pleasure of drawing, for example, requires both the development of drawing ability and an object of attention that is worth drawing.

The conception of pleasure that Aristotle develops in Book X is obviously closely related to the analysis he gives in Book VII. But the theory proposed in the later Book brings out a point that had received too little attention earlier: pleasure is by its nature something that accompanies something else. It is not enough to say that it is what happens when we are in good condition and are active in unimpeded circumstances; one must add to that point the further idea that pleasure plays a certain role in complementing something other than itself. Drawing well and the pleasure of drawing well always occur together, and so they are easy to confuse, but Aristotle’s analysis in Book X emphasizes the importance of making this distinction.

He says that pleasure completes the activity that it accompanies, but then adds, mysteriously, that it completes the activity in the manner of an end that is added on. In the translation of W.D. Ross, it “supervenes as the bloom of youth does on those in the flower of their age” (1174b33). It is unclear what thought is being expressed here, but perhaps Aristotle is merely trying to avoid a possible misunderstanding: when he says that pleasure completes an activity, he does not mean that the activity it accompanies is in some way defective, and that the pleasure improves the activity by removing this defect. Aristotle’s language is open to that misinterpretation because the verb that is translated “complete” ( teleein ) can also mean “perfect”. The latter might be taken to mean that the activity accompanied by pleasure has not yet reached a sufficiently high level of excellence, and that the role of pleasure is to bring it to the point of perfection. Aristotle does not deny that when we take pleasure in an activity we get better at it, but when he says that pleasure completes an activity by supervening on it, like the bloom that accompanies those who have achieved the highest point of physical beauty, his point is that the activity complemented by pleasure is already perfect, and the pleasure that accompanies it is a bonus that serves no further purpose. Taking pleasure in an activity does help us improve at it, but enjoyment does not cease when perfection is achieved—on the contrary, that is when pleasure is at its peak. That is when it reveals most fully what it is: an added bonus that crowns our achievement.

It is clear, at any rate, that in Book X Aristotle gives a fuller account of what pleasure is than he had in Book VII. We should take note of a further difference between these two discussions: In Book X, he makes the point that pleasure is a good but not the good. He cites and endorses an argument given by Plato in the Philebus : If we imagine a life filled with pleasure and then mentally add wisdom to it, the result is made more desirable. But the good is something that cannot be improved upon in this way. Therefore pleasure is not the good (1172b23–35). By contrast, in Book VII Aristotle strongly implies that the pleasure of contemplation is the good, because in one way or another all living beings aim at this sort of pleasure. Aristotle observes in Book X that what all things aim at is good (1172b35–1173a1); significantly, he falls short of endorsing the argument that since all aim at pleasure, it must be the good.

Book VII makes the point that pleasures interfere with each other, and so even if all kinds of pleasures are good, it does not follow that all of them are worth choosing. One must make a selection among pleasures by determining which are better. But how is one to make this choice? Book VII does not say, but in Book X, Aristotle holds that the selection of pleasures is not to be made with reference to pleasure itself, but with reference to the activities they accompany.

Since activities differ with respect to goodness and badness, some being worth choosing, others worth avoiding, and others neither, the same is true of pleasures as well. (1175b24–6)

Aristotle’s statement implies that in order to determine whether (for example) the pleasure of virtuous activity is more desirable than that of eating, we are not to attend to the pleasures themselves but to the activities with which we are pleased. A pleasure’s goodness derives from the goodness of its associated activity. And surely the reason why pleasure is not the criterion to which we should look in making these decisions is that it is not the good. The standard we should use in making comparisons between rival options is virtuous activity, because that has been shown to be identical to happiness.

That is why Aristotle says that what is judged pleasant by a good man really is pleasant, because the good man is the measure of things (1176a15–19). He does not mean that the way to lead our lives is to search for a good man and continually rely on him to tell us what is pleasurable. Rather, his point is that there is no way of telling what is genuinely pleasurable (and therefore what is most pleasurable) unless we already have some other standard of value. Aristotle’s discussion of pleasure thus helps confirm his initial hypothesis that to live our lives well we must focus on one sort of good above all others: virtuous activity. It is the good in terms of which all other goods must be understood. Aristotle’s analysis of friendship supports the same conclusion.

The topic of Books VIII and IX of the Ethics is friendship. Although it is difficult to avoid the term “friendship” as a translation of “ philia ”, and this is an accurate term for the kind of relationship he is most interested in, we should bear in mind that he is discussing a wider range of phenomena than this translation might lead us to expect, for the Greeks use the term, “ philia ”, to name the relationship that holds among family members, and do not reserve it for voluntary relationships. Although Aristotle is interested in classifying the different forms that friendship takes, his main theme in Books VIII and IX is to show the close relationship between virtuous activity and friendship. He is vindicating his conception of happiness as virtuous activity by showing how satisfying are the relationships that a virtuous person can normally expect to have.

His taxonomy begins with the premise that there are three main reasons why one person might like someone else. (The verb, “ philein ”, which is cognate to the noun “ philia ”, can sometimes be translated “like” or even “love”—though in other cases philia involves very little in the way of feeling.) One might like someone because he is good, or because he is useful, or because he is pleasant. And so there are three bases for friendships, depending on which of these qualities binds friends together. When two individuals recognize that the other person is someone of good character, and they spend time with each other, engaged in activities that exercise their virtues, then they form one kind of friendship. If they are equally virtuous, their friendship is perfect. If, however, there is a large gap in their moral development (as between a parent and a small child, or between a husband and a wife), then although their relationship may be based on the other person’s good character, it will be imperfect precisely because of their inequality.

The imperfect friendships that Aristotle focuses on, however, are not unequal relationships based on good character. Rather, they are relationships held together because each individual regards the other as the source of some advantage to himself or some pleasure he receives. When Aristotle calls these relationships “imperfect”, he is tacitly relying on widely accepted assumptions about what makes a relationship satisfying. These friendships are defective, and have a smaller claim to be called “friendships”, because the individuals involved have little trust in each other, quarrel frequently, and are ready to break off their association abruptly. Aristotle does not mean to suggest that unequal relations based on the mutual recognition of good character are defective in these same ways. Rather, when he says that unequal relationships based on character are imperfect, his point is that people are friends in the fullest sense when they gladly spend their days together in shared activities, and this close and constant interaction is less available to those who are not equal in their moral development.

When Aristotle begins his discussion of friendship, he introduces a notion that is central to his understanding of this phenomenon: a genuine friend is someone who loves or likes another person for the sake of that other person. Wanting what is good for the sake of another he calls “good will” ( eunoia ), and friendship is reciprocal good will, provided that each recognizes the presence of this attitude in the other. Does such good will exist in all three kinds of friendship, or is it confined to relationships based on virtue? At first, Aristotle leaves open the first of these two possibilities. He says:

it is necessary that friends bear good will to each other and wish good things for each other, without this escaping their notice, because of one of the reasons mentioned. (1156a4–5)

The reasons mentioned are goodness, pleasure, and advantage; and so it seems that Aristotle is leaving room for the idea that in all three kinds of friendships, even those based on advantage and pleasure alone, the individuals wish each other well for the sake of the other.

But in fact, as Aristotle continues to develop his taxonomy, he does not choose to exploit this possibility. He speaks as though it is only in friendships based on character that one finds a desire to benefit the other person for the sake of the other person.

Those who wish good things to their friends for the sake of the latter are friends most of all, because they do so because of their friends themselves, and not coincidentally. (1156b9–11)

When one benefits someone not because of the kind of person he is, but only because of the advantages to oneself, then, Aristotle says, one is not a friend towards the other person, but only towards the profit that comes one’s way (1157a15–16).

In such statements as these, Aristotle comes rather close to saying that relationships based on profit or pleasure should not be called friendships at all. But he decides to stay close to common parlance and to use the term “friend” loosely. Friendships based on character are the ones in which each person benefits the other for the sake of other; and these are friendships most of all. Because each party benefits the other, it is advantageous to form such friendships. And since each enjoys the trust and companionship of the other, there is considerable pleasure in these relationships as well. Because these perfect friendships produce advantages and pleasures for each of the parties, there is some basis for going along with common usage and calling any relationship entered into for the sake of just one of these goods a friendship. Friendships based on advantage alone or pleasure alone deserve to be called friendships because in full-fledged friendships these two properties, advantage and pleasure, are present. It is striking that in the Ethics Aristotle never thinks of saying that the uniting factor in all friendships is the desire each friend has for the good of the other.

Aristotle does not raise questions about what it is to desire good for the sake of another person. He treats this as an easily understood phenomenon, and has no doubts about its existence. But it is also clear that he takes this motive to be compatible with a love of one’s own good and a desire for one’s own happiness. Someone who has practical wisdom will recognize that he needs friends and other resources in order to exercise his virtues over a long period of time. When he makes friends, and benefits friends he has made, he will be aware of the fact that such a relationship is good for him. And yet to have a friend is to want to benefit someone for that other person’s sake; it is not a merely self-interested strategy. Aristotle sees no difficulty here, and rightly so. For there is no reason why acts of friendship should not be undertaken partly for the good of one’s friend and partly for one’s own good. Acting for the sake of another does not in itself demand self-sacrifice. It requires caring about someone other than oneself, but does not demand some loss of care for oneself. For when we know how to benefit a friend for his sake, we exercise the ethical virtues, and this is precisely what our happiness consists in.

Aristotle makes it clear that the number of people with whom one can sustain the kind of relationship he calls a perfect friendship is quite small (IX.10). Even if one lived in a city populated entirely by perfectly virtuous citizens, the number with whom one could carry on a friendship of the perfect type would be at most a handful. For he thinks that this kind of friendship can exist only when one spends a great deal of time with the other person, participating in joint activities and engaging in mutually beneficial behavior; and one cannot cooperate on these close terms with every member of the political community. One may well ask why this kind of close friendship is necessary for happiness. If one lived in a community filled with good people, and cooperated on an occasional basis with each of them, in a spirit of good will and admiration, would that not provide sufficient scope for virtuous activity and a well-lived life? Admittedly, close friends are often in a better position to benefit each other than are fellow citizens, who generally have little knowledge of one’s individual circumstances. But this only shows that it is advantageous to be on the receiving end of a friend’s help. The more important question for Aristotle is why one needs to be on the giving end of this relationship. And obviously the answer cannot be that one needs to give in order to receive; that would turn active love for one’s friend into a mere means to the benefits received.

Aristotle attempts to answer this question in IX.11, but his treatment is disappointing. His fullest argument depends crucially on the notion that a friend is “another self”, someone, in other words, with whom one has a relationship very similar to the relationship one has with oneself. A virtuous person loves the recognition of himself as virtuous; to have a close friend is to possess yet another person, besides oneself, whose virtue one can recognize at extremely close quarters; and so, it must be desirable to have someone very much like oneself whose virtuous activity one can perceive. The argument is unconvincing because it does not explain why the perception of virtuous activity in fellow citizens would not be an adequate substitute for the perception of virtue in one’s friends.

Aristotle would be on stronger grounds if he could show that in the absence of close friends one would be severely restricted in the kinds of virtuous activities one could undertake. But he cannot present such an argument, because he does not believe it. He says that it is “finer and more godlike” to bring about the well being of a whole city than to sustain the happiness of just one person (1094b7–10). He refuses to regard private life—the realm of the household and the small circle of one’s friends—as the best or most favorable location for the exercise of virtue. He is convinced that the loss of this private sphere would greatly detract from a well-lived life, but he is hard put to explain why. He might have done better to focus on the benefits of being the object of a close friend’s solicitude. Just as property is ill cared for when it is owned by all, and just as a child would be poorly nurtured were he to receive no special parental care—points Aristotle makes in Politics II.2–5—so in the absence of friendship we would lose a benefit that could not be replaced by the care of the larger community. But Aristotle is not looking for a defense of this sort, because he conceives of friendship as lying primarily in activity rather than receptivity. It is difficult, within his framework, to show that virtuous activity towards a friend is a uniquely important good.

Since Aristotle thinks that the pursuit of one’s own happiness, properly understood, requires ethically virtuous activity and will therefore be of great value not only to one’s friends but to the larger political community as well, he argues that self-love is an entirely proper emotion—provided it is expressed in the love of virtue (IX.8). Self-love is rightly condemned when it consists in the pursuit of as large a share of external goods—particularly wealth and power—as one can acquire, because such self-love inevitably brings one into conflict with others and undermines the stability of the political community. It may be tempting to cast Aristotle’s defense of self-love into modern terms by calling him an egoist, and “egoism” is a broad enough term so that, properly defined, it can be made to fit Aristotle’s ethical outlook. If egoism is the thesis that one will always act rightly if one consults one’s self-interest, properly understood, then nothing would be amiss in identifying him as an egoist.

But egoism is sometimes understood in a stronger sense. Just as consequentialism is the thesis that one should maximize the general good, whatever the good turns out to be, so egoism can be defined as the parallel thesis that one should maximize one’s own good, whatever the good turns out to be. Egoism, in other words, can be treated as a purely formal thesis: it holds that whether the good is pleasure, or virtue, or the satisfaction of desires, one should not attempt to maximize the total amount of good in the world, but only one’s own. When egoism takes this abstract form, it is an expression of the idea that the claims of others are never worth attending to, unless in some way or other their good can be shown to serve one’s own. The only underived reason for action is self-interest; that an act helps another does not by itself provide a reason for performing it, unless some connection can be made between the good of that other and one’s own.

There is no reason to attribute this extreme form of egoism to Aristotle. On the contrary, his defense of self-love makes it clear that he is not willing to defend the bare idea that one ought to love oneself alone or above others; he defends self-love only when this emotion is tied to the correct theory of where one’s good lies, for it is only in this way that he can show that self-love need not be a destructive passion. He takes it for granted that self-love is properly condemned whenever it can be shown to be harmful to the community. It is praiseworthy only if it can be shown that a self-lover will be an admirable citizen. In making this assumption, Aristotle reveals that he thinks that the claims of other members of the community to proper treatment are intrinsically valid. This is precisely what a strong form of egoism cannot accept.

We should also keep in mind Aristotle’s statement in the Politics that the political community is prior to the individual citizen—just as the whole body is prior to any of its parts (1253a18–29). Aristotle makes use of this claim when he proposes that in the ideal community each child should receive the same education, and that the responsibility for providing such an education should be taken out of the hands of private individuals and made a matter of common concern (1337a21–7). No citizen, he says, belongs to himself; all belong to the city (1337a28–9). What he means is that when it comes to such matters as education, which affect the good of all, each individual should be guided by the collective decisions of the whole community. An individual citizen does not belong to himself, in the sense that it is not up to him alone to determine how he should act; he should subordinate his individual decision-making powers to those of the whole. The strong form of egoism we have been discussing cannot accept Aristotle’s doctrine of the priority of the city to the individual. It tells the individual that the good of others has, in itself, no valid claim on him, but that he should serve other members of the community only to the extent that he can connect their interests to his own. Such a doctrine leaves no room for the thought that the individual citizen does not belong to himself but to the whole.

In Book I Aristotle says that three kinds of lives are thought to be especially attractive: one is devoted to pleasure, a second to politics, and a third to knowledge and understanding (1095b17–19). In X.6–9 he returns to these three alternatives, and explores them more fully than he had in Book I. The life of pleasure is construed in Book I as a life devoted to physical pleasure, and is quickly dismissed because of its vulgarity. In X.6, Aristotle concedes that physical pleasures, and more generally, amusements of all sorts, are desirable in themselves, and therefore have some claim to be our ultimate end. But his discussion of happiness in Book X does not start from scratch; he builds on his thesis that pleasure cannot be our ultimate target, because what counts as pleasant must be judged by some standard other than pleasure itself, namely the judgment of the virtuous person. Amusements will not be absent from a happy life, since everyone needs relaxation, and amusements fill this need. But they play a subordinate role, because we seek relaxation in order to return to more important activities.

Aristotle turns therefore, in X.7–8, to the two remaining alternatives—politics and philosophy—and presents a series of arguments to show that the philosophical life, a life devoted to theoria (contemplation, study), is best. Theoria is not the process of learning that leads to understanding; that process is not a candidate for our ultimate end, because it is undertaken for the sake of a further goal. What Aristotle has in mind when he talks about theoria is the activity of someone who has already achieved theoretical wisdom. The happiest life is lived by someone who has a full understanding of the basic causal principles that govern the operation of the universe, and who has the resources needed for living a life devoted to the exercise of that understanding. Evidently Aristotle believes that his own life and that of his philosophical friends was the best available to a human being. He compares it to the life of a god: god thinks without interruption and endlessly, and a philosopher enjoys something similar for a limited period of time.

It may seem odd that after devoting so much attention to the practical virtues, Aristotle should conclude his treatise with the thesis that the best activity of the best life is not ethical. In fact, some scholars have held that X.7–8 are deeply at odds with the rest of the Ethics ; they take Aristotle to be saying that we should be prepared to act unethically, if need be, in order to devote ourselves as much as possible to contemplation. But it is difficult to believe that he intends to reverse himself so abruptly, and there are many indications that he intends the arguments of X.7–8 to be continuous with the themes he emphasizes throughout the rest of the Ethics . The best way to understand him is to take him to be assuming that one will need the ethical virtues in order to live the life of a philosopher, even though exercising those virtues is not the philosopher’s ultimate end. To be adequately equipped to live a life of thought and discussion, one will need practical wisdom, temperance, justice, and the other ethical virtues. To say that there is something better even than ethical activity, and that ethical activity promotes this higher goal, is entirely compatible with everything else that we find in the Ethics .

Although Aristotle’s principal goal in X.7–8 is to show the superiority of philosophy to politics, he does not deny that a political life is happy. Perfect happiness, he says, consists in contemplation; but he indicates that the life devoted to practical thought and ethical virtue is happy in a secondary way. He thinks of this second-best life as that of a political leader, because he assumes that the person who most fully exercises such qualities as justice and greatness of soul is the man who has the large resources needed to promote the common good of the city. The political life has a major defect, despite the fact that it consists in fully exercising the ethical virtues, because it is a life devoid of philosophical understanding and activity. Were someone to combine both careers, practicing politics at certain times and engaged in philosophical discussion at other times (as Plato’s philosopher-kings do), he would lead a life better than that of Aristotle’s politician, but worse than that of Aristotle’s philosopher.

But his complaint about the political life is not simply that it is devoid of philosophical activity. The points he makes against it reveal drawbacks inherent in ethical and political activity. Perhaps the most telling of these defects is that the life of the political leader is in a certain sense unleisurely (1177b4–15). What Aristotle has in mind when he makes this complaint is that ethical activities are remedial: they are needed when something has gone wrong, or threatens to do so. Courage, for example, is exercised in war, and war remedies an evil; it is not something we should wish for. Aristotle implies that all other political activities have the same feature, although perhaps to a smaller degree. Corrective justice would provide him with further evidence for his thesis—but what of justice in the distribution of goods? Perhaps Aristotle would reply that in existing political communities a virtuous person must accommodate himself to the least bad method of distribution, because, human nature being what it is, a certain amount of injustice must be tolerated. As the courageous person cannot be completely satisfied with his courageous action, no matter how much self-mastery it shows, because he is a peace-lover and not a killer, so the just person living in the real world must experience some degree of dissatisfaction with his attempts to give each person his due. The pleasures of exercising the ethical virtues are, in normal circumstances, mixed with pain. Unalloyed pleasure is available to us only when we remove ourselves from the all-too-human world and contemplate the rational order of the cosmos. No human life can consist solely in these pure pleasures; and in certain circumstances one may owe it to one’s community to forego a philosophical life and devote oneself to the good of the city. But the paradigms of human happiness are those people who are lucky enough to devote much of their time to the study of a world more orderly than the human world we inhabit.

Although Aristotle argues for the superiority of the philosophical life in X.7–8, he says in X.9, the final chapter of the Ethics , that his project is not yet complete, because we can make human beings virtuous, or good even to some small degree, only if we undertake a study of the art of legislation. The final section of the Ethics is therefore intended as a prolegomenon to Aristotle’s political writings. We must investigate the kinds of political systems exhibited by existing Greek cities, the forces that destroy or preserve cities, and the best sort of political order. Although the study of virtue Aristotle has just completed is meant to be helpful to all human beings who have been brought up well—even those who have no intention of pursuing a political career—it is also designed to serve a larger purpose. Human beings cannot achieve happiness, or even something that approximates happiness, unless they live in communities that foster good habits and provide the basic equipment of a well-lived life.

The study of the human good has therefore led to two conclusions: The best life is not to be found in the practice of politics. But the well being of whole communities depends on the willingness of some to lead a second-best life—a life devoted to the study and practice of the art of politics, and to the expression of those qualities of thought and passion that exhibit our rational self-mastery.

• appearances: phainomena
• beautiful: kalon
• clear: saphes
• complete (verb, also: to perfect): telein
• condition: hexis
• continence (literally: mastery): enkrateia
• continent: enkratês
• disposition: hexis
• emotion: pathos
• evil: kakos , phaulos
• excellence: aretê
• feeling: pathos
• fine: kalon
• flourishing: eudaimonia
• friendship: philia ; philein (the verb cognate to the noun “ philia ”, can sometimes be translated “like” or even “love”)
• function: ergon
• good will: eunoia
• happiness: eudaimonia
• happy: eudaimon
• impetuosity: propeteia
• incontinence (literally: lack of mastery): akrasia
• incontinent: akratês
• intuitive understanding: nous
• live well: eu zên
• practical wisdom: phronêsis
• science: epistêmê
• standard: horos
• state: hexis
• task: ergon
• virtue: aretê
• weakness: astheneia
• work: ergon

Further Reading

Broadie 1991; Bostock 2000; Burger 2008; Gauthier & Jolif 1958–59; Hall 2019; Hardie 1980; Pakaluk 2005; Price 2011; Reeve 2012a; Urmson 1987.

Anton & Preus (eds.) 1991; Barnes, Schofield, & Sorabji (eds.) 1977; Bartlett & Collins (eds.) 1999; Engstrom & Whiting (eds.) 1996; Heinaman (ed.) 1995; Kraut (ed.) 2006b; Miller (ed.) 2011; Natali (ed.) 2009; Pakaluk & Pearson (eds.) 2010; Polansky (ed.) 2014; Roche (ed.) 1988c; Rorty (ed.) 1980; Sherman (ed.) 1999; Sim (ed.) 1995.

C. Studies of Particular Topics

Kenny 1978, 1979, 1992; Rowe 1971.

Barnes 1980; Berryman 2019; J.M. Cooper 1999 (ch. 12); Frede 2012; Heinaman (ed.) 1995; Irwin 1988b; Karbowski 2014b, 2015a, 2015b, 2019; Kontos 2011; Kraut 1998; McDowell 1995; Nussbaum 1985, 1986 (chs 8–9); Reeve 1992 (ch. 1), 2012b; Roche 1988b, 1992; Scott 2015; Segvic 2002; Shields 2012a; Zingano 2007b.

Annas 1993 (ch. 18); Barney 2008; Broadie 2005, 2007a; Charles 1999; Clark 1975 (14–27, 145–63); J.M. Cooper 1986 (chs 1, 3), 1999 (chs 9, 13); Curzer 1991; Gadamer 1986; Gerson 2004; Gomez-Lobo 1989; Heinaman 2002, 2007; Irwin 2012; Keyt 1978; Korsgaard 1986a, 1986b; Kraut 1979a, 1979b, 1989, 2002 (ch. 3); Lawrence 1993, 1997, 2001; G.R. Lear 2000; J. Lear 2000; MacDonald 1989; Natali 2010; Nussbaum 1986 (chs 11, 12); Purinton 1998; Reeve 1992 (chs 3, 4); Roche 1988a; Santas 2001 (chs 6–7); Scott 1999, 2000; Segvic 2004; Suits 1974; Van Cleemput 2006; Wedin 1981; N. White 2002, 2006; S. White 1992; Whiting 1986, 1988; Wielenberg 2004; Williams 1985 (ch. 3).

Brickhouse 2003; Brown 1997; Brunschwig 1996; Clark 1975 (84–97); N. Cooper 1989; Curzer 1990, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2005, 2012; Di Muzio 2000; Gardiner 2001; Gottlieb 1991, 1994a, 1994b, 1996, 2009; Halper 1999; Hardie 1978; Hursthouse 1988; Hutchinson 1986; Irwin 1988a; Jimenez 2020; Kraut 2002 (ch. 4), 2012, 2013; Leunissen 2012, 2013, 2017; Lorenz 2009; McKerlie 2001; Pakaluk 2004; Pearson 2006, 2007; Peterson 1988; Russell 2012a; Santas 2001 (ch. 8); Scaltsas 1995; Schütrumpf 1989; Sherman 1989, 1997; Sim 2007; Taylor 2004; Telfer 1989–90; Tuozzo 1995; Whiting 1996; Young 1988; Yu 2007.

Broadie 1998; Charles 1984, 2007; Coope 2012; J. Cooper 1986 (ch. 1), 1999 (chs 10, 11, 19); Dahl 1984; Destrée 2007; Engberg-Pedersen 1983; Fortenbaugh 1975; Gottlieb, 2021; Gröngross 2007; Hursthouse 1984; Kontos 2018; Kontos 2021; Kraut 2006a; Lorenz 2006; McDowell 1996a, 1996b, 1998; McKerlie 1998; Meyer 1993; Milo 1966; Moss 2011, 2012; Natali (ed.) 2009; Nussbaum 1986 (ch. 10); Olfert 2017; Pakaluk & Pearson (eds.) 2010; Pickavé & Whiting 2008; Politis 1998; Reeve 1992 (ch. 2), 2013; Segvic 2009a; Sherman 2000; Taylor 2003b; Walsh 1963; Zingano 2007a.

Gosling &Taylor 1982 (chs 11–17); Gottlieb 1993; Natali (ed.) 2009; Owen 1971; Pearson 2012; Rorty 1974; Taylor 2003a, 2003b; Urmson 1967; Warren 2009; Wolfsdorf 2013 (ch. 6).

Annas 1977, 1993 (ch. 12); Brewer 2005; J.M. Cooper 1999 (chs 14, 15); Hitz 2011; Kahn 1981; Milgram 1987; Nehamas 2010; Pakaluk 1998; Pangle 2003; Price 1989 (chs 4–7); Rogers 1994; Schollmeier 1994; Sherman 1987; Stern-Gillet 1995; Walker 2014; Whiting 1991.

Freeland 1998; Karbowski 2014a; Modrak 1994; Ward (ed.) 1996.

Bielskis 2020; Broadie 2006; Chappell (ed.) 2006; Garver 2006; Gill (ed.) 2005; Kraut 2018; LeBar 2013; MacIntyre 1999; Peters 2014; Russell 2012b; Stohr 2003, 2009; Wiggins 2009.

Lockwood 2005.

• 2012, Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics , Robert C. Bartlett, and Susan D. Collins (eds/trans.), Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
• 2000, Nicomachean Ethics , Roger Crisp (ed./trans.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511802058
• 1999, Nicomachean Ethics , Terence H. Irwin (ed./trans.), Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co. With Introduction, Notes, and Glossary. Second edition.
• 2014, Nicomachean Ethics , C.D.C. Reeve, Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co.
• 1984, Nicomachean Ethics , W.D. Ross (trans.), revised by J.O. Urmson, in The Complete Works of Aristotle , The Revised Oxford Translation, vol. 2, Jonathan Barnes (ed.), Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984.
• 2002, Nicomachean Ethics , Christopher Rowe (trans.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, With philosophical introduction and commentary by Sarah Broadie.
• 2013, Eudemian Ethics , (Cambridge Texts in the History of Philosophy), Brad Inwood and Raphael Woolf (eds./trans.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139043281
• 2011, Eudemian Ethics , (Oxford World’s Classics), Anthony Kenny (ed./trans.), Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• 1984, Eudemian Ethics , J. Solomon (trans.), in The Complete Works of Aristotle , The Revised Oxford Translation, volume 2, Jonathan Barnes (ed.), Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• 1952, Eudemian Ethics , H. Rackham (trans.), in the Loeb Classical Library, Aristotle, vol. 20, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• 1992, Aristotle’s Eudemian Ethics: Books I, II, and VIII , M.J. Woods (trans.), Second edition, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Annas, Julia, 1977, “Plato and Aristotle on Friendship and Altruism”, Mind , 86: 532–54. doi:10.1093/mind/LXXXVI.344.532
• –––, 1993, The Morality of Happiness , New York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/0195096525.001.0001
• Anton, John P. & Anthony Preus (eds.), 1991, Aristotle’s Ethics: Essays in Ancient Greek Philosophy , vol. 5, Albany, NY: The State University of New York Press, 1991.
• Austin, J. L., 1957 [1961], “A Plea for Excuses: The Presidential Address”, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society , 57: 1–30. Reprinted in his Philosophical Papers , Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1961. doi:10.1093/aristotelian/57.1.1
• Barnes, Jonathan, 1980, “Aristotle and the Methods of Ethics”, Revue Internationale de la Philosophie , 34(133/134): 490–511.
• Barnes, Jonathan, Malcolm Schofield, and Richard Sorabji (eds.), 1977, Articles on Aristotle , vol. 2, Ethics and Politics , London: Duckworth, 1977.
• Barney, Rachel, 2008, “Aristotle’s Argument for a Human Function”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 34(Summer): 293–322.
• Bartlett, Robert C. & Susan D. Collins (eds.), 1999, Action and Contemplation , Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
• Berryman, Sylvia, 2019, Aristotle on the Sources of Ethical Life , Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Bielskis, Andrius, Eleni Leontsinia, and Kelvin Knight (eds.), 2020, Virtue Ethics and Contemporary Aristotelianism: Modernity, Conflict, and Politics , London: Bloomsbury Academic.
• Bobonich, Christopher and Pierre Destree (eds.), 2007, Akrasia in Greek Philosophy: From Socrates to Plotinus , Leiden: Brill.
• Bostock, David, 2000, Aristotle’s Ethics , Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Brewer, Talbot, 2005, “Virtues We Can Share: Friendship and Aristotelian Ethical Theory”, Ethics , 115(4): 721–758. doi:10.1086/430489
• Brickhouse, Thomas C., 2003, “Does Aristotle Have a Consistent Account of Vice?” Review of Metaphysics , 57(1): 3–23.
• Broadie, Sarah, 1991, Ethics with Aristotle , New York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/0195085604.001.0001
• –––, 1998, “Interpreting Aristotle’s Directions”, in Gentzler 1998: 291–306.
• –––, 2005, “On the Idea of the Summum Bonum ”, in Gill 2005: 41–58 (ch. 2). Reprinted in Broadie 2007b: 135–152 (ch. 9).
• –––, 2006, “Aristotle and Contemporary Ethics”, in Kraut 2006: 342–361. Reprinted in Broadie 2007b: 113–134. doi:10.1002/9780470776513.ch16
• –––, 2007a, “What Should We Mean by ‘The Highest Good’?”, in Broadie 2007b: 153–165 (ch. 10).
• –––, 2007b, Aristotle and Beyond: Essays on Metaphysics and Ethics , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511551086
• Brown, Lesley, 1997, “What is the Mean Relative to Us in Aristotle’s Ethics?” Phronesis , 42: 77–93.
• Brunschwig, Jacques, 1996, “The Aristotelian Theory of Equity”, in Michael Frede & Gisela Striker (eds.), Rationality in Greek Thought , Oxford: Clarendon Press, pp. 115–155.
• Burger, Ronna, 2008, Aristotle’s Dialogue with Socrates: on the Nicomachean Ethics , Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
• Chappell, Timothy (ed.), 2006, Values and Virtues: Aristotelianism in Contemporary Ethics , Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Charles, David, 1984, Aristotle’s Philosophy of Action , London: Duckworth.
• –––, 1999, “Aristotle on Well-Being and Intellectual Contemplation”, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society (Supplementary Volume), 73: 205–223.
• –––, 2007, “Aristotle’s Weak Akrates: What does her Ignorance Consist in?”, in Bobonich and Destree 2007: 139–166.
• Clark, Stephen R.L., 1975, Aristotle’s Man: Speculations upon Aristotelian Anthropology , Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198245162.001.0001
• Coope, Ursula, 2012, “Why does Aristotle Think that Ethical Virtue is Required for Practical Wisdom?” Phronesis , 57(2): 142–163. doi:10.1163/156852812X628998
• Cooper, John M., 1986, Reason and Human Good in Aristotle , Indianapolis: Hackett.
• –––, 1999, Reason and Emotion: Essays on Ancient Moral Psychology and Ethical Theory , Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• Cooper, Neil, 1989, “Aristotle’s Crowning Virtue”, Apeiron , 22(3): 191–205. doi:10.1515/APEIRON.1989.22.3.191
• Curzer, Howard J., 1990, “A Great Philosopher’s Not So Great Account of Great Virtue: Aristotle’s Treatment of ‘Greatness of Soul’”, Canadian Journal of Philosophy , 20(4): 517–537.
• Curzer, Howard J., 1991, “The Supremely Happy Life in Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics ”, Apeiron , 24(1): 47–69. doi:10.1515/APEIRON.1991.24.1.47
• –––, 1995, “Aristotle’s Account of the Virtue of Justice”, Apeiron , 28(3): 207–238. doi:10.1515/APEIRON.1995.28.3.207
• –––, 1996, “A Defense of Aristotle’s Doctrine that Virtue Is a Mean”, Ancient Philosophy , 16(1): 129–138. doi:10.5840/ancientphil199616116
• –––, 1997, “Aristotle’s Account of the Virtue of Temperance in Nicomachean Ethics III 10–11”, Journal of the History of Philosophy , 35(1): 5–25. doi:10.1353/hph.1997.0008
• –––, 2005, “How Good People Do Bad Things: Aristotle on the Misdeeds of the Virtuous”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 28(Summer): 233–272.
• –––, 2012, Aristotle and the Virtues , Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199693726.001.0001
• Dahl, Norman O., 1984, Practical Reason, Aristotle, and Weakness of Will , Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
• Destrée, Pierre, 2007, “Aristotle on the Causes of Akrasia”, in Bobonich and Destree 2007: 139–166.
• Di Muzio, Gianluca, 2000, “Aristotle on Improving One’s Character”, Phronesis , 45(3): 205–219. doi:10.1163/156852800510180
• Engberg-Pedersen, Troels, 1983, Aristotle’s Theory of Moral Insight , Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Engstrom, Stephen and Jennifer Whiting (eds.), 1996, Aristotle, Kant, and the Stoics , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Fortenbaugh, W.W., 1975, Aristotle on Emotion , London: Duckworth.
• Frede, Dorothea, 2012, “The Endoxon Mystique: What Endoxa Are and What They are Not”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 43(Winter): 185–216.
• Freeland, Cynthia (ed.), 1998, Feminist Interpretations of Aristotle , University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press.
• Gadamer, Hans-Georg, 1986, The Idea of the Good in Platonic-Aristotelian Philosophy , New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
• Gardiner, Stephen M., 2001, “Aristotle’s Basic and Non-Basic Virtues”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 20(Summer): 261–295.
• Garver, Eugene, 2006, Confronting Aristotle’s Ethics: Ancient and Modern Morality , Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
• Gauthier, R.A. & J.Y. Jolif, 1958–9, Aristote: L’Ethique à Nicomaque , 3 vols. Louvain: Publications Universitaires de Louvain.
• Gentzler, Jyl (ed.), 1998, Method in Ancient Philosophy , Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Gerson, Lloyd, 2004, “Platonism in Aristotle’s Ethics”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 27(Winter): 217–48.
• Gill, Christopher (ed.), 2005, Virtue, Norms, and Objectivity: Issues in Ancient and Modern Ethics , Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Gomez-Lobo, Alfonso, 1989, “The Ergon Inference”, Phronesis , 34(1): 170–84. doi:10.1163/156852889X00116
• Gosling, J.C.B. & C.C.W. Taylor, 1982, The Greeks on Pleasure , Oxford: Clarendon Press, Chapters 11–17. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198246664.001.0001
• Gottlieb, Paula, 1991, “Aristotle and Protagoras: The Good Human Being as the Measure of Goods”, Apeiron , 24(1): 25–45. doi:10.1515/APEIRON.1991.24.1.25
• –––, 1993, “Aristotle’s Measure Doctrine and Pleasure”, Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie , 75(1): 31–46. doi: 10.1515/agph.1993.75.1.31
• –––, 1994a, “Aristotle’s ‘Nameless’ Virtues”, Apeiron , 27(1): 1–15. doi:10.1515/APEIRON.1994.27.1.1
• –––, 1994b, “Aristotle on Dividing the Soul and Uniting the Virtues”, Phronesis , 39(3): 275–290. doi:10.1163/156852894321052081
• –––, 1996, “Aristotle’s Ethical Egoism”, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly , 77(1): 1–18. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0114.1996.tb00155.x
• –––, 2009, The Virtue of Aristotle’s Ethics , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511581526
• –––, 2021, Aristotle on Thought and Feeling , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Gröngross, Gösta, 2007, “Listening to Reason in Aristotle’s Moral Psychology”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 32(Summer): 251–272.
• Hall, Edith, 2019, Aristotle’s Way: How Ancient Wisdom Can Change Your Life , London: The Bodley Head.
• Halper, Edward, 1999, “The Unity of the Virtues in Aristotle”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 17: 115–144.
• Hardie, W.F.R., 1978, “ Magnanimity in Aristotle’s Ethics”, Phronesis , 78(1): 63–79. doi:10.1163/156852878X00226
• –––, 1980, Aristotle’s Ethical Theory , second edition, Oxford: Clarendon Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198246329.001.0001
• Heinaman, Robert (ed.), 1995, Aristotle and Moral Realism , Boulder, CO: Westview.
• –––, 2002, “The Improvability of Eudaimonia in the Nicomachean Ethics”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 23: 99–145.
• –––, 2007, “Eudaimonia as an Activity in Nicomachean Ethics I.8–12”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 33(Winter): 221–254.
• Hitz, Zena, 2011, “Aristotle on Self-Knowledge and Friendship” Philosophers’ Imprint , 11(12): 1–28. [ Hitz 2011 available online ]
• Hursthouse, Rosalind, 1984, “Acting and Feeling in Character: Nicomachean Ethics 3.1”, Phronesis , 29(3): 252–266. doi:10.1163/156852884X00030
• –––, 1988, “Moral Habituation”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 6: 201–219.
• Hutchinson, D.S., 1986, The Virtues of Aristotle , London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
• Irwin, Terence H., 1988a, “Disunity in the Aristotelian Virtues”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , Supplementary Volume 1988: 61–78.
• –––, 1988b, Aristotle’s First Principles , Oxford: Clarendon Press. doi:10.1093/0198242905.001.0001
• –––, 2012, “Conceptions of Happiness in the Nicomachean Ethics ”, in Shields 2012b: 495–428
• Jimenez, Marta, 2020, Aristotle on Shame and Learning to Be Good , Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Kahn, Charles H., 1981, “Aristotle and Altruism”, Mind , 90(357): 20–40. doi:10.1093/mind/XC.357.20
• Karbowski, Joseph, 2014a, “Aristotle on the Rational Abilities of Women”, Apeiron , 47(4): 435–460. doi:10.1515/apeiron-2013-0061
• –––, 2014b, “ Endoxa , Facts, and the Starting Points of the Nicomachean Ethics ”, in Karen Margrethe Nielsen and Devon Henry (eds.), Bridging the Gap Between Aristotle’s Science and Ethics , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511846397.007
• –––, 2015a, “Is Aristotle’s Eudemian Ethics Quasi-Mathematical?” Apeiron , 48(3): 368–386. doi:10.1515/apeiron-2014-0046
• –––, 2015b, “ Phainomena as Witnesses and Examples: The Methodology of Eudemian Ethics I.6” Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 49: 193–225.
• –––, 2019, Aristotle’s Method in Ethics: Philosophy in Practice , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Kenny, Anthony, 1978, The Aristotelian Ethics: A Study of The Relationship between the Eudemian and Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle , Oxford: Clarendon Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198245544.001.0001
• –––, 1979, Aristotle’s Theory of the Will , New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
• –––, 1992, Aristotle on the Perfect Life , Oxford: Clarendon Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198240174.001.0001
• Keyt, David, 1978, “Intellectualism in Aristotle”, Paideia , 7: 138–157.
• Kontos, Pavlos, 2011, Aristotle’s Moral Realism Reconsidered: Phenomenological Ethics , New York: Routledge.
• –––, (ed.), 2018, Evil in Aristotle , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• –––, 2021, Aristotle on the Scope of Practical Reason: Spectators, Legislators, Hopes, and Evils , New York: Routledge.
• Korsgaard, Christine M., 1986a, “Aristotle on Function and Virtue”, History of Philosophy Quarterly , 3(3): 259–279.
• –––, 1986b, “Aristotle and Kant on the Source of Value”, Ethics , 96(3): 486–505. doi:10.1086/292771
• Kraut, Richard, 1979a, “Two Conceptions of Happiness”, Philosophical Review , 88(2): 167–197. doi:10.2307/2184505
• –––, 1979b, “The Peculiar Function of Human Beings”, Canadian Journal of Philosophy , 9(3): 53–62. doi:10.1080/00455091.1979.10716263
• –––, 1989, Aristotle on the Human Good , Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• –––, 1998, “Aristotle on Method and Moral Education”, in Gentzler 1998: 271–290.
• –––, 2002, Aristotle: Political Philosophy , Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• –––, 2006a, “Doing Without Morality: Reflections on the Meaning of Dein in Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 30(Summer): 169–200.
• ––– (ed.), 2006b, The Blackwell Guide to Aristotle’s Ethics , Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. doi:10.1002/9780470776513
• –––, 2012, “Aristotle on Becoming Good: Habituation, Reflection, and Perception”, in Shields 2012b: 529–557.
• –––, 2013, “An Aesthetic Reading of Aristotle’s Ethics”, in Verity Harte and Melissa Lane (eds.), Politeia: Essays in Honour of Malcolm Schofield , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 231–250. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139096843.016
• –––, 2018, The Quality of Life: Aristotle Revised , Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Lawrence, Gavin, 1993, “Aristotle and the Ideal Life”, Philosophical Review , 102(1): 1–34. doi:10.2307/2185651
• –––, 1997, “Nonaggregatability, Inclusiveness, and the Theory of Focal Value: Nicomachean Ethics I.7 1097b16–20”, Phronesis , 42(1): 32–76. doi:10.1163/156852897321163409
• –––, 2001, “The Function of the Function Argument”, Ancient Philosophy , 21(2): 445–475. doi:10.5840/ancientphil200121227
• Lear, Gabriel Richardson, 2000, Happy Lives and the Highest Good: An Essay on Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics , Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• Lear, Jonathan, 2000, Happiness, Death, and the Remainder of Life , Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• LeBar, Mark, 2013, The Value of Living Well , New York: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199931118.001.0001
• Leunissen, Mariska, 2012, “Aristotle on Natural Character and Its Implications for Moral Development”, Journal of the History of Philosophy , 50(4): 507–530. doi:10.1353/hph.2012.0062
• –––, 2013, “’Becoming good starts with nature’Aristotle on the Heritability and Advantages of Good Natural Character”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 44: 99–128.
• –––, 2017, From Natural Character to Moral Virtue in Aristotle , New York: Oxford University Press.
• Lockwood, Thornton C., 2005 “A Topical Bibliography of Scholarship on Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics : 1880 to 2004”, Journal of Philosophical Research , 30: 1–116. doi:10.5840/jpr20053048
• Lorenz, Hendrik, 2006, The Brute Within: Appetitive Desire in Plato and Aristotle , Oxford: Clarendon Press. doi:10.1093/0199290636.001.0001
• –––, 2009, “Virtue of Character in Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 37(Winter): 177–212.
• MacDonald, Scott, 1989, “Aristotle and the Homonymy of the Good”, Archiv Für Geschichte der Philosophie , 71(2): 150–174. doi:10.1515/agph.1989.71.2.150
• MacIntyre, Alasdair, 1999, Dependent Rational Animals: Why Human Beings Need the Virtues , Chicago: Open Court.
• McDowell, John, 1995, “Eudaimonism and Realism in Aristotle’s Ethics”, Heinaman 1995: 201–208. Reprinted in McDowell 2009: 23–40 (ch. 2).
• –––, 1996a, “Deliberation and Moral Development in Aristotle’s Ethics”, Engstrom & Whiting 1996: 19–35. Reprinted in McDowell 2009: 41–58 (ch. 3).
• –––, 1996b, “Incontinence and Practical Wisdom in Aristotle”, in Sabina Lovibond & Stephen G. Williams (eds.), Essays for David Wiggins: Identity, Truth and Value , Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 167–197. Reprinted in McDowell 2009: 59–76 (ch. 4).
• –––, 1998, “Some Issues in Aristotle’s Moral Psychology”, in Mind, Value, and Reality , Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 23–49.
• –––, 2009, The Engaged Intellect: Philosophical Essays , Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• McKerlie, Dennis, 1998, “Aristotle and Egoism”, Southern Journal of Philosophy , 36(4): 531–555. doi:10.1111/j.2041-6962.1998.tb01769.x
• –––, 2001, “Aristotle’s Theory of Justice”, Southern Journal of Philosophy , 39(1): 119–141. doi:10.1111/j.2041-6962.2001.tb01809.x
• Meyer, Susan Sauvé, 1993, Aristotle on Moral Responsibility , Oxford: Blackwell.
• Milgram, Elijah, 1987, “Aristotle on Making Other Selves”, Canadian Journal of Philosophy , 17(2): 361–376. doi:10.1080/00455091.1987.10716441
• Miller, Jon (ed.), 2011, Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics: A Critical Guide , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Milo, Ronald D., 1966, Aristotle on Practical Knowledge and Weakness of Will , The Hague: Mouton.
• Modrak, Deborah, 1994, “Aristotle: Women, Deliberation, and Nature”, in Bat-Ami Bar On (ed.), Engendering Origins: Critical Feminist Readings in Plato and Aristotle , Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, pp. 207–22.
• Moss, Jessica, 2011, “‘Virtue Makes the Goal Right’ Virtue and Phronesis in Aristotle’s Ethics”, Phronesis , 56(3): 204–261. doi:10.1163/156852811X575907
• –––, 2012, Aristotle on the Apparent Good: Perception, Phantasia, Thought, and Desire , Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199656349.001.0001
• Natali, Carlo (ed.), 2009, Aristotle’s ‘Nicomachean Ethics’, Book VII , (Symposia Aristotelia), Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• –––, 2010, “ Posterior Analytics and the Definition of Happiness in NE I”, Phronesis , 55(4): 304–324. doi:10.1163/156852810X523905
• Nehamas, Alexander, 2010, “Aristotelian Philia , Modern Friendship”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 39: 213–47.
• Nussbaum, Martha C., 1985, “The Discernment of Perception: An Aristotelian Conception of Private and Public Rationality”, Proceedings of the Boston Area Colloquium in Ancient Philosophy , 1: 151–201. Reprinted in her Love’s Knowledge , New York: Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 54–105. doi:10.1163/2213441785X00102
• –––, 1986, The Fragility of Goodness: Luck and Ethics in Greek Tragedy and Philosophy , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Olfert, Christiana, 2017, Aristotle on Practical Truth , New York: Oxford University Press.
• Owen, G.E.L., 1971, “Aristotelian Pleasures”, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society , 72: 135–152. Reprinted in his, Logic, Science and Dialectic: Collected Papers in Greek Philosophy , M. Nussbaum (ed.), Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, pp. 334–46.
• Pakaluk, Michael, 1998, Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics, Books VIII and IX , (Clarendon Aristotle Series), Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• –––, 2004, “The Meaning of Aristotelian Magnanimity”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 26(Summer): 241–276.
• –––, 2005, Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics: An Introduction , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Pakaluk, Michael and Giles Pearson (eds.), 2010, Moral Psychology and Human Action in Aristotle , Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199546541.001.0001
• Pangle, Lorraine Smith, 2003, Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511498282
• Pearson, Giles, 2006, “Aristotle on Acting Unjustly without Being Unjust”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 30(Summer): 211–234.
• –––, 2007, “Phronesis as a Mean in the Eudemian Ethics”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 32(Summer): 273–296.
• –––, 2012, Aristotle on Desire , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139161770
• Peters, Julia, 2014, Aristotelian Ethics in Contemporary Perspective , New York: Routlege.
• Peterson, Sandra, 1988, “ ’Horos’ (limit) in Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics ”, Phronesis , 33(1): 233–250. doi:10.1163/156852888X00180
• Pickavé, Martin and Jennifer Whiting, 2008, “Nicomachean Ethics 7.3 on Akratic Ignorance”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 34(Summer): 323–372.
• Polansky, Ronald (ed.), 2014, The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CCO9781139022484
• Politis, Vasilis, 1998, “Aristotle’s Advocacy of Non-Productive Action”, Ancient Philosophy , 18(2): 353–379. doi:10.5840/ancientphil199818238
• Price, A.W., 1989, Love and Friendship in Plato and Aristotle , New York: Oxford University Press, Chapters 4–7. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198248996.001.0001
• –––, 2011, Virtue and Reason in Plato and Aristotle , Oxford: Clarendon Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199609611.001.0001
• Purinton, Jeffrey S., 1998, “Aristotle’s Definition of Happiness (NE I.7 1098a16–18)”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 16: 259–298.
• Reeve, C.D.C., 1992, Practices of Reason: Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics , Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198235651.001.0001
• –––, 2012a, Action, Contemplation, and Happiness: An Essay on Aristotle , Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• –––, 2012b, “Aristotle’s Philosophical Method”, in Shields 2012b: 150–170.
• –––, 2013, Aristotle on Practical Wisdom: Nicomachean Ethics VI , Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Roche, Timothy D., 1988a, “ Ergon and Eudaimonia in Nicomachean Ethics I: Reconsidering the Intellectualist Interpretation”, Journal of the History of Philosophy , 26(2): 175–194. doi:10.1353/hph.1988.0034
• –––, 1988b, “On the Alleged Metaphysical Foundation of Aristotle’s Ethics”, Ancient Philosophy , 8(1): 49–62. doi:10.5840/ancientphil19888120
• ––– (ed.), 1988c, Aristotle’s Ethics , The Southern Journal of Philosophy , Spindel Conference, Supplement 27(S1).
• –––, 1992, “In Defense of an Alternative View of the Foundation of Aristotle’s Moral Theory”, Phronesis , 37(1): 46–84. doi:10.1163/156852892321052650
• Rogers, Kelly, 1994, “Aristotle on Loving Another For His Own Sake”, Phronesis , 39(3): 291–302. doi:10.1163/156852894321052090
• Rorty, Amélie Oksenberg, 1974, “The Place of Pleasure in Aristotle’s Ethics”, Mind , 83(332): 481–93. doi:10.1093/mind/LXXXIII.332.481
• ––– (ed.), 1980, Essays on Aristotle’s Ethics , Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Rowe, C.J., 1971, The Eudemian and Nicomachean Ethics—a Study in the Development of Aristotle’s Thought , Cambridge: Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society, suppl. no. 3.
• Russell, Daniel C., 2012a, “Aristotle’s Virtues of Greatness”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , Supplementary Volume 2012, Virtue and Happiness: Essays in Honour of Julia Annas , pp. 115–147.
• –––, 2012b, Happiness for Humans , Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199583683.001.0001
• Santas, Gerasimos, 2001, Goodness and Justice: Plato, Aristotle, and the Moderns , Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
• Scaltsas, Theodore, 1995, “Reciprocal Justice in Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics ”, Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie , 77(3): 248–262. doi:10.1515/agph.1995.77.3.248
• Schollmeier, Paul, 1994, Other Selves: Aristotle on Personal and Political Friendship , Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
• Schütrumpf, Eckart, 1989, “Magnanimity, Mεγαλοψυχία , and the System of Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics ”, Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie , 71(1): 10–22. doi:10.1515/agph.1989.71.1.10
• Scott, Dominic, 1999, “Aristotle on Well-Being and Intellectual Contemplation: Primary and Secondary Eudaimonia”, Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volume , 73: 225–242.
• –––, 2000, “Aristotle on Posthumous Fortune”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 18(Summer): 211–230.
• –––, 2015, Levels of Argument: A Comparative Study of Plato’s Republic and Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics , Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199249640.001.0001
• Segvic, Heda, 2002, “Aristotle’s Metaphysics of Action”, Philosophiegeschichte und logische Analyse / Logical Analysis and History of Philosophy , 5: 23–53. Reprint in Segvic 2009b: 111–143 (ch. 5).
• –––, 2004, “Aristotle on the Varieties of Goodness”, Apeiron , 37: 151–176. Reprinted in Segvic 2009b: 89–110 (ch. 4).
• –––, 2009a, “Deliberation and Choice in Aristotle”, in Segvic 2009b: 144–171. Also appeared in Pakaluk and Pearson 2010: 159–186. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199546541.003.0008
• –––, 2009b, From Protagoras to Aristotle: Essays in Ancient Moral Philosophy , Myles Burnyeat (ed.), Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• Sherman, Nancy, 1987, “Aristotle on Friendship and the Shared Life”, Philosophy and Phenomenological Research , 47(4): 589–613. doi:10.2307/2107230
• –––, 1989, The Fabric of Character: Aristotle’s Theory of Virtue , Oxford: Clarendon Press. doi:10.1093/0198239173.001.0001
• –––, 1997, Making a Virtue of Necessity: Aristotle and Kant on Virtue , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511624865
• ––– (ed.), 1999, Aristotle’s Ethics: Critical Essays , Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield.
• –––, 2000, “Is the Ghost of Aristotle Haunting Freud’s House?” Proceedings of the Boston Area Colloquium in Ancient Philosophy , 16(1): 63–81. doi:10.1163/2213441700X00079
• Shields, Christopher, 2012a, “Goodness is Meant in Many Ways”, in G. Rudebusch and J. Hardy (eds.) Grundlagen der Antiken Ethik / Foundations of Ancient Ethics , Goettingen: Vanderhoek & Ruprecht, pp. 185–199.
• Shields, Christopher (ed.), 2012b, The Oxford Handbook of Aristotle , Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195187489.001.0001
• Sim, May (ed.), 1995, The Crossroads of Norm and Nature , Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield.
• –––, 2007, Remastering Morals with Aristotle and Confucius , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511497841
• Stern-Gillet, Suzanne, 1995, Aristotle’s Philosophy of Friendship , Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
• Stohr, Karen, 2003, “Moral Cacophony: When Continence is a Virtue”, Journal of Ethics , 7(4): 339–363. doi:10.1023/A:1026111711649
• –––, 2009, “Minding Others’ Business”, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly , 90(1): 116–139. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0114.2009.01331.x
• Suits, Bernard, 1974, “Aristotle on the Function of Man: Fallacies, Heresies and other Entertainments”, Canadian Journal of Philosophy , 4(1): 23–40. doi:10.1080/00455091.1974.10716919
• Taylor, C.C.W., 1988, “Urmson on Aristotle on Pleasure”, in J. Dancy, J. M. E. Moravcsik, and C. C. W. Taylor (eds.), Human Agency: Language, Duty, and Value. Philosophical Essays in Honor of J. O. Urmson , Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, pp. 120–132. Reprinted in Taylor 2008: 107–120 (ch. 7).
• –––, 2003a, “Pleasure: Aristotle’s Response to Plato”, in Robert Heinaman (ed.), Plato and Aristotle’s Ethics , Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, pp. 1–20.
• –––, 2003b, “Aristotle on the Practical Intellect”, (in German, trans. R. May, with the assistance of A. W. Müller), in T. Buchheim, H. Flashar, and R. A. H. King (eds.), Kann man heute noch etwas anfangen mit Aristoteles? , Hamburg: Meiner Verlag, pp. 142–162. Reprinted (in English) in Taylor 2008: 204–222 (ch. 12).
• –––, 2004, “Wisdom and Courage in the Protagoras and the Nicomachean Ethics”, (in Italian, trans. S. Casertano), in G. Casertano (ed.), Il Protagora di Platone: struttura e problematiche , Naples: Loffredo Editore, Naples, pp. 716–728. Reprinted (in English) in Taylor 2008: 281–294 (ch. 16).
• –––, 2008, Pleasure, Mind, and Soul: Selected Papers in Ancient Philosophy , Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199226399.001.0001
• Telfer, Elizabeth, 1989–90, “The Unity of Moral Virtues in Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics ”, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society , 91: 35–48.
• Tuozzo, Thomas M., 1995, “Contemplation, the Noble, and the Mean: The Standard of Moral Virtue in Aristotle’s Ethics”, Apeiron , special issue Aristotle, Virtue and the Mean , 28(4): 129–154. doi:10.1515/APEIRON.1995.28.4.129.
• Urmson, J.O., 1967, “Aristotle on Pleasure”, in J.M.E. Moravcsik (ed.), Aristotle: A Collection of Critical Essays , Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, pp. 323–33.
• –––, 1987, Aristotle’s Ethics , Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
• Van Cleemput, 2006, “Aristotle on Eudaimonia in Nicomachean Ethics I”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 30(Summer): 127–158.
• Walker, Matthew D., 2014, “Aristotle on the Utility and Choiceworthiness of Friends”, Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie , 96(2): 151–182. doi:10.1515/agph-2014-0008
• Walsh, James, 1963, Aristotle’s Conception of Moral Weakness , New York: Columbia University Press.
• Ward, Julie K. (ed.), 1996, Feminism and Ancient Philosophy , New York: Routledge.
• Warren, James, 2009, “Aristotle on Speusippus on Eudoxus on Pleasure”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 36(Summer): 249–282.
• Wedin, Michael V., 1981, “Aristotle on the Good for Man”, Mind , 90(358): 243–62. doi:10.1093/mind/XC.358.243
• White, Nicholas P., 2002, Individual and Conflict in Greek Ethics , Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/0198250592.001.0001
• –––, 2006, A Brief History of Happiness , Malden, ME: Blackwell.
• White, Stephen. A., 1992, Sovereign Virtue , Stanford: Stanford University Press.
• Whiting, Jennifer, 1986, “Human Nature and Intellectualism in Aristotle”, Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie , 68(1): 70–95. doi:10.1515/agph.1986.68.1.70
• –––, 1988, “Aristotle’s Function Argument: A Defense”, Ancient Philosophy , 8(1): 33–48. doi:10.5840/ancientphil19888119
• –––, 1991, “Impersonal Friends”, Monist , 74(1): 3–29. doi:10.5840/monist19917414
• –––, 1996, “Self-Love and Authoritative Virtue: Prolegomenon to a Kantian Reading of Eudemian Ethics VIII.3”, in Engstrom & Whiting 1996: 162–99.
• Wielenberg, Erik J., 2004, “Egoism and Eudaimonia -Maximization in the Nicomachean Ethics ”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 26: 277–295.
• Wiggins, David, 2009, “What is the Order Among the Varieties of Goodness? A Question Posed by von Wright; and a Conjecture Made by Aristotle”, Philosophy , 84(2): 175–200. doi:10.1017/S0031819109000308
• Williams, Bernard, 1985, Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy , Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, Chapter 3.
• Wolfsdorf, David, 2013, Pleasure in Ancient Greek Philosophy , Chapter 6. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511667510
• Young, Charles M., 1988, “Aristotle on Temperance” Philosophical Review , 97(4): 521–542. doi:10.2307/2185414
• Yu, Jiyuan, 2007, The Ethics of Confucius and Aristotle: Mirrors of Virtue , New York: Routledge.
• Zingano Marco, 2007a, “Akrasia and the Method of Ethics”, in Bobonich and Destree 2007: 167–192
• –––, 2007b, “Aristotle and the Problems of Method in Ethics”, Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy , 32(Summer): 297–330.

How to cite this entry . Preview the PDF version of this entry at the Friends of the SEP Society . Look up topics and thinkers related to this entry at the Internet Philosophy Ontology Project (InPhO). Enhanced bibliography for this entry at PhilPapers , with links to its database.

• Athenian Constitution , ed. Kenyon. (Greek)
• Athenian Constitution , ed. H. Rackham. (English)
• Economics , (Greek)
• Economics , (English)
• Eudemian Ethics , (Greek)
• Eudemian Ethics , (English)
• Metaphysics , (Greek)
• Metaphysics , (English)
• Nicomachean Ethics , ed. J. Bywater. (Greek)
• Nicomachean Ethics , ed. H. Rackham. (English)
• Poetics , (English)
• Politics , (Greek)
• Politics , (English)
• Rhetoric , ed. W. D. Ross. (Greek)
• Rhetoric , ed. J. H. Freese. (English)
• Virtues and Vices , ed. I. Bekker. (Greek)
• Virtues and Vices , ed. H. Rackham. (English)
• Nikomachische Ethik , in German, translated by Eugen Rolfes, Leipzig: F. Meiner, 1911, at the Projekt Gutenberg-DE

Aristotle | character, moral | egoism | ethics: virtue | friendship | Plato | pleasure | wisdom

Copyright © 2022 by Richard Kraut < rkraut1 @ northwestern . edu >

• Accessibility

Support SEP

Mirror sites.

View this site from another server:

• Info about mirror sites

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy is copyright © 2023 by The Metaphysics Research Lab , Department of Philosophy, Stanford University

Library of Congress Catalog Data: ISSN 1095-5054

Ethics and Morality

Morality, Ethics, Evil, Greed

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

To put it simply, ethics represents the moral code that guides a person’s choices and behaviors throughout their life. The idea of a moral code extends beyond the individual to include what is determined to be right, and wrong, for a community or society at large.

Ethics is concerned with rights, responsibilities, use of language, what it means to live an ethical life, and how people make moral decisions. We may think of moralizing as an intellectual exercise, but more frequently it's an attempt to make sense of our gut instincts and reactions. It's a subjective concept, and many people have strong and stubborn beliefs about what's right and wrong that can place them in direct contrast to the moral beliefs of others. Yet even though morals may vary from person to person, religion to religion, and culture to culture, many have been found to be universal, stemming from basic human emotions.

• The Science of Being Virtuous
• Understanding Amorality
• The Stages of Moral Development

Those who are considered morally good are said to be virtuous, holding themselves to high ethical standards, while those viewed as morally bad are thought of as wicked, sinful, or even criminal. Morality was a key concern of Aristotle, who first studied questions such as “What is moral responsibility?” and “What does it take for a human being to be virtuous?”

We used to think that people are born with a blank slate, but research has shown that people have an innate sense of morality . Of course, parents and the greater society can certainly nurture and develop morality and ethics in children.

Humans are ethical and moral regardless of religion and God. People are not fundamentally good nor are they fundamentally evil. However, a Pew study found that atheists are much less likely than theists to believe that there are "absolute standards of right and wrong." In effect, atheism does not undermine morality, but the atheist’s conception of morality may depart from that of the traditional theist.

Animals are like humans—and humans are animals, after all. Many studies have been conducted across animal species, and more than 90 percent of their behavior is what can be identified as “prosocial” or positive. Plus, you won’t find mass warfare in animals as you do in humans. Hence, in a way, you can say that animals are more moral than humans.

The examination of moral psychology involves the study of moral philosophy but the field is more concerned with how a person comes to make a right or wrong decision, rather than what sort of decisions he or she should have made. Character, reasoning, responsibility, and altruism , among other areas, also come into play, as does the development of morality.

The seven deadly sins were first enumerated in the sixth century by Pope Gregory I, and represent the sweep of immoral behavior. Also known as the cardinal sins or seven deadly vices, they are vanity, jealousy , anger , laziness, greed, gluttony, and lust. People who demonstrate these immoral behaviors are often said to be flawed in character. Some modern thinkers suggest that virtue often disguises a hidden vice; it just depends on where we tip the scale .

An amoral person has no sense of, or care for, what is right or wrong. There is no regard for either morality or immorality. Conversely, an immoral person knows the difference, yet he does the wrong thing, regardless. The amoral politician, for example, has no conscience and makes choices based on his own personal needs; he is oblivious to whether his actions are right or wrong.

One could argue that the actions of Wells Fargo, for example, were amoral if the bank had no sense of right or wrong. In the 2016 fraud scandal, the bank created fraudulent savings and checking accounts for millions of clients, unbeknownst to them. Of course, if the bank knew what it was doing all along, then the scandal would be labeled immoral.

Everyone tells white lies to a degree, and often the lie is done for the greater good. But the idea that a small percentage of people tell the lion’s share of lies is the Pareto principle, the law of the vital few. It is 20 percent of the population that accounts for 80 percent of a behavior.

We do know what is right from wrong . If you harm and injure another person, that is wrong. However, what is right for one person, may well be wrong for another. A good example of this dichotomy is the religious conservative who thinks that a woman’s right to her body is morally wrong. In this case, one’s ethics are based on one’s values; and the moral divide between values can be vast.

Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg established his stages of moral development in 1958. This framework has led to current research into moral psychology. Kohlberg's work addresses the process of how we think of right and wrong and is based on Jean Piaget's theory of moral judgment for children. His stages include pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional, and what we learn in one stage is integrated into the subsequent stages.

The pre-conventional stage is driven by obedience and punishment . This is a child's view of what is right or wrong. Examples of this thinking: “I hit my brother and I received a time-out.” “How can I avoid punishment?” “What's in it for me?” 

The conventional stage is when we accept societal views on rights and wrongs. In this stage people follow rules with a  good boy  and nice girl  orientation. An example of this thinking: “Do it for me.” This stage also includes law-and-order morality: “Do your duty.”

The post-conventional stage is more abstract: “Your right and wrong is not my right and wrong.” This stage goes beyond social norms and an individual develops his own moral compass, sticking to personal principles of what is ethical or not.

We’re all told how we’re supposed to be humble. Does that mean we’re never supposed to speak up? How are we supposed to translate this value into our everyday lives?

Prince Siddharta had never seen old age, infirmity, or death.

Language that centers persons and does not distance can help us shape a healthier, less divided society.

Personal Perspective: Despite working for positive change, I still struggle with privilege. If you feel the same, consider these insights.

Our instincts often steer us toward polarization and division, but it's possible to resist these instincts in favor of cultivating a new instinct that leads to positive change.

Whether people talking behind someone's back are sharing a plot to deceive, or a well-intentioned plan to help, they are excluding the person whose life they are talking about.

Most people want honest public officials. For those who are not, behavioral economists have uncovered tactics that can reduce lying by up to 50%.

Is karma a firm basis for morality?

A new study suggests that scientists tend to inflate their own research ethics. One important implication is that this overconfidence may lead to ethical blindspots.

Today we celebrate the 300th birthday of Immanuel Kant. Embrace face-to-face encounters to live up to his motto Dare to Know!

• Find a Therapist
• Find a Treatment Center
• Find a Psychiatrist
• Find a Support Group
• Find Online Therapy
• United States
• Brooklyn, NY
• Chicago, IL
• Houston, TX
• Los Angeles, CA
• New York, NY
• Portland, OR
• San Diego, CA
• San Francisco, CA
• Seattle, WA
• Washington, DC
• Asperger's
• Bipolar Disorder
• Chronic Pain
• Eating Disorders
• Passive Aggression
• Personality
• Goal Setting
• Positive Psychology
• Stopping Smoking
• Low Sexual Desire
• Relationships
• Child Development
• Therapy Center NEW
• Diagnosis Dictionary
• Types of Therapy

Understanding what emotional intelligence looks like and the steps needed to improve it could light a path to a more emotionally adept world.

• Emotional Intelligence
• Gaslighting
• Affective Forecasting
• Neuroscience

The environment

Emergency action

Could civil disobedience be morally obligatory in a society on a collision course with climate catastrophe?

Rupert Read

The scourge of lookism

It is time to take seriously the painful consequences of appearance discrimination in the workplace

Andrew Mason

The dangers of AI farming

AI could lead to new ways for people to abuse animals for financial gain. That’s why we need strong ethical guidelines

Virginie Simoneau-Gilbert & Jonathan Birch

Public health

It’s dirty work

In caring for and bearing with human suffering, hospital staff perform extreme emotional labour. Is there a better way?

Susanna Crossman

For Iris Murdoch, selfishness is a fault that can be solved by reframing the world

Sports and games

The moral risks of fandom

Players, coaches and team owners sometimes do terrible things. What, if anything, should their fans do about that?

Jake Wojtowicz & Alfred Archer

Computing and artificial intelligence

Frontier AI ethics

Generative agents will change our society in weird, wonderful and worrying ways. Can philosophy help us get a grip on them?

Space exploration

Capturing the cosmos

When self-replicating craft bring life to the far Universe, a religious cult, not science, is likely to be the driving force

History of science

The rights of the dead

From the Irish Giant to the Ancient One, is it ever ethical for scientists and museums to study bodies without permission?

Anita Guerrini

Comparative philosophy

Forging philosophy

A 17th-century classic of Ethiopian philosophy might be a fake. Does it matter, or is that just how philosophy works?

Jonathan Egid

Ethics has no foundation

Ethical values can be both objective and knowable – torture really is wrong – yet not need any foundation outside themselves

Andrew Sepielli

The final ethical frontier

Earthbound exploration was plagued with colonialism, exploitation and extraction. Can we hope to make space any different?

Philip Ball

Wrestling with relativism

Bernard Williams argued that one’s ethics is shaped by culture and history. But that doesn’t mean that everyone is right

Daniel Callcut

History of ideas

Equality without compromise

Liberal philosophy has clipped the wings of the egalitarian ideal. We should return to the bolder ideals of Iris Murdoch

Christine Sypnowich

Thinkers and theories

Remember Richard Price!

Demonised by the political establishment for his radical, dissenting views, this 18th-century Welsh polymath deserves better

Huw Williams

Philosophy of religion

Reckoning with compassion

After an abuse scandal destroyed my Buddhist community, I had to reconsider what it means to live an ethically attuned life

Jessica Locke

Future of technology

Artificial ‘creativity’ is unstoppable. Grappling with its ethics is up to us

The ethics of human extinction

Why would it be so bad if our species came to an end? It is a question that reveals our latent values and hidden fears

Émile P Torres

If not vegan, then what?

A vegan diet can be hard to adopt, even if you’re convinced it’s the right thing to do. What are the next-best options?

Peter Godfrey-Smith

How many monkeys is it worth sacrificing to save a human life?

Human rights and justice

Thirty years after one teenager shot another, is it time to forgive?

Moral mathematics

Subjecting the problems of ethics to the cool quantifications of logic and probability can help us to be better people

The lethal act

The Buddha taught not to kill, yet his followers have at times disobeyed him. Can murderers still be Buddhists?

Martin Kovan

An animator wonders: can you ever depict someone without making them a caricature?

Ethics Essay

500+ words ethics essay.

Ethics is one of the main branches of philosophy. The study of ethics helps in determining our intuitions about what is ‘right’ or ‘good’. Every one of us experiences the good and bad in our life. We all have the capability to sense these feelings. The meaning of ethics can vary from person to person as it depends on one’s moral principles and interests. With the help of this ethics essay, students will get to know the meaning of ethics, its need and importance, how it can be developed, and ethics in the history of Indian philosophy. They can also get the list of CBSE Essays on different topics to boost their practice. Doing so will help them to participate in various essay writing competitions.

Meaning of Ethics

The word Ethics is derived from the Greek word ‘ethos’, which means character or conduct. It also refers to our character, habits, customs, ways of behaviour, etc. Ethics is also known as the “moral philosophy”.

Ethics is defined as the systematic study of human actions from the point of rightfulness or wrongfulness of a person. Ethics offers guidance to what humans ought to do in terms of righteousness, obligations, fairness and specific virtues.

Need and Importance of Ethics

There is a gradual erosion of values and ethics in the society. This is happening due to the lack of ethical values among people. There will be a total imbalance in society if we do not practise values and ethics. Chaos will rule, and life will become difficult. Hence, it becomes our responsibility to follow ethical values in every sphere of life.

How to Develop Ethical Values?

Human values and ethics define the quality of a person or an organisation, or society at large. Ethical values develop from early childhood. Important social skills and ethical values like caring, sharing, tolerance and empathy are all learnt at home. Moreover, we should practise values and ethics, and learn these lessons through self-initiated endeavours, through educational institutions, and through life experience. Building ethical values will make us humble and down to earth. It will give us positive energy and generate a positive attitude towards others.

Ethics in the History of Indian Philosophy

The foundation of Indian ethics can be found in the forms of worship which have been in practice since antiquity. They are rooted in ideals and principles that direct man’s life in society towards harmony and well-being. Its beginnings can be traced to the Vedas, particularly to the Rig Veda. One of the central ethical concepts of the Rig Veda is ‘rta’, which has given rise to the concept of Dharma and the concept of karma. The concept of Dharma is generally known as duty. In contrast, karma signifies the action of man and the reward and punishment appropriate to their actions. Those who perform ceremonial duties laid down in the scriptures will achieve the goal of eternal happiness. The Bhagavad Gita, Ramayana, and Mahabharata explain the essence of ethical teachings. They help man to live a peaceful life with harmony and compassion.

Students must have found “Ethics Essay” useful for improving their essay writing skills. Visit BYJU’S website to get the latest updates and study material on CBSE/ICSE/State Board/Competitive Exams at BYJU’S.

Leave a Comment Cancel reply

Your Mobile number and Email id will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Request OTP on Voice Call

Post My Comment

• Share Share

Register with BYJU'S & Download Free PDFs

Register with byju's & watch live videos.

Counselling

1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology

Philosophy, One Thousand Words at a Time

Virtue Ethics

Author: David Merry Category: Ethics , Historical Philosophy Word Count: 1000

Listen here

Think of the (morally) best person you know. It could be a friend, parent, teacher, religious leader, thinker, or activist.

The person you thought of is probably kind, brave, and wise. They are probably not greedy, cruel, or foolish.

The first list of ‘character traits’ ( kind, brave, etc.) are virtues, and the second list ( arrogant, greedy, etc.) are vices . Virtues are ways in which people are good; vices are ways in which people are bad.

This essay presents virtue ethics, a theory that sees virtues and vices as central to understanding who we should be, and what we should do.

1. Virtue and Happiness

Virtues are excellent traits of character. [1] They shape how we act, think, and feel. They make us who we are. Virtues are acquired through good habits, over a long period of time.

1.1. Eudaimonia

According to Aristotle (384-322 BCE) virtues are those, and only those, character traits we need to be happy. [2] Many virtue ethicists today agree. [3] These virtue ethicists are called eudaimonists, after the Greek word eudaimonia, usually translated as “happiness,” “flourishing,” or “well-being . ” [4]

For eudaimonists, happiness is more than a feeling: it involves living well with others and pursuing worthwhile goals. This includes cultivating strong relationships, and succeeding at such projects as raising a family, fighting for justice, and (moderate yet enthusiastic) enjoyment of pleasure. [5]

Eudaimonists believe our happiness is not easily separated from that of other people. Many would consider the happiness of their friends and family as part of their own. Eudaimonists may extend this to complete strangers, and non-human animals. Similarly for causes or ideals: eudaimonists believe complicity in injustice and deceit reduces a person’s happiness. , [6]

If eudaimonists are right about happiness, then it is plausible that we need virtues such as honesty, kindness, gratitude and justice to be happy. This is not to say that the virtues will guarantee happiness. But eudaimonists believe we cannot be truly happy without them.

One concern is that vicious people often seem happy. For example, dictators live in palaces, apparently rather pleasantly. Eudaimonists may not think this amounts to happiness, but many would disagree. And if dictators can be happy, then we certainly can be happy without the virtues. Answering this objection is an ongoing project for eudaimonists. [7]

1.2. Emotion, Intelligence, and Developing Virtue

Eudaimonists believe emotions are essential to happiness, and that our emotions are shaped by our habits. Good emotional habits are a question of balance.

For example, eudaimonists argue that honest people habitually want to and enjoy telling the truth, but not so much that they will ignore all other considerations–a habit of enjoying pointing out other people’s shortcomings will leave us friendless, and so is not part of honesty. [8]

Because virtue requires balancing competing considerations, such as telling the truth and considering other people’s feelings, virtue also requires experience in making moral decisions. Virtue ethicists call this intellectual ability practical intelligence, or wisdom. [9]

2. Virtue and Right Action

Virtue ethicists believe we can use virtue to understand how we should act, or what makes actions right.

According to some virtue ethicists, an action is right if, and only if, it is what a virtuous person would characteristically do under the circumstances. [10] On rare occasions, virtuous people do the wrong thing. But this is not acting characteristically.

2.1. Being Specific

“Do what virtuous people would do” is not very specific, and we may be left wondering what the theory is actually saying we should do.

One way to make it more specific is to generate rules for each of the virtues and vices, called “v-rules.” Two examples of v-rules are: be kind, don’t be cruel. The v-rules give specific guidance in many cases: writing an email just to hurt someone’s feelings is cruel, so don’t do it. [11]

Unfortunately, the virtues can conflict: if a friend asks whether we like their new partner, it may be more honest to say we do not , but kinder to say we do. In this case it is hard to say what the virtuous person would do.

Virtue ethicists might respond that other ethical theories will also struggle to give clear guidance in hard cases. [12]

Second, they might try to understand how a virtuous person would think about the situation. Remember that virtuous people have practical intelligence, and habitually care about other people’s happiness and telling the truth. So they may consider a lot of particular details, including how close the friendship is, how bad the partner is, how gently the friend may be told. [13]

This may not provide a specific answer, but virtue ethicists hope they can at least provide a helpful model for thinking about hard cases. [14]

2.2. Explaining Why

We have seen how virtue ethics tells us what to do. But we also want to know why we should do it.

Virtue ethicists point out that if we ask virtuous people, they will explain why they did what they did. [15] Their reasoning results from their excellent emotional habits and practical intelligence–that is, from their virtue. And if we want to be happy, we need to cultivate virtue. So these should be our reasons too.

But in explaining their decision, the virtuous person won’t necessarily mention virtue. They might, for example, say, “I wanted to avoid hurting their feelings, so I told the truth gently.” [16]

It might then seem that something other than virtue–in our example, the importance of other people’s feelings–explains why the action is right . But then this other thing should be central to ethical theory, instead of virtue.

Virtue ethicists may respond that the moral weight of this other thing depends on which character traits are virtues. Accordingly, if kindness were not a virtue, there may be no moral reason to care about others’ feelings. [17]

3. Conclusion

Virtue ethicists recommend reflecting on the character traits we need to be happy. They hope this will help us make better moral decisions. Virtue ethics may not always yield clear answers, but perhaps acknowledging moral uncertainty is not a vice.

[1] Others may define virtue as admirable or merely good traits of character. For additional definitions of virtue and understandings of virtue ethics, see Hursthouse and Pettigrove’s “Virtue Ethics.”

[2] Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics , Book One, Chapter 9, Lines 1099b25-29. For this interpretation, see Nussbaum, The Fragility of Goodness, p. 6.

[3] Hursthouse, On Virtue Ethics , pp. 165-169, “Virtue Theory and Abortion”, p. 226, Foot, Natural Goodness , pp. 99-116.

There are many other accounts of virtue worth considering. One major alternative is sentimentalist accounts, such as that of Hume and Zagbzebski, who define virtues as those character traits that attract love or admiration. Some scholars argue that Confucian ethics is a virtue ethic, though this is debated: see Wong, “Chinese Ethics.” Also see John Ramsey’s Mengzi’s Moral Psychology, Part 1: The Four Moral Sprouts . For an African understanding of virtue, see Thaddeus Metz’s The African Ethic of Ubuntu .

[4] Hursthouse has a detailed and accessible discussion of the merits of different translations of eudaimonia in On Virtue Ethics, pp. 9-10.

[5] Some people find this account of virtue surprising because they think virtue must involve sacrificing one’s own happiness for the sake of other people, and living like a saint, a monk, or just being a really boring and miserable person. In this case it may be more helpful to think in terms of ‘good character’ than ‘virtue’. David Hume amusingly argued that some alleged virtues, such as humility, celibacy, silence, and solitude, were vices. See his Enquiry 9.1.

[6] The idea that injustice erodes everybody’s happiness is not to deny that it especially harms people who are treated unjustly. However, eudaimonists consider being unjust, or deceiving others to be bad for us.

[7] For a compelling discussion of this objection to eudaimonism, see Blackburn, Being Good, pp. 112-118 . Eudaimonists have been trying to answer this objection for a long time. Indeed, arguing that it is more beneficial to be just than unjust is one of the major themes of Plato’s Republic. For more recent attempts to make the case, see Hursthouse’s On Virtue Ethics, Chapter 8, or Foot, Natural Goodness, especially Chapter 7. See also Kiki Berk’s Happiness .

[8] The idea that the virtues involve finding a balance is called ‘the doctrine of the mean.’ See Nicomachean Ethics, Book II, Chapter 6, lines 1106b30-1107a5. For one contemporary account of the emotional aspects of virtue, see Hursthouse’s On Virtue Ethics, pp.108-121.

[9] Aristotle discusses practical intelligence in Nicomachean Ethics Book 6. For a contemporary account see Hursthouse’s On Virtue Ethics, pp. 59-62.

[10] Hursthouse, On Virtue Ethics, pp. 28-29. This is sometimes called a qualified-agent account. For some alternatives, see van Zyl’s “Virtue Ethics and Right Action”.

[11] Hursthouse, On Virtue Ethics, pp. 28-29.

[12] For other moral theories, see Deontology: Kantian Ethics by Andrew Chapman and Introduction to Consequentialism by Shane Gronholz. When reading, you might consider whether these theories would give you clearer guidance about your friend’s partner.

[13] See Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Book 2, chapter 9, lines 1109a25-30. Hursthouse, On Virtue Ethics pp. 128-129.

[14] For two examples of how virtue ethics may be helpfully applied to tough moral decisions, see Hursthouse’s “Virtue Theory and Abortion”, and Foot’s “Euthanasia”.

[15] Hursthouse, “Virtue Ethics and Abortion”, especially p. 227, pp. 234-237. “Do what a virtuous person would do” is only supposed to tell us what we should do, not how we should think .

[16] This objection is discussed in Shafer-Landau’s The Fundamentals of Ethics, pp. 272-274.

[17] On this connection between facts about morality on facts about virtue and human happiness, see Hursthouse “Virtue Theory and Abortion”, pp. 236-238.

Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics . C. 355-322 BCE. Trans. Roger Crisp. Cambridge UP. 2014.

Blackburn, S. Being Good. Oxford UP. 2001.

Boxill, B. “How Injustice Pays.” Philosophy and Public Affairs, 9(4): 359-371. 1980.

Foot, P. Natural Goodness. Oxford UP. 2001.

Foot, P. “Euthanasia”. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 6(2): 85–112. 1977.

Foot, P. “Moral Beliefs.” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society. 59: 83-104. 1958.

Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals. 1777.      

Hursthouse, R. “Virtue Theory and Abortion.” Philosophy & Public Affairs . 20(3): 223-246. 1991.

Hursthouse, R. On Virtue Ethics. Oxford UP. 1999.

Hursthouse, Rosalind and Glen Pettigrove, “Virtue Ethics”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2018 Edition), Zalta, E.N (ed.). 2018,

Nussbaum, M. The Fragility of Goodness. Cambridge UP. 2nd Edition, 2001.

van Zyl, L. “Virtue Ethics and Right Action”. In Russell, D. C (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Virtue Ethics. Cambridge UP. 2013.

Plato. Republic. C. 375 BCE. Trans. Paul Shorey. Harvard UP. 1969.

Shafer-Landau, R. The Fundamentals of Ethics . Fourth Edition. Oxford UP. 2017.

Wong, D. “Chinese Ethics”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2021 Edition) . Zalta, E.N (ed). 2021.

Zagzebski, L.T. Exemplarist Moral Theory. Oxford UP. 2017.

Related Essays

Happiness by Kiki Berk

Deontology: Kantian Ethics by Andrew Chapman

Introduction to Consequentialism by Shane Gronholz

G. E. M. Anscombe’s “Modern Moral Philosophy” by Daniel Weltman

Philosophy as a Way of Life  by Christine Darr

Ethical Egoism by Nathan Nobis

Why be Moral? Plato’s ‘Ring of Gyges’ Thought Experiment  by Spencer Case

Situationism and Virtue Ethics by Ian Tully

Ancient Cynicism: Rejecting Civilization and Returning to Nature by G. M. Trujillo, Jr.

Mengzi’s Moral Psychology, Part 1: The Four Moral Sprouts by John Ramsey

Mengzi’s Moral Psychology, Part 2: The Cultivation Analogy by John Ramsey

The African Ethic of Ubuntu  by Thaddeus Metz

PDF Download

Download this essay in PDF . 

About the Author

David Merry’s research is mostly about ethics and dialectic in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, although he also occasionally works on contemporary ethics and philosophy of medicine. He received a Ph.D. from the Humboldt University of Berlin, and an M.A in philosophy from the University of Auckland. He is co-editor of Essays on Argumentation in Antiquity . He offers interactive, discussion-based online philosophy classes and maintains a blog at Kayepos.com .

Follow 1000-Word Philosophy on  Facebook  and  Twitter  and subscribe to receive email notifications of new essays at  1000WordPhilosophy.com

Share this:, 21 thoughts on “ virtue ethics ”.

• Pingback: Philosophy as a Way of Life – 1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology
• Pingback: Ancient Cynicism: Rejecting Civilization and Returning to Nature – 1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology
• Pingback: Aristotle on Friendship: What Does It Take to Be a Good Friend? – 1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology
• Pingback: Ursula Le Guin’s “The Ones who Walk Away from Omelas”: Would You Walk Away? – 1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology
• Pingback: G. E. M. Anscombe’s “Modern Moral Philosophy” – 1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology
• Pingback: Why be Moral? Plato’s ‘Ring of Gyges’ Thought Experiment – 1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology
• Pingback: Article on Virtue Ethics at 1000-Word Philosophy - Kayepos: Philosophical Capers
• Pingback: - Kayepos: Philosophical Capers
• Pingback: Online Philosophy Resources Weekly Update | Daily Nous
• Pingback: Rousseau on Human Nature: “Amour de soi” and “Amour propre” – 1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology
• Pingback: What Is It To Love Someone? – 1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology
• Pingback: Because God Says So: On Divine Command Theory – 1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology
• Pingback: Consequentialism and Utilitarianism – 1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology
• Pingback: Deontology: Kantian Ethics – 1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology
• Pingback: Happiness: What is it to be Happy? – 1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology
• Pingback: Indoctrination: What is it to Indoctrinate Someone?  – 1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology
• Pingback: The African Ethic of Ubuntu – 1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology
• Pingback: Situationism and Virtue Ethics – 1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology
• Pingback: Mengzi’s Moral Psychology, Part 2: The Cultivation Analogy – 1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology
• Pingback: Mengzi’s Moral Psychology, Part 1: The Four Moral Sprouts – 1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology
• Pingback: Is it Wrong to Believe Without Sufficient Evidence? W.K. Clifford’s “The Ethics of Belief” – 1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology

Comments are closed.

Student Essays

Essay on Ethics | Meaning, Role & Importance of Ethics Essay

Ethics are the pillars of a stable and smooth life. A society where ethics and moral values are duly regarded, climbs on the ladder of progress and prosperity. Whether you are a student, working as teacher, nurse, doctor or a businessman, you needed to follow the path of ethics for a prosperous and healthy living.

We have shortlisted these essay on ethics, that define ethics, meaning, purpose & importance of ethics in our lives. These short & long essays are really helpful for children and students

Essay on Ethics | Role Value & Importance of Ethics in human Life Essay

Ethic describes the moral standards of right and wrong as well as the moral requirements of good and bad conduct. Albert Camus once wrote, “A man without ethics is a wild beast loosed upon the world”.

Types of Ethics

Here is a brief look at the four main categories of ethics:

1. Duty Ethics :  It relates ethics to religious beliefs. Defining right and wrong behavior or actions, these ethics are also called deontological ethics. Ethics are taught from the beginning. We must follow them to fulfill our duties.

2. Virtue Ethics :  Ethics refers to personal behavior of an individual. The focus is on a person’s moral values , mentality, and character. As children, we are also inculcated with virtue ethics. We are taught what is right and wrong even if there is no logic to it in many cases.

3. Relativistic Ethics :  In line with this, everything is equal. Everyone is free to form his own opinion, based on his own analysis of the situation. This theory holds that what works for one may not be right for another. The same thing may apply in one situation, but not the other.

4. Consequential Ethics :  In the Era of Enlightenment, rationalism was a goal. These ethical values are associated with that quest. According to this ethical theory, the outcome of an individual’s behavior determines whether his actions are wrong or right.

Ethics Vary in Each Culture

According to some, ethics are values that must be taught since childhood, and that one must strictly adhere to them. If one disobeys these, they are viewed as deviant. Quite a few people are very rigid when it comes to the ethical codes. Their behavior is constantly judged by others.

However, there are also people who are flexible about these issues and feel that they can be adapted to some degree depending on the situation. As such, the basic ethical and moral codes expected from individuals are almost the same from nation to nation. Nevertheless, there may be some ethical behaviors that are right in some cultures but not accepted in others. It is ethically wrong for women in many eastern countries to wear short dresses, whereas women in western countries can wear any outfit they choose.

Conclusion:  Ethics can be described in many different ways according to different schools of thought. Some people follow the norms of right and wrong, while others make up their own standards.

Essay on Ethics, Values | Ethics in Personal & Professional Life

The concept of ethics refers to the behavior one should display in any given circumstance. From an early age, ethical values are deeply ingrained in us and almost every decision we make throughout our lives is guided by them. Ethics determine whether a person is good or bad.

In both our personal and professional lives, ethics are extremely important. Someone who holds high ethical standards, believes in them, and follows them will be far more sorted than someone who follows the ethical norms without truly believing in them. And then there are still others – those who don’t believe in ethical norms and disregard them. There may be disruptions in peace in society as a result of these factors.

Importance of Ethics in Our Personal Life

The morals and ethical values of the society in which people are raised influence their minds. It is impossible to undermine the importance of ethics. It is critical to teach children from the beginning which behaviors are acceptable in society and which are not so that they can interact with the society effectively. Basically, this system was put into place to teach people how to behave properly and to maintain a peaceful and harmonious society.

People find it easier to make decisions once they have defined right and wrong. Consider a world where there were no definition for right and wrong. Everyone would act according to their own definition of right and wrong. Chaos and crime would result from this.

Ethics at Work Place/Professional Life

Ethics play a vital role in the workplace. The ethics and values set by society are not the only ethical values determined by organizations. For the organization’s code of conduct to remain effective, everyone working there must follow them. For example, ethical codes of conduct set by organizations state that employees must be treated fairly, honesty must be maintained, company secrets must never be leake, respect for coworkers must always be observed, and problems with management or employees must be addressed politely without creating unnecessary commotion.

This helps to ensure an organization’s smooth functioning. Employees who violate the ethical code run the risk of receiving warning letters or being penalized differently depending on the severity of the issue.

Whenever an organization lacks the set ethical codes, chaos and inefficiencies are likely to ensue. This is why it is essential that each organization establishes these standards. In an organization, ethical codes are not only important for ensuring a good working environment, but they also instruct employees on how to handle customers in different situations. Ethics are fundamentally a reflection of an organization’s core values and responsibilities.

Conclusion:  Ethics must be set for the society, for the workplace, and for all other institutions. People are able to recognize what is right and what is wrong, and it encourages them to behave in the right manner.

Essay on Importance of Ethics For a Student

Ethos is the Ancient Greek word for habits, customs, or character, and hence was used as the basis for the term ethics. The real meaning of ethics is found in this. It is clear from one’s habits and character that he or she is guided by ethical values. The character of a person is defined by their ethical values. As a society, we set ethical norms that determine what is good and what is bad.

Ethics provides a set of definitions for terms such as right and wrong, good and evil, virtue and vice. We constantly think about the ethical and moral values we were taught from an early age whenever we are in doubt, and this always gives us clarity.

These rules of ethics are supposed to promote the well-being of society and the overall happiness of the people living there, but sometimes they can cause some people to be unhappy. This is due to people going overboard with them. Early in Indian history, women were seen as housewives. The women were not allowed to work outside their home or to question the decisions of the male family members.

Many people still adhere to the ethics and norms defined centuries ago, although nowadays women are given the freedom to go out and work and take various decisions for themselves. Women are still held to the belief that their place is in the kitchen and that going out to work is unethical for them.

>> Related Post:  ” Essay on Helen Keller ”

Thus, ethics and moral values must go into the hearts and minds of people in order for society to function smoothly as well as to be redefined periodically for a community’s good.

Similar Posts

Essay on Feudalism [ Causes & Way Forward ]

This essay talks about Meaning and concept of Feudalism, Why feudalism is hurdle in the progress of India, Way forward. This essay is written in simple English and easy to understand words for children and students. Essay on Feudalism | Meaning, Concept, Causes & Solution Feudalism is a system in which people are divided into…

Essay on Advanced Technology [ Role & Importance in Life ]

The times we live in today is marked with advancement in technology. We are witnessing the rise in technology in every sphere of life. The technology has highly grown from our family, society, at our workplace and in fact everywhere we interact with. We can see how technology has vastly improved the quality of our…

Essay on Ganesh Chaturthi Festival- Brief History & Importance

Ganesh Chaturthi is an occasion of love, peace, happiness and serenity. This day is quite important in Indian Festivals. The following Short Essay on Ganesh Chaturthi discusses,  meaning purpose of Ganesh Chaturthi along with its brief history. This Essay is very helpful for children and students in school exams to score higher. Essay on Ganesh…

Essay on Group Work | Objectives & Importance of Group Work

As modern time has given the power to technology, every work today is either done by machine or through computer. But there are few important tasks which still require human efforts. The most significant among these is getting together and working as a group for common good. Essay on Group Work | Characteristics, Objectives, Importance…

Essay on My Pet Rabbit | Short & Long Essay for Students

The rabbit is soft, lovable and clean. Rabbit does not shed hair like dog or cat. They are easy to maintain. It requires low maintenance too. One can own a rabbit for fun but some people do it for the business purpose of selling fur or breeding them as they are also an exotic pet…

Essay on Space [ Space Exploration Essay ]

This essay talks about Space, concept of space exploration, space travel and tourism and benefits and wonders of space exploration. Essay on Space | Space Exploration, Meaning, Concept & Benefits Space is defined as a continuous expanse or area that is free, available, or unoccupied. It can also refer to the physical universe beyond the…

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Home Essay Examples Philosophy Ethics

The Essence And Meaning Of Ethics

• Category Philosophy
• Subcategory Ethics and Moral Philosophy
• Topic Ethics

What is ethics? Ethics is a complex word to be define. Nonetheless, this is the meaning that I understood the best. “Ethics are a system of moral principles and a branch of philosophy which defines what is good for individuals and society” ( (Ethics Guide, n.d.)). Personally, I think ethics is a set of guidelines that an individual use to decide what is good and what is bad and at the same time is accepted by society without criticism. It is a field in philosophy with many branches and all this branch disagree with each other causing confusion. Due to so many branches it is hard to understand what really ethics is. Philosophers nowadays tend to divide ethical theories into three areas: metaethics, normative ethics and applied ethics to make it easier to define. If ethical theories are to be useful in practice, they need to affect the way human beings behave. They argue that if a person realises that it would be morally good to do something then it would be irrational for that person not to do it ( (Ethics Guide, n.d.)). During my research I came upon different places where ethics is implemented like conduct in workplaces or principles in religions and home values just to specify a couple. Therefore , in this paper I will critically discuss why ethical and moral create conflicts in an individual or society, in what capacity should we live as indicated by an individual ethic using Aristotle point of view, what is right and wrong from a moral perspective through Kant ethical believe.

To begin with, ethics and morality can be confused as being the same thing although, each one has its own origin and meaning. “They are sometimes used interchangeably, but they are different: ethics refers to rules provided by external sources such as workplace behavioural norms and religious principles. Morality is the principle of right and wrong of an individual” (citation). Ethics comes from the Greek word “ethos” which means character and it is what society consider to be the right thing to do. For example, lawyers, policemen, and doctors all have to follow an ethical code laid down by their profession, regardless of their own feelings or preferences. Ethics vary from individual to individual resulting in confrontations with their morality. Morality comes from the Latin word “mos” meaning customs. It is a person personal principle of what is right and wrong, and it can change if a person belief changes. The way somebody was raised or the encounters they have confronted could be what has formed their ethical and moral beliefs. The contrasts among good and bad are not generally the same in every individual’s head and this is where individual face debates. They have an internal conflict on what should they follow, their ethics or morals belief. One example of ethics conflicting with morals is the work of a defence attorney. A lawyer’s morality may tell him/she that his/her client is guilty and should be punished for his or her crime, but her ethics as a professional lawyer, require her to defend her client to the best of her abilities, even if she knows that the client is guilty (Ethics vs Morales, n.d.) . The conflict is so that they lawyer might find it hard to decide on what to choose without ignoring the other one. His debate will be what to choose, to make himself happy by choosing to follow his moral or make society happy by follow the ethics set by his profession.

Our writers can write you a new plagiarism-free essay on any topic

Secondly, how should we live? This is a question that many individuals asked themselves and the answer varies from person to person. Ethics, as viewed by Aristotle, “is an attempt to find out our chief end or highest good: an end which he maintains is really final” (citation). Humans choose how to live, what is their aims and goals in life and what makes them happy. They use their ethical believe to choose between right and wrong and what is morally correct to achieve their objectives. For example, abortion is a widely debatable topic of is it right or wrong to kill a baby or foetus. There are two activist group that have a long debate on this topic. One is Prochoice who argues that its right for a woman to choose to terminate her pregnancy especially, if it affects her health and no body should have a say in it because it her body, her choice and her life and it is based on her freedom of choice that will make her happy. The other group, prolife argues that it is wrong to abort because a foetus has life, and nobody has a right to terminate or kill it. They argued that the baby or foetus has rights because it a human being. Hence who is right in this issue? Both groups fight for what they believe to be right according to their ethical views. I personally believe that both are right and wrong. Right because everyone has a right to live and make their own choice because a person chooses how to live, and what makes them happy. The world is not black and white there are shades of grey in between which is the result of both colour mixing. The same goes with this issue, a person doesn’t know what are the circumstances that a woman is going through for her to choose to abort. Then, who are we to tell her what to do and how to live. It’s her life and her choice to choose it she wants to terminate the pregnancy or not. I personally am against abortion, but my belief doesn’t close my eyes to see why some women choose to abort. This is where conflict arise between ethics and moral because ethically, I am against it, but morally I can’t demand that a woman have a baby if it will cost her life. It’s like me telling her to die, which is morally wrong. Hence the reason why, Aristotle believe that “ethical knowledge is not only a theoretical knowledge, but rather that a person must have ‘experience of the actions in life’ and have been ‘brought up in fine habits’ to become good” (citation paraphrasing)

Another philosopher who has a similar opinion on ethics as Aristotle is Kant. He believed that “certain types of actions (including murder, theft, and lying) were absolutely prohibited, even in cases where the action would bring about more happiness than the alternative” ( (Kantian Ethics, n.d.)). Take for example the case of euthanise which some people called “merciful killing”. This is mostly done on animal to “alleviate their suffering” which some humans believe to be the right thing to do, since there is no remedy for them. However, think about human who are medical sentenced to die a painful death. Should they be euthanise to alleviate their suffering. The idea of euthanasia is something that elderly people today face almost every day. I believe that it should be up to the human being suffering, whether or not they want to suffer any longer. To add to my belief, I think that it is wrong for a human to endure pain and agony just because their love ones can’t let them go. We do not let an animal suffer to any extent, as soon as things seem hopeless, we put them to sleep. Hence, why should we let our love ones suffer. I am not saying that we should kill anyone at the first sign of illness because that will be wrong, but to take into consideration their wishes since as individual they believe that dying will make them happy. Most human are against this idea because they believe that it is morally wrong to kill a human being even if they want it. Then, the question is “should I let them suffer knowing that they want to die”. To this many people will be answered based on the ethical or moral belief, so who will be right and who will be wrong?

To conclude, ethics is a branch of philosophy that has its own subbranches and one of them is morals. The two terms can be used interchangeably since the have similarities, and many people confused them. This has been happening since their beginning. Ethics are standards set by society while moral are standard set by an individual. Ethics and moral vary from person to person depending on their character, customs and believes. There is conflict between each other an even philosopher like Aristotle and Kant tried to explain their view and beliefs on each one. We see examples every day on how the conflict that is created when they clash and how hard is to choose only one. Due to this, it hard to define what or who is right and wrong creating internal and external debates on topics such as abortion, euthanise and lawyer honesty just to mention a few. Hence the reason, that as human we should critically think before we make a decision or say something without knowing the full details and taking in consideration our ethics and morals. Like Aristotle said “Be a free thinker and don’t accept everything you hear as truth. Be critical and evaluate what u believe in.”

We have 98 writers available online to start working on your essay just NOW!

Related Topics

Related essays.

By clicking "Send essay" you agree to our Terms of service and Privacy statement . We will occasionally send you account related emails.

By clicking "Receive essay" you agree to our Terms of service and Privacy statement . We will occasionally send you account related emails.

We can edit this one and make it plagiarism-free in no time

We use cookies to give you the best experience possible. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

Ethics and Morality Relationship Essay

Introduction, relationship between ethics and morality, ethical choices available to hr managers.

Bibliography

Over the years, ethics and morality have often been used synonymously. Although the two terms are closely related both in conceptual and ideal meaning, they have both differences and similarities. This paper, therefore, discusses the relationship between ethics and morality, giving examples of each, and also explores the ethical choices available for human resources managers.

Ethics is a term used to refer to the body of doctrines that guide individuals to behave in a way that is ideologically right, fine, and appropriate. Guidelines or principles that constitute do not at all times lead an individual towards just a solitary moral but act as a way to direct the individual to follow a set of codes of conducts whose objective is to foster overall desirable behaviors in an individual or a group of people (George, 2006).

According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ethics are regulations that are clearly stipulated and that guide individuals in determining what to do and what not to. In many organizations, ethics are guided by sets of written laws and regulations that guide the way individuals within them should behave (Conroy & Emerson, 2004).

For example, there could be written principles that guide the way customer service should be undertaken in the organization, rules guarding salespeople against selling inappropriate products to the customers, rules guarding against corruption or undue extortion of money from the customers, principles that direct employees to behave in the highest level of professionalism, integrity, honesty, and humility while serving customers and which are well written down in the organization’s code of conduct.

According to Peterson et al (2005), ethics are a set of rules that direct individuals to decide to act in a correct way. The latter asserts that ethics are embedded in and guided by laws that redirect individuals from doing what their conscience directs them to do and do what is morally correct i.e. they help an individual to avoid doing what he or she wants to but rather do what is correct in moral standards. For instance, someone’s conscience tells him to climb up a neighbor’s apple tree to eat his apples without the latter’s consent, but he shrugs off his personal selfish feelings and abstains from doing such a thing and which he has the power to do due to the respect for the neighbor and his property. The person will make a decision not to eat the neighbor’s apples hence he will have acted in an ethical way.

Ethics leads to honesty, a show of respect for others, and behavior that is consistent with one’s obligation as a member of the organization or a citizen to a country (Conroy & Emerson, 2004). According to the latter, ethics are not innate in an individual but are mainly exotically controlled by laws and regulations are set and enforced by human beings or authority. For example, ethics in marketing are controlled by laws that restrict marketers from engaging in business malpractices such as unhealthy competition, poor product prices, overpricing, and hoarding among other business vices.

George (2006) defines morality from two main perspectives. From an individuals’ perspective, morality is a set of individual’s standards, principles, or customs that greatly shapes an individual’s character trait and way of behavior or the level of which an individual is able to willingly uphold the generally accepted standards of behaviors within a society that he lives in at a specific instance in time. On the other hand, George asserts that societal morals are the universally acceptable code of conduct in a certain society at a specific point of time, and which autonomously guides the behavior of its members.

For instance, stealing is generally not acceptable in society at any one time. As such, it is immoral to steal. In the same way, if the society holds that it is moral to belong to a religion in the 21 st century, it would be immoral according to such a society for a member to be without religion. Similarly, in a society that prostitution is rebuked, it would be immoral for an individual within it to engage in prostitution. Societal standards/ principles change rapidly over time. Similarly, moral standards within a society will vary with time. For example, it was moral to hold slaves in the past. However, this is no longer acceptable in modern society hence it would be immoral for an individual to hold a slave today.

Ethics are guidelines for proper behavior or conduct and they are absolutely not pegged to the specified period in time. As a result, they usually have limited variations overtimes. On the other hand, morality is the acceptable standard within a society at a given point in time (Peterson et al, 2005).

As a result, they change over time. Ethics are more basic and permanent than morality; hence morality is a subset of ethics. Similarly, ethics lead to morality whereas vice versa is not applicable. Moreover, a change in ethics is likely to generate a change in morality. In circumstances where a society or institution amends its code of ethics, the moral standards will obviously be altered (Peterson et al, 2005).

For example, the ethical code of conduct led to the alteration of the slavery law in the eighteenth century which led to slavery being regarded as immoral since then. Unlike the ethical code of conduct which is entrenched in the written artificial laws, morality is more or less entrenched in and controlled by the individual’s personality. As a result, a change in a person’s character trait for the better will make him or her more moral and vice versa. However, the similarity between ethics and morality is that they are all geared towards enhancing the desirable relationship between individuals in the organization, institutions, or society in which they live (Peterson et al, 2005).

There are several ethical choices that are available to human resource managers. These include:

Equity in opportunities and neutrality

Employment takes place in a multifaceted environment. As a result it is ethical for the human resource managers involved in the employment or appointment of personnel in the organization to give equal opportunity for various individual interested in the job to compete on a level ground and pick the most suitable for the job without any discrimination whatsoever(University of Western Australia, 2007). For instance, the recruitment process should be devoid of nepotism, corruption, undue charges to the candidates, bias and prejudices. Employment should be carried out via an open, fair and due process. In addition, HR managers should desist from taking positions that appears to favor one side during dissolution of employees disputes (Lowry , 2006).

Fairness in the treatment of employees and quietism

HR manager will be ethical if they establish an organizational environment in which all employees are treated in a just manner. For instance, the managers should ensure equitable reward system for all employees, just promotions and a system that is without favoritism based on any aspects. In addition, employees need to be treated like people with rights to be honored and defended by the HR manager (Lowry , 2006).

Sexual harassment of employees

The human resources managers will be ethical if they desist from gender stereotypes and sexual harassment of employees. Cases of sexually mistreating of employees by human resources managers are not only unethical but absolutely unacceptable and illegal (University of Western Australia, 2007). For instance, some manager demand for sexual relations with female employees as a leeway to giving them a favor, promotion, salary increment or even initial employment which is against the HR ethical code of conduct (Lowry , 2006).

Privacy and Confidentiality

Human resources code of ethics requires that employee privacy and personal life be respected at all times. For instance, it will be in breach of the ethical code of HR to force the employee to reveal his sexual life information (University of Western Australia, 2007). In addition it is the duty of the manager to safeguard the information given to him by the employees, by treating it with the highest level of confidentiality (Lowry , 2006). For example, if the HR has the information of the employee’s health profile, such information must not be released to the outside without the consent of the employee.

Poaching of employees

In industry HR managers may tend to poach competitors employees so as to lessen their competitive power. In doing this they entice the competitors employees in order to gain undue advantage over rivals which is unethical (University of Western Australia, 2007). In addition ethical human resource managers should be ethically assertive. Remain neutral in resolving employee’s disputes, ethical in dealing with errant employees and should be ethically reactive.

Ethics and morality are two terms that are closely related and which individuals often tend to refer to synonymously. However, the two are different in that while ethics are sets of principles that guide desirable behavior or conducts, morality is the generally acceptable behavior within a society at a given period of time. In addition, morality unlike ethics keeps on changing from time to time as societal values change (Peterson et al, 2005).

Conclusively, it can be held that morality is a subset of ethics since ethics shapes morality while ethics is bigger than morality. Finally, the ethical choices available for HR managers includes, offering equal opportunities in employment, treating all employees fairly, respecting the employees, avoiding ill-led poaching of competitors employees to gain undue advantage over them, respecting employees privacy and confidentiality of information and not sexually mistreating employees. Breaching any of these will be unethical on the part of the HR manger.

Conroy, S.J. and Emerson, (2004) “Business Ethics and Religion: Religiosity as a Predictor of Ethical Awareness among Student Inc Journal of Business Ethics 50 (4):247-258.

George Desnoyers (2006), the relationship between ethics and morality: Inc the Journal of behavioral psychology. Vol. 11 167-186.

Lowry , 2006, Ethical Choices for HR Managers Inc Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources; 44; p.171.

Peterson, et al (2005) Ethics vs. Morality – The Distinction between Ethics and Morals. Web.

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy- The Definition of Morality. Web.

University of Western Australia (2007), code of ethics and code of conduct for human resources. Web.

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, March 12). Ethics and Morality Relationship. https://ivypanda.com/essays/ethics-and-morality-relationship/

"Ethics and Morality Relationship." IvyPanda , 12 Mar. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/ethics-and-morality-relationship/.

IvyPanda . (2024) 'Ethics and Morality Relationship'. 12 March.

IvyPanda . 2024. "Ethics and Morality Relationship." March 12, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/ethics-and-morality-relationship/.

1. IvyPanda . "Ethics and Morality Relationship." March 12, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/ethics-and-morality-relationship/.

IvyPanda . "Ethics and Morality Relationship." March 12, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/ethics-and-morality-relationship/.

• Undue Influence's Case: Atlas Express v. Kafko Ltd
• HR Managers Challenges: Recruiting Expatriates
• Strategic Human Resource Management Concept and HR Manager Role
• Permanent HR Manager or Temporary Manager
• Contractual Capacity and Legality: Case Analysis
• HR Manager: Strategic Partner in Today’s Organisations
• HR Managers and Cultural Differences
• Job Evaluation of the HR Manager: Performance, Safety, and Professional Development
• Failure to Achieve “Meeting of the Minds”
• Rights, Equity and the State: Dispute Resolution Case
• Ethical Problem of Abortion
• Organ Donation: Ethical Dilemmas
• Ethical Practices in the Workplace
• Moral Clients & Agents and Their Evaluation
• Abortion in Islamic View

• Business Essentials
• Leadership & Management
• Credential of Leadership, Impact, and Management in Business (CLIMB)
• Entrepreneurship & Innovation
• Digital Transformation
• Finance & Accounting
• Business in Society
• For Organizations
• Support Portal
• Media Coverage
• Founding Donors
• Leadership Team

• Harvard Business School →
• HBS Online →
• Business Insights →

Business Insights

Harvard Business School Online's Business Insights Blog provides the career insights you need to achieve your goals and gain confidence in your business skills.

• Career Development
• Communication
• Decision-Making
• Earning Your MBA
• Negotiation
• News & Events
• Productivity
• Staff Spotlight
• Student Profiles
• Work-Life Balance
• AI Essentials for Business
• Alternative Investments
• Business Analytics
• Business Strategy
• Business and Climate Change
• Design Thinking and Innovation
• Digital Marketing Strategy
• Disruptive Strategy
• Economics for Managers
• Entrepreneurship Essentials
• Financial Accounting
• Global Business
• Launching Tech Ventures
• Leadership Principles
• Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability
• Leading with Finance
• Management Essentials
• Negotiation Mastery
• Organizational Leadership
• Power and Influence for Positive Impact
• Strategy Execution
• Sustainable Business Strategy
• Sustainable Investing
• Winning with Digital Platforms

What Are Business Ethics & Why Are They Important?

• 27 Jul 2023

From artificial intelligence to facial recognition technology, organizations face an increasing number of ethical dilemmas. While innovation can aid business growth, it can also create opportunities for potential abuse.

“The long-term impacts of a new technology—both positive and negative—may not become apparent until years after it’s introduced,” says Harvard Business School Professor Nien-hê Hsieh in the online course Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability . “For example, the impact of social media on children and teenagers didn’t become evident until we watched it play out over time.”

If you’re a current or prospective leader concerned about navigating difficult situations, here's an overview of business ethics, why they're important, and how to ensure ethical behavior in your organization.

Access your free e-book today.

What Are Business Ethics?

Business ethics are principles that guide decision-making . As a leader, you’ll face many challenges in the workplace because of different interpretations of what's ethical. Situations often require navigating the “gray area,” where it’s unclear what’s right and wrong.

When making decisions, your experiences, opinions, and perspectives can influence what you believe to be ethical, making it vital to:

• Be transparent.
• Invite feedback.
• Consider impacts on employees, stakeholders, and society.
• Reflect on past experiences to learn what you could have done better.

“The way to think about ethics, in my view, is: What are the externalities that your business creates, both positive and negative?” says Harvard Business School Professor Vikram Gandhi in Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability . “And, therefore, how do you actually increase the positive element of externalities? And how do you decrease the negative?”

Related: Why Managers Should Involve Their Team in the Decision-Making Process

Ethical Responsibilities to Society

Promoting ethical conduct can benefit both your company and society long term.

“I'm a strong believer that a long-term focus is what creates long-term value,” Gandhi says in Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability . “So you should get shareholders in your company that have that same perspective.”

Prioritizing the triple bottom line is an effective way for your business to fulfill its environmental responsibilities and create long-term value. It focuses on three factors:

• Profit: The financial return your company generates for shareholders
• People: How your company affects customers, employees, and stakeholders
• Planet: Your company’s impact on the planet and environment

Check out the video below to learn more about the triple bottom line, and subscribe to our YouTube channel for more explainer content!

Ethical and corporate social responsibility (CSR) considerations can go a long way toward creating value, especially since an increasing number of customers, employees, and investors expect organizations to prioritize CSR. According to the Conscious Consumer Spending Index , 67 percent of customers prefer buying from socially responsible companies.

To prevent costly employee turnover and satisfy customers, strive to fulfill your ethical responsibilities to society.

Ethical Responsibilities to Customers

As a leader, you must ensure you don’t mislead your customers. Doing so can backfire, negatively impacting your organization’s credibility and profits.

Actions to avoid include:

• Greenwashing : Taking advantage of customers’ CSR preferences by claiming your business practices are sustainable when they aren't.
• False advertising : Making unverified or untrue claims in advertisements or promotional material.
• Making false promises : Lying to make a sale.

These unethical practices can result in multi-million dollar lawsuits, as well as highly dissatisfied customers.

Ethical Responsibilities to Employees

You also have ethical responsibilities to your employees—from the beginning to the end of their employment.

One area of business ethics that receives a lot of attention is employee termination. According to Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability , letting an employee go requires an individualized approach that ensures fairness.

Not only can wrongful termination cost your company upwards of $100,000 in legal expenses , it can also negatively impact other employees’ morale and how they perceive your leadership.

Ethical business practices have additional benefits, such as attracting and retaining talented employees willing to take a pay cut to work for a socially responsible company. Approximately 40 percent of millennials say they would switch jobs to work for a company that emphasizes sustainability.

Ultimately, it's critical to do your best to treat employees fairly.

“Fairness is not only an ethical response to power asymmetries in the work environment,” Hsieh says in the course. “Fairness—and having a successful organizational culture–can benefit the organization economically and legally.”

Why Are Business Ethics Important?

Failure to understand and apply business ethics can result in moral disengagement .

“Moral disengagement refers to ways in which we convince ourselves that what we’re doing is not wrong,” Hsieh says in Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability . “It can upset the balance of judgment—causing us to prioritize our personal commitments over shared beliefs, rules, and principles—or it can skew our logic to make unethical behaviors appear less harmful or not wrong.”

Moral disengagement can also lead to questionable decisions, such as insider trading .

“In the U.S., insider trading is defined in common, federal, and state laws regulating the opportunity for insiders to benefit from material, non-public information, or MNPI,” Hsieh explains.

This type of unethical behavior can carry severe legal consequences and negatively impact your company's bottom line.

“If you create a certain amount of harm to a society, your customers, or employees over a period of time, that’s going to have a negative impact on your economic value,” Gandhi says in the course.

This is reflected in over half of the top 10 largest bankruptcies between 1980 and 2013 that resulted from unethical behavior. As a business leader, strive to make ethical decisions and fulfill your responsibilities to stakeholders.

How to Implement Business Ethics

To become a more ethical leader, it's crucial to have a balanced, long-term focus.

“It's very important to balance the fact that, even if you're focused on the long term, you have to perform in the short term as well and have a very clear, articulated strategy around that,” Gandhi says in Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability .

Making ethical decisions requires reflective leadership.

“Reflecting on complex, gray-area decisions is a key part of what it means to be human, as well as an effective leader,” Hsieh says. “You have agency. You must choose how to act. And with that agency comes responsibility.”

Related: Why Are Ethics Important in Engineering?

Hsieh advises asking the following questions:

• Are you using the “greater good” to justify unethical behavior?
• Are you downplaying your actions to feel better?

“Asking these and similar questions at regular intervals can help you notice when you or others may be approaching the line between making a tough but ethical call and justifying problematic actions,” Hsieh says.

Become a More Ethical Leader

Learning from past successes and mistakes can enable you to improve your ethical decision-making.

“As a leader, when trying to determine what to do, it can be helpful to start by simply asking in any given situation, ‘What can we do?’ and ‘What would be wrong to do?’” Hsieh says.

Many times, the answers come from experience.

Gain insights from others’ ethical decisions, too. One way to do so is by taking an online course, such as Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability , which includes case studies that immerse you in real-world business situations, as well as a reflective leadership model to inform your decision-making.

Ready to become a better leader? Enroll in Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability —one of our online leadership and management courses —and download our free e-book on how to be a more effective leader.

About the Author

Your Article Library

Essay on ethics: meaning, need and importance | business.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

After reading this essay you will learn about:- 1. Meaning of Ethics 2. Definitions of Ethics 3. Need 4. Importance 5. Nature 6. Scope.

Essay on the Meaning of Ethics :

As per Oxford Dictionary the meaning of ethic is a “system of moral principles, rules and conduct.” Ethics is a “science of morals.” The words ethics has emerged from Latin ‘Ethicus’ or in Greek ‘Ethicos’.

The origin of these two words is from ‘ethos’ meaning character. Character unlike behaviour is an intrinsic or basic factor which derives from inner most. Ethics in simple words is a treatise or science of morals, moral principles and social conduct rules.

‘Right’, ‘Fair’ and ‘Proper’ are three terms normally used to express the social behaviour of the people. When we tell these words, there are right and wrong behaviour towards others; fair and unfair actions taken against someone or for someone; or some fair or unfair decisions.

The beliefs what is right, what is fair and what is proper are our beliefs and our moral standards. The beliefs differ from individual to individual, place to place and time to time. What is right in one place or situation may be wrong in other situation. The moral standards also differ based on moral value an individual attaches.

Any action can be termed good or right or bad or wrong are relative and moral judgments. The problem has one more side that who is making the judgment. From different sides the problem is seen in different light and accordingly the judgment. The distinctions are made as ‘us’ and ‘others’ or ‘benefits’ and ‘obligations’.

Vedanta or Indian ethos suggests that ‘Atman’ is the intrinsic man. The ethical problem is as old as mankind. Righteousness (Dharma) and the social concerns have changed from time to time or evolved.

Ethical values change from situation to situation and as pr place, time. Sage Ved Vyasa in Mahabharata cries with his arms up for a righteous life and society “I cry with my arms uplifted, yet none hears. From righteousness (Dharma) flow forth pleasure and profit. Why then do we not follow Dharma?”

Definition of Moral :

The word has been derived from Latin ‘Moralis’ which means character. This word is used many times in place of ethics by mistake. These two words are different.

Behaviour is Set of Actions :

Behaviour is external that is the response one makes with in interaction with others. The behaviour reflects the character of the individuals. Purity in behaviour is reflections of good character of the individual. The character is within and hence core being of an individual whereas behaviour is external.

Behaviour is short term whereas character is long term. Personal have different shades of characters weak to strong levels. Similarly the behaviour exhibited by individuals differs from weak to strong. Fig. 8.1 shows a Behaviour character matrix how people are placed.

Mahatma Gandhi, the Father of India nation had been a person with a high standard of character and high behavioural instinct/responses.

Gandhi, in national context or JRD Tata in the organisational context are people with certain set of qualities as follows:

(1) Honesty in all actions

(2) Transparency and settings standards

(3) Sincerity

(4) Generosity

(5) Truthfulness in all situation

(6) Integrity

(7) Cooperation

Any behaviour cannot be rationally notified. No behaviour is inherently right or wrong. Each person may obtain his own choice based on his choice of ethical principles. Nazi rules were justified by Hitler.

i. Morals are principles of right and wrong. It comes by teaching and experience. Moral habits are standards of behaviour.

Example: “Do not tell lie”

ii. Beliefs are the feelings of trust confidence of what is real and what is true.

Example: Buddha and Gandhiji believed in ‘Ahimsa’ or no harm or killing

iii. Values which are ends and goals of individuals. Values are essentially subjective

Example: Happiness or health

Essay on the Definitions of Ethics:

(i) As per Philosopher Epicurus “Deals with things to be sought and things to be avoided with ways of life and with telos.” (Telos is the chief aim or end in life).

(ii) A science of morals.

(iii) A treatise or science of morals, moral principles and social conduct rules.

(iv) Relate to morals, treating of moral questions, morally correct: honourable.

(v) Ethics describe what is ‘right’ what is ‘fair’ and what is ‘proper’.

(vi) Ethics differentiates what is right and what is wrong in human conduct – standards of behaviour.

(vii) Standards generally accepted by the society.

(viii) Rules that govern behaviors. The rules tell use what is right and what is wrong.

(ix) It is a field of social science of systematic knowledge of human moral behaviour and conduct.

(x) Ethics makes moral judgment of human conduct.

(xi) Ethics is diagnostic tool that establishes moral standards and norms of behaviour. Prescribes and makes judgments on moral behaviour. It expresses opinions and attitudes about human conduct.

(xii) A branch of philosophy that deals with values as they relate to human conduct.

(xiii) The study of what is good and right to the people. The basic questions ethics asks are how a man should act, especially when the actions have direct or indirect effect on others.

Need for Ethics: 

In early 50’s the public view in India was that the profits and ethics do not go together. They are mutually opposite and company that makes profit was not considered an ethical company. The normal understanding of the people was “profit is a dirty word”. Since then the management education, widening of markets and consumerism worldwide have given profits its important place in business.

Today it is considered profit is a must for any business for its existences and growth. In fact not making profit is considered unethical today. Business ethics in simple terms is application of ethics in businesses. Business has to go with its economics as well as social obligations.

Any managerial decision has to distinguish between good and bad, right and wrong, just and proper. It is also seen that the ethical companies which took care of their social responsibilities have survived competition and growing. Ethical issues occur in decision making in industry, education.

A case-let giving the ethical issues of medical bond are detailed in Box 8.1 below:

Essay on the Importance of Ethics :

The business organisations which act legally and ethically not only save lot of money but also gain public support and reputation in whatever new ventures the organisation takes. The importance of ethics in business is many folds.

(1) Part of Society:

Business is part of society. Whatever ethical principle apply in society apply to business. Example tax evasion is considered unethical in society. If a company deliberately evades tax payments the company is treated unethical.

(2) Expectations of Public:

All stakeholders have an eye on the culture and behaviour of a business organisation due to dominance of economics in the society. The public expects a high level of ethical behaviour from the business organisations.

‘Doing the right thing’, ‘Do no harm’ and ‘Good to all’ are the expectations of general public from business. Example: a company manufacturing a tobacco based products say ‘pan masalas’ and making advertisements appealing to college students in not respected. Whereas a company that recalls unsafe product is respected.

(3) Trust of Employees:

High level of morale and productivity can be easily obtained in companies that treat their all employees with equality, encourage good team and work culture, and with ethical practices. The employees in the company as well as those connected feel good and develop a mutual trust. Employees get attraction to ethically and socially responsible companies.

An ethical organisation command trust and respect of all its stakeholders. The organisation builds image for itself. Ethical good image is important because all stakeholders stand to gain.

Deterioration of relationships, damage to reputation and reduction of employee productivity, loyalty that come out of unethical practices cost companies. An uncaring employer will find it difficult to employ good professions for his business.

(6) Pride of Best Companies:

The ethically managed companies command respect from public as well as government organisations. ‘Fortune’ magazine publishes yearly best companies. Similarly Indian will managed companies are published by ‘Business India’. These companies have a brand value and accepted as leaders in the industry. The company policies with regards to profit sharing bonuses, social responsibility, balance of work and social life are quoted.

(7) Overall Benefit:

Ethical behaviour of an industry or business gives a win-win situation to all the stakeholders and general public. The governments also encourage such companies. The integrity and ethical practices become all-pervading in the organisation and increase organisational effectiveness.

Essay on Nature of Ethics :

Ethics deals with human beings only. It is only human beings who have the freedom of choices. Ethics is a normative science. Normative science is judging the situations, analyse the facts, weigh the consequences in terms of an idea and take judgment. The judgments are taken many times based on what the end results should be. Ethics deals with human conduct.

The human conducts are sometimes voluntarily, sometimes forced depending on the situations and the end expectation of results. In other words ethics deals with moral judgment regarding voluntary human conduct. Fig. 8.2 below gives the various aspects of decision making in ethics.

Any decision in situational ethics takes it into account, the goals, the motives, the methods and the consequences and their sub-factors as detailed in the figure:

Business ethics is application of ethics in business. Business itself is considered ethics as profit can be made by ethical means. Discussions are held regarding the profit maximisation and social responsibilities as opposite ends. By a proper management decisions these two ends can be made to give better results by following ethical business practices.

Essay on Scope of Ethics :

The question is debated since the industrialisation period. The management thinkers like Adam Smith and others were of opinion that business has nothing to do with ethics. The church or temple only can think and evaluate ethical portion. The churches or temples had say in all spheres of human activity including business.

Whether business is part or separate from society has different viewpoints:

(1) The Unitarian View:

The business is considered a sub set of a society. Hence business has in it the morals of the society. In medieval era the churches prescribed that business must do well to the society.

The Unitarian view may be seen in Fig. 8.3 below:

(2) The Separatist View:

Celebrated economists Adam Smith and Friedman were of view that business should concentrate in business activity of production, profits and costs. The social issues are left to others like governments and society.

The Separatist view of ethics and business is shown in Fig 8.4 below:

Thinking much of ethics in business may perhaps take up to olden church and temple days. The efficiency of industry of business will go down. Business should only obey laws of the land and achieve its economic goals. Business goals should not dominate the social values.

(3) The Integrated View :

The view was proposed by Parsons. Parson considered integration of ethics and business. The business exists as an economic entity. It has to make profits for its own survival and growth. Otherwise it will die.

The business or industry exists in society. It has to be responsible and meet its obligations to the society. Business that is making profits should be with ethical means.

The Integrated view of proposal of Parsons is represented in Fig. 8.5 below:

Society has a number of subsystems some are interlinked, interdependent and overlapping. Business and ethics overlap as may be seen in Fig. 8.5 above. Business serves society by producing quality goods and services for the society which needs them. It helps society. Business hence becomes ethics in society even when it makes profit.

Related Articles:

• Business Ethics: Notes on Business Ethics
• Business Ethics: 7 Characteristics of Business Ethics

Essay , Business Management , Ethics , Meaning of Ethics

Comments are closed.

The Definition of Professional Ethics

This essay about the significance of professional ethics in guiding practitioners towards integrity, trust, and accountability in their respective fields. It highlights how ethics serves as a moral compass, weaving together principles of honesty, transparency, fairness, and integrity. Central to the discussion is the concept of integrity, which acts as a guiding light through ethical dilemmas, ensuring practitioners prioritize ethical values over personal gain. The essay emphasizes the importance of continuous reflection and adaptation in navigating evolving ethical landscapes, urging professionals to embrace a culture of ethical awareness and lifelong learning. Ultimately, it underscores the role of professional ethics in shaping ethical conduct and leaving a legacy of excellence for future generations.

How it works

Embarking on the voyage of professional life, individuals are equipped not only with skills and expertise but also with a moral compass known as ethics. Like the guiding stars in a vast celestial map, ethics serves as a beacon, offering direction and guidance through the complexities of professional terrain towards the shores of integrity, trust, and accountability. It acts as a silent mentor, instilling the importance of upholding values and principles in every decision and interaction.

At its essence, professional ethics is a kaleidoscope of virtues, blending strands of honesty, transparency, confidentiality, fairness, and appreciation for diversity.

These elements intertwine to form the intricate tapestry of ethical conduct within a specific profession, establishing boundaries of acceptable behavior and shaping the character of its practitioners. Whether navigating the realms of law, medicine, engineering, or commerce, professionals are entrusted with safeguarding these ethical standards, preserving the trust and confidence bestowed upon them by their communities.

Central to the ethos of professional ethics is the concept of integrity, a steadfast commitment to honesty, consistency, and moral courage. Like the unwavering beacon of a lighthouse guiding ships through treacherous waters, integrity serves as a guiding light, illuminating the path towards ethical conduct even amidst the storms of temptation or adversity. Upholding integrity necessitates placing ethical values above personal gain, thereby earning the respect and admiration of peers, clients, and society at large.

Furthermore, professional ethics serves as a compass for navigating the ethical dilemmas that inevitably arise in professional practice. Whether grappling with conflicts of interest, breaches of confidentiality, or ethical gray areas, practitioners must rely on their ethical compass to steer them through. By engaging in introspection, seeking counsel from colleagues, and adhering to established ethical principles, professionals can navigate these murky waters with integrity and accountability, emerging stronger and more resilient.

As the landscape of professional practice evolves, so too must our understanding and application of ethical principles. In an age of rapid technological advancement and globalization, new ethical frontiers emerge. Issues such as data privacy, artificial intelligence ethics, and sustainability pose novel challenges for professionals to navigate. However, by embracing a culture of ethical awareness, lifelong learning, and adaptability, practitioners can navigate these challenges while remaining steadfast in their commitment to ethical conduct.

In conclusion, professional ethics serves as the guiding beacon that illuminates the path towards integrity, trust, and accountability in professional practice. It is a testament to the values and principles that underpin ethical behavior within a specific vocation, emphasizing the importance of integrity, honesty, and responsibility in earning the trust and respect of all stakeholders. By upholding these ethical standards and principles, professionals can navigate the complexities of their professions with grace and dignity, leaving a legacy of ethical excellence for future generations to follow.

Cite this page

The Definition Of Professional Ethics. (2024, Apr 29). Retrieved from https://papersowl.com/examples/the-definition-of-professional-ethics/

"The Definition Of Professional Ethics." PapersOwl.com , 29 Apr 2024, https://papersowl.com/examples/the-definition-of-professional-ethics/

PapersOwl.com. (2024). The Definition Of Professional Ethics . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-definition-of-professional-ethics/ [Accessed: 2 May. 2024]

"The Definition Of Professional Ethics." PapersOwl.com, Apr 29, 2024. Accessed May 2, 2024. https://papersowl.com/examples/the-definition-of-professional-ethics/

"The Definition Of Professional Ethics," PapersOwl.com , 29-Apr-2024. [Online]. Available: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-definition-of-professional-ethics/. [Accessed: 2-May-2024]

PapersOwl.com. (2024). The Definition Of Professional Ethics . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-definition-of-professional-ethics/ [Accessed: 2-May-2024]

Don't let plagiarism ruin your grade

Hire a writer to get a unique paper crafted to your needs.

Our writers will help you fix any mistakes and get an A+!

Please check your inbox.

You can order an original essay written according to your instructions.

Trusted by over 1 million students worldwide

1. Tell Us Your Requirements

2. Pick your perfect writer

3. Get Your Paper and Pay

Hi! I'm Amy, your personal assistant!

Don't know where to start? Give me your paper requirements and I connect you to an academic expert.

short deadlines

100% Plagiarism-Free

Certified writers