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Doing Research in Nigeria

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Name of the Asset |  Doing Research in Nigeria: bridging the research gap and improving development policies

Type of Asset | Research report Date |  September 2020

Achieving the global sustainable development agenda at the national level requires significant domestic research capacity. This will help to ensure the production of scientific evidence that is based on critical analyses of each country’s social, development and policy challenges. Such evidence will help to inform contextually relevant actions and reforms for economic growth, development and welfare. However, detailed system-wide data on the social science research (SSR) system is scarce in sub-Saharan Africa, and this hinders effective policymaking. While international agencies like the UNESCO Institute of Statistics routinely gather data, such efforts still rely on locally generated information.

In Nigeria, unfortunately, there have been no systematic efforts to generate data on the domestic Social Science Research (SSR) system since independence. To date, only one national survey of research and development has been carried out in Nigeria (in 2007); it used instruments and methods based on the well-known Frascati Manual of Europe. However, the survey aggregates the entire research landscape and pays no particular attention to social science. Hence, useful indicators such as human capital, research production, infrastructure, diffusion and uptake of SSR cannot be obtained from this survey. The Doing Research Assessment (DRA) in Nigeria was aimed at systematically understanding how critical factors of the national research system impact its capacity to produce, diffuse and use SSR for its social and economic development. This assessment was conducted by the National Centre for Technology Management (NACETEM) research team during the course of 2019.

The research process employs a mixed method approach that involved three inter-related stages: a context analysis, a systematic mapping of stakeholders and a comprehensive data collection exercise. The context analysis provides a critical discussion of the environment for SSR in Nigeria, with a focus on the political, international, economic and historical dimensions. The stakeholder mapping was used to identify all stakeholders that engage in activities connected to the production, diffusion and use/uptake of SSR in Nigeria. For ease of analysis, the research actors are categorized into higher education institutions (HEIs), government and funding agencies (GFAs), private sector (PS) entities, and civil society organizations (CSOs).

The primary insight is the sheer scale of the Nigerian SSR system. This study identified almost 2,000 organizations that engage in SSR production, diffusion, uptake or any combination of components including 170 HEIs, 75 GFAs, 65 PS organizations and 1,515 CSOs. The data collection combines a desk review, bibliometric analysis, key informant interviews and a set of three surveys – one each for researchers, administrators and policymakers. In all, we interviewed 17 key informants (5 from HEIs and another 3 from research institutes; 3 from GFAs; 3 from CSOs; and 3 from PS organizations) and surveyed 805 individuals from 130 organizations across the country, including 585 researchers, 145 administrators and 75 policymakers. The response rate was 90 percent at the institutional level and 85 percent at the individual level.

• Abiodun Egbetokun , Principal Investigator ( [email protected] )
• Adedayo Olofinyehun , Project Manager ( [email protected] )
• Aderonke Ayo-Lawal ( [email protected] )
• Omolayo Oluwatope ( [email protected] )
• Maruf Sanni ( [email protected] )
• Utieyineshola Yusuff ( [email protected] )

Country and/or Region |  Nigeria Name of the Program |  GDN’s Doing Research for Measuring the Production, Diffusion, and Use of Social Science Research

Funder(s) |  The current phase of the Doing Research program is being funded by GDN’s core funds. The Doing Research pilot phase was generously supported by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Agence Française de Développement, French Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Development, and Swiss Agency for Development Cooperation for US$785,000 from 2014-2016.

• Download the Nigeria Doing Research Assessment S ummary and conclusions  |  Full Report
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• Learn more about the  Doing Research program

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The next chapter for African genomics

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Graduate students at an infectious-disease lab in Ede, Nigeria, use the gene-editing tool CRISPR to detect Lassa virus in blood samples. Credit: Amy Maxmen

In the affluent, beach-side neighbourhoods of Lagos, finance and technology entrepreneurs mingle with investors at art openings and chic restaurants. Now biotech is entering the scene. Thirty-four-year-old Abasi Ene-Obong has been traversing the globe for the past six months, trying to draw investors and collaborators into a venture called 54Gene. Named to reflect the 54 countries in Africa, the genetics company aims to build the continent’s largest biobank, with backing from Silicon Valley venture firms such as Y Combinator and Fifty Years. The first step in that effort is a study, launched earlier this month, to sequence and analyse the genomes of 100,000 Nigerians.

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Sarfo, F. S. et al. Stroke 49 , 1116–1122 (2018).

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Siddle, K. J. et al. N. Engl. J. Med. 379 , 1745–1753 (2018).

International Monetary Fund. Nigeria: Staff Report for the 2019 Article IV Consultation (IMF, 2019).

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Ramachandran, V., Obado-Joel, J., Fatai, R., Masood, J. S. & Blessing, O. The New Economy of Africa: Opportunities for Nigeria’s Emerging Technology Sector (Center for Global Development, 2019).

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Professions in Nigeria

Current trends in scientific research in nigeria.

Last Updated on January 26, 2024

Introduction

A. defining scientific research.

Scientific research is the systematic investigation of phenomena to discover new knowledge, improve existing theories, and solve practical problems.

B. Significance in Nigeria

Scientific research is vital for Nigeria’s development. It drives innovation, enhances healthcare, boosts agriculture, and fosters economic growth.

C. Purpose of the Blog Post

This post sheds light on the current trends in scientific research within Nigeria.

Explore the cutting-edge topics, methodologies, and their impact on the nation’s progress.

Overview of Scientific Research in Nigeria

A. history and development of scientific research in nigeria.

In Nigeria, scientific research has evolved significantly over the years, reflecting the country’s commitment to advancing knowledge and innovation. During the pre-independence era, research activities were primarily carried out by foreign institutions and individuals who were interested in exploring Nigeria’s rich biodiversity and resources.

With the attainment of independence in 1960, Nigeria placed a greater emphasis on scientific research as a means of national development and self-reliance. The establishment of academic research institutions such as universities and research centers marked the beginning of a more structured approach to scientific inquiry.

Over the years, Nigeria has made significant strides in various scientific disciplines, including agriculture, medicine, engineering, and technology. The country has produced talented scientists and researchers who have contributed to global knowledge and have made remarkable discoveries.

B. Key institutions and organizations involved

Several key institutions and organizations play a vital role in promoting and conducting scientific research in Nigeria:

• The Nigerian Institute of Medical Research (NIMR): NIMR focuses on medical research and has contributed to the development of vaccines and treatment methods for diseases prevalent in Nigeria.
• The National Agency for Science and Engineering Infrastructure (NASENI): NASENI is responsible for promoting and coordinating research and development efforts in relevant scientific and engineering disciplines.
• The Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research (NIFOR): NIFOR conducts research to improve oil palm cultivation techniques, enhance oil palm products, and provide scientific guidance to farmers and stakeholders in the sector.
• The Nigerian Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development (NIPRD): NIPRD is involved in the development and promotion of pharmaceutical products through research and collaboration with pharmaceutical companies.
• The Nigerian Institute of Food Science and Technology (NIFST): NIFST conducts research on food processing, preservation, and quality control, contributing to Nigeria’s agrifood industry.
• The Nigerian Academy of Science (NAS): NAS acts as a national advisory body on scientific matters, providing expert opinions and recommendations to the government and other stakeholders.

C. Funding sources and support available for scientific research in Nigeria

Scientific research in Nigeria is supported by various funding sources and initiatives:

• Government Funding: The Nigerian government allocates a significant portion of its budget to research and development projects, with a focus on priority areas such as health, agriculture, energy, and technology.
• Research Grants: Both national and international organizations offer research grants to scientists and researchers in Nigeria, enabling them to pursue innovative projects and contribute to scientific knowledge.
• Private Sector Support: Private companies and corporations provide funding and collaborate with research institutions to address industry-specific challenges and enhance technological advancements.
• International Partnerships: Nigeria collaborates with international organizations and foreign institutions to access funding and expertise, enabling researchers to participate in global research projects and exchange knowledge.
• Academic Institutions: Universities and research centers often have their funding sources, which may include donations, endowments, and revenue generated from intellectual property rights or consultancy services.

In fact, Nigeria has made significant progress in scientific research, with a rich history and development spanning several decades. The country’s key institutions and organizations, along with various funding sources, play a crucial role in advancing scientific knowledge, promoting innovation, and addressing Nigeria’s specific challenges and needs.

Read: Leading Companies in Photonics in Nigeria

Technology Adoption and Innovation in Scientific Research

In the ever-evolving landscape of scientific research in Nigeria, technology has become an indispensable force propelling advancements and reshaping methodologies. Let’s delve into the role of technology, recent trends in its adoption, and the profound impact it has on research outcomes.

A. The Pivotal Role of Technology

• Enhanced Data Collection: Technology has revolutionized data acquisition, enabling researchers to gather vast datasets quickly and accurately.
• Innovative Analytical Tools: Cutting-edge software and algorithms facilitate complex data analysis, unveiling hidden patterns and insights.
• Collaborative Platforms: Virtual collaboration tools bridge geographical gaps, fostering interdisciplinary research and knowledge exchange.

B. Recent Trends in Technology Adoption

• High-Performance Computing: Researchers are harnessing the power of supercomputers for simulations and data-intensive computations.
• Machine Learning and AI: Machine learning algorithms assist in data interpretation, prediction, and decision-making across diverse scientific fields.
• Blockchain in Research: Blockchain technology ensures data integrity and transparency, crucial in maintaining research credibility.
• IoT and Sensor Networks: Real-time data collection through IoT devices aids environmental monitoring, agriculture, and healthcare research.

C. Impact on Research Outcomes

• Accelerated Discoveries: Technology expedites research timelines, leading to faster scientific breakthroughs.
• Precision Medicine: Genomic technologies enable tailored healthcare solutions, improving treatment efficacy.
• Environmental Conservation: Remote sensing technologies track deforestation and climate changes, aiding conservation efforts.
• Enhanced Communication: The integration of technology facilitates the dissemination of research findings to a wider audience.

In short, the symbiotic relationship between technology and scientific research in Nigeria continues to evolve. As researchers embrace innovation, the nation’s scientific community stands poised to make increasingly impactful contributions to global knowledge and progress.

Read: Photonics Applications Specialist: Job Outlook

Interdisciplinary Research Collaborations

A. importance of interdisciplinary research in nigeria.

• Interdisciplinary research promotes collaboration between different scientific fields in Nigeria.
• It allows researchers to combine their expertise to tackle complex problems.
• Nigeria can benefit from interdisciplinary research by finding innovative solutions to societal challenges.
• It encourages the sharing of knowledge and resources among researchers from diverse backgrounds.
• Interdisciplinary research in Nigeria can lead to transformative discoveries and advancements.

B. Successful interdisciplinary research projects in Nigeria

• The Nigerian Institute of Medical Research collaborated with the Nigerian Institute of Oceanography and Marine Research to investigate the health impacts of oil pollution on coastal communities.
• The National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control partnered with the Institute of Agricultural Research and Training to assess the safety of genetically modified crops in Nigeria.
• The Nigerian Conservation Foundation worked with the University of Lagos to study the effects of deforestation on biodiversity in Nigeria.
• The Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research collaborated with the Center for Renewable Energy and Action on Climate Change to explore the economic benefits of renewable energy adoption.
• The Nigeria Centre for Disease Control collaborated with the African Centre of Excellence for Genomics of Infectious Diseases to enhance the country’s capacity for genomic surveillance of infectious diseases.

C. Benefits and challenges of interdisciplinary collaboration in scientific research

1. benefits:.

• Interdisciplinary collaboration brings together diverse perspectives and expertise, leading to more comprehensive research outcomes.
• It encourages creativity and innovation by combining ideas and methodologies from different fields.
• Interdisciplinary research promotes the application of scientific findings in various sectors, contributing to societal development.
• It helps researchers address complex problems that cannot be solved by a single discipline alone.
• Interdisciplinary collaboration fosters networking and cooperation among researchers, enhancing future research opportunities.

2. Challenges:

• Interdisciplinary research requires effective communication and understanding between researchers from different disciplines.
• It can involve conflicts in integrating different methodologies and approaches.
• Funding for interdisciplinary research projects may be limited due to the traditional focus on single-discipline funding.
• Interdisciplinary collaborations may face resistance from established academic structures that prioritize disciplinary boundaries.
• Achieving a balance between depth of knowledge and breadth of interdisciplinary understanding can be challenging.

In essence, interdisciplinary research collaborations play a crucial role in advancing scientific research in Nigeria. The importance of interdisciplinary research lies in its ability to foster collaboration, promote knowledge sharing, and drive innovation. Successful interdisciplinary projects in Nigeria have addressed diverse issues ranging from health impacts to environmental conservation. Although interdisciplinary collaboration brings numerous benefits, it also faces challenges such as communication barriers and funding limitations. To overcome these challenges, Nigerian researchers and institutions should promote a culture of interdisciplinary collaboration and advocate for increased support and recognition for such research endeavors.

Read: Becoming a Physicist in Nigeria: A Comprehensive Guide

Priority Research Areas in Nigeria

A. key scientific research areas currently prioritized in nigeria.

• Energy and Environment
• Agriculture and Food Security
• Health and Medicine
• Information and Communication Technology
• Mining and Solid Minerals Development
• Climate Change and Sustainable Development

In recent years, Nigeria has prioritized several key scientific research areas to accelerate development and address significant challenges. These areas encompass various sectors, including energy and environment, agriculture and food security, health and medicine, information and communication technology, mining and solid minerals development, and climate change and sustainable development.

B. The Importance and Relevance of These Research Areas to the Nigerian Context

• Energy and Environment:  Nigeria, as a major oil-producing country, recognizes the importance of diversifying its energy resources and mitigating the environmental impact of fossil fuel extraction. Research in renewable energy sources and environmental conservation strategies is vital to ensure sustainable development.
• Agriculture and Food Security:  Agriculture is a significant contributor to Nigeria’s economy, employing millions of people. Prioritizing research in this area aims to improve crop yield, enhance irrigation techniques, and develop new agricultural practices to ensure food security for the growing population.
• Health and Medicine:  Promoting research in health and medicine is crucial to tackle prevalent diseases, including malaria, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis, and improve healthcare infrastructure across the country. It also facilitates the development of indigenous pharmaceuticals and advancements in medical technology.
• Information and Communication Technology:  Given Nigeria’s emerging technology sector, prioritizing research in ICT is essential. This area promotes digital innovation, e-governance, and enhances connectivity, enabling socio-economic growth and bridging the digital divide.
• Mining and Solid Minerals Development:  Nigeria possesses vast mineral resources, and investing in research in this field allows for sustainable exploration, exploitation, and value addition to minerals. It contributes to economic diversification, job creation, and improved mining practices.
• Climate Change and Sustainable Development:  With increasing concerns over climate change, Nigeria recognizes the need to address environmental challenges and achieve sustainable development. Research in this area focuses on climate change adaptation, mitigation strategies, and sustainable natural resource management.

C. Notable Research Advancements in These Priority Areas

Nigeria has actively advanced research in key areas:

• Energy and Environment: Researchers developed solar and wind power, reducing fossil fuel dependence. Sustainable waste management and biodiversity conservation efforts were implemented.
• Agriculture and Food Security: Research yielded drought-resistant crops, innovative irrigation, and modern farming techniques. Training programs boosted agricultural productivity.
• Health and Medicine: Nigerian scientists and healthcare professionals researched vaccines, diagnostics, and treatments for diseases. They enhanced primary healthcare, established medical research institutions, and trained personnel.
• Information and Communication Technology: Nigeria excelled in mobile tech, software development, and cybersecurity. Innovative mobile apps improved education, healthcare, and financial services access.
• Mining and Solid Minerals: Researchers mapped mineral resources, promoted sustainable mining, and attracted foreign investments for technology transfer.
• Climate Change and Sustainable Development: Nigeria researched climate change impacts, developed adaptation strategies, and integrated resilience into policies. Renewable energy deployment and public awareness initiatives were undertaken.

In general, Nigeria’s prioritized research areas foster economic growth, food security, healthcare, and environmental conservation. These active endeavors demonstrate Nigeria’s commitment to scientific research and innovation.

Read: The State of Physics Careers in Nigeria: An Overview

Promoting Open Access and Data Sharing

A. the concept of open access in scientific research.

Open access refers to the principle of making scientific research freely available to the public.

B. Efforts Made to Promote Open Access and Data Sharing in Nigeria

• The Nigerian government has prioritized open access, establishing policies to support it.
• Research institutions and universities have embraced open access by establishing open repositories.
• Collaboration with international organizations has facilitated open access initiatives in Nigeria.
• Funding agencies are encouraging researchers to publish their work in open access journals

C. Addressing the Benefits and Challenges of Implementing Open Access Policies

• Increased visibility and accessibility of research for Nigeria and the global scientific community.
• Facilitation of interdisciplinary research by providing open platforms for sharing data.
• Greater potential for collaboration and networking among researchers worldwide.
• Acceleration of scientific progress and innovation through the ease of accessing research findings.
• Enhanced reputation of Nigerian researchers and institutions due to increased dissemination of their work.

Challenges:

• Limited awareness and understanding of the concept of open access among researchers.
• Insufficient technical infrastructure and resources to support open access initiatives.
• Resistance from publishers and commercial journals due to financial implications.
• The need for capacity building to facilitate the implementation of open access policies.

Emerging Trends and Future Prospects

A. emerging trends and advancements in scientific research in nigeria.

• Increase in interdisciplinary research collaborations among different scientific fields.
• Rapid growth in the use of advanced technologies and innovative methodologies.
• Focus on addressing local challenges and finding practical solutions to improve livelihoods.
• Emphasis on sustainable development and environmentally-friendly research practices.
• Integration of indigenous knowledge and traditional practices into scientific research.

B. Potential future directions and prospects for scientific research in Nigeria

• Continued growth in research funding to support cutting-edge scientific studies.
• Expansion of research infrastructure and establishment of state-of-the-art scientific facilities.
• Promotion of international collaborations and partnerships for knowledge sharing.
• Enhancement of science education and training programs to develop a skilled workforce.
• Increased focus on commercialization and entrepreneurship in scientific research.

C. Initiatives and strategies for further driving scientific research in the country

Scientific research in Nigeria undergoes a transformative phase, marked by:

• Growing interdisciplinary collaboration.
• Advancements in technology and research methodologies.
• A shift toward addressing local challenges, especially in healthcare, agriculture, and energy sectors.
• Commitment to sustainable practices, including waste reduction and renewable resource usage.
• Integration of indigenous knowledge.
• Focus on future prospects: Increased research funding, expanded infrastructure, and global collaborations.
• Enhanced science education and workforce development.
• Strategic initiatives: Research grants, specialized centers, scientific culture promotion, intellectual property protection, and mentorship programs.

In summary, Nigeria’s scientific research evolves with interdisciplinary cooperation, local problem-solving, sustainability, and indigenous knowledge integration. The nation looks forward to increased funding, global partnerships, and talent development to further its scientific contributions.

Learn More: International Collaborations: Nigeria’s Science Community

This blog post discussed the current trends in scientific research in Nigeria.

It highlighted the importance of these trends and their impact on the scientific community in Nigeria.

To all the researchers and the scientific community in Nigeria, keep pushing boundaries and making discoveries. Your work is invaluable, and it contributes to the growth and development of the nation. Stay determined and continue to make Nigeria proud.

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The DG-NIMR Professor Babatunde Lawal Salako (Right) congratulating Director of Administration, Mr Nelson Nimlyat BITRUS on his completion of the 2024 9th Basic Stream Short Course on Strategic Leadership Ethics and Policy Making organized by the National Institute for Policy and Strategic (NIPSS), Kuru, Nigeria.

The DG, Professor Babatunde Lawal Salako & the senior management committee hosted members of the Senate Committee on health led by Senator Ipalibo Harry Banigo while on oversight function to the institute

Today 25-10-2023 the newly appointed Minister of State for Health and Social Welfare Dr. Tunji Alausa paid a working visit to NIMR to learn more about the institute's activities as part of his priorities to improve research and innovation in Nigeria.

The Director General, Nigeria Institute of Medical Research Prof. Babatunde Salako, on Monday, said the institute has discovered a new malaria vector called anopheles stephensi in northern Nigeria.

NIMR Pedestal

In 1920, when it started as the West African Council of Medical Research (an affiliate of the MRC UK). It has was tasked with the responsibility of conducting research into prevalent, communicable and non-communicable diseases (NCD) as well as Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) ravaging some parts of what later became Nigeria. The aim was to make it provide the requisite information, new knowledge, treatment guidelines and recommending ways of preventing such diseases.

Today, Nigerian Institute of Medical Research (NIMR) is a reputable point of reference in basic, applied and operational research for the promotion of national health and development in Nigeria. NIMR play a vital role in developing viable structures for the dissemination of research findings, and providing the enabling environment and facilities for health research and training in cooperation with the Federal and State ministries of health and in collaboration with universities, allied institutions and organized private sector nationally and internationally.

• The nation’s foremost Institute of Medical Research
• We carry out medical research in Nigeria to improve public health and national development
• We collaborate with several institutions nationally and internationally to facilitate enabling environment for medical research.
• We attract some of the brightest and best brains nationally and internationally in research collaboration
• Research Collaboration/Adjunct positions in National and International Universities
• We disseminate health research findings for policy practices and programme

To be an institution of excellence in basic, applied and operational research for the promotion of National Health and Development in Nigeria.

To conduct research into diseases of public health importance in Nigeria and develop structures for the dissemination of research findings while providing the enabling environment and facilities for health research and training in cooperation with the federal and state ministries of health and in collaboration with universities, allied institutions and organized private sector nationally and internationally

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‘Research is the last thing on our minds, we are in crisis’: Experiences of Lagos state nurses towards research and scholarly endeavours

Oluwadamilare akingbade.

1 Institute of Nursing Research, Osogbo Nigeria

2 The Nethersole School of Nursing, The Chinese University of Hong Kong

Oluwadara Eniola

Adesina a. sulaiman, emmanuel o. adesuyi.

3 Department of Nursing, Birmingham City University, Birmingham UK

Esther B. Ilesanmi

Zainab o. adesokan, bose c. ogunlowo, rafiat t. akinokun, emmanuel oviri, chioma j. eze, bolanle o. ayodele.

4 Directorate of Nursing, Ministry of Health, Ikeja Lagos State, Nigeria

Associated Data

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

To explore the experiences of Nigerian nurses in research and scholarly endeavours.

Descriptive phenomenological qualitative study design.

In‐depth interviews were conducted among 30 nurses until data saturation was reached. Data were analysed using the thematic analysis method, and consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research guidelines (COREQ) were adhered to in reporting this study.

Three themes emerged: (1) challenges of nurses with research; (2) the state of nursing research in Lagos state; (3) strategies to improve the state of nursing research in Lagos state. Some challenges nurses in Lagos State encounter with research include heavy workload and nursing shortage due to brain drain, faulty research foundation, lack of continuing education in research and the stressful nature of conducting research in Lagos.

As research is essential in addressing healthcare challenges, policymakers are encouraged to employ more nurses to reduce the workload and provide time for research activities. Training and continuing education in research can be incorporated into professional development programmes. Lagos State will benefit from nursing research units in the hospitals, and a coordinating centre for the units should be provided with adequate funding. Support could be obtained from the Institute of Nursing Research Nigeria in establishing these structures. Hospital management should embrace and welcome research output from nurses and ensure such results are implemented to improve patients' care. Nurses who excel in research might be recognised with awards and other incentives to inspire their peers.

1. INTRODUCTION

Healthcare delivery is becoming more dynamic with various health challenges surfacing, requiring healthcare practitioners and nurses to think critically, systematically analyse situations and make clinically sound decisions (Li et al.,  2019 ). Globally, the research output of nurses has increased over two decades, with developed countries taking the lead and a disproportionate output from low‐ and middle‐income countries (Yanbing et al.,  2021 ). Critical gaps have been observed in nursing and midwifery research in Africa with poor skills and research output, which can be attributed to inadequate funding, lack of job satisfaction, poor access to technology, ineffective interprofessional education and practice and few PhD‐prepared nurses (Klopper & Gasanganwa,  2015 ).

Research capacity in nursing has been defined as ‘the ability to conduct nursing research activities sustainably in a specific context’ (Chen et al.,  2019 ). Ayandiran et al. ( 2013 ) observed that various modifications had been made to the structure of nursing education and practice to improve nursing research capacity in Nigeria. For instance, nursing education was upgraded from hospital‐based training to higher education institutions with a better focus on developing scientific knowledge and research. However, the nursing research capacity in Nigeria is not yet optimal (Ndubuisi et al.,  2021 ).

According to Udoye ( 2018 ), postgraduate degree holders are key to determining the quantity and quality of research output in a field. This is because they are better equipped with the knowledge and skills to effectively conduct and disseminate research findings (Klopper & Gasanganwa,  2015 ). Even while postgraduate degrees, particularly PhDs, are expected to be the source of higher‐quality research output in a field, there is a limited number of nurses with these higher degrees in Nigeria. A report revealed that between 1988 and 2014, out of the 880 postgraduate nursing students (MSc and/or PhD) admitted to Nigerian universities, only 88 students could complete the degrees. Similarly, there is a paucity of postgraduate nursing programmes in Nigeria (Onwe,  2018 ). The state of postgraduate nursing education in Nigeria is expected to influence research output from the country.

According to the study conducted by Oluwatosin ( 2014 ) in Nigeria, only 21.2% of nurses had conducted clinical research based on their experience, while 4.4% had published in a peer‐reviewed journal out of a sample of 325 nurses. This shows that nurses' research output is critically low. Similarly, Emenloye et al. (2016) reported that although 25% of nurses in Nigeria have bachelor's degrees, they do not possess the necessary knowledge to conduct nursing research.

Some challenges facing nursing research in Nigeria have been documented. They include excessive workload, inadequate staffing, lack of nurse researchers, cost, lack of mentors in nursing research, lack of guidance with disseminating research findings, poor internet service and lack of organisational support (Edet et al.,  2011 ). Similarly, Oluwatosin ( 2014 ) observed the lack of capacity‐building programs and facilities in most organisations' nursing units or departments (Oluwatosin,  2014 ). Furthermore, the Federal Ministry of Health (FMOH) in Nigeria ( 2015 ) reported a meagre allocation of funds to research (about 0.08%), instead of the usual 2%, with most of the funds used at the federal level, leaving nothing for the States.

To the best of our knowledge, there is a paucity of recent literature focused on the experiences of Nigerian nurses in research and publications, which prompted this study to explore the experiences of Nigerian nurses in research and scholarly endeavours.

2.1. Study design

As the study focused on exploring the lived experiences of Lagos State nurses regarding research, a descriptive phenomenological qualitative study design (Shorey & Ng, 2022 ) was adopted. The consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research guidelines (COREQ) were adhered to in reporting this study. See Supplementary material .

2.2. Participants and settings

The study was conducted among nurses from selected healthcare institutions in Lagos State, Nigeria. Participants were selected using a purposive sampling technique considering various ranks, years of experience and facility (See Table  1 ). The study was conducted in Lagos State, located in the South‐Western part of Nigeria. Lagos State is the smallest in Nigeria in terms of size but has the highest urban population, which was 24.6 million inhabitants as of 2015. Lagos has a high mix of tertiary, specialist, general and private hospitals (Lagos State Government,  2022 ).

Sociodemographic details of the participants.

2.3. Data collection

Individual in‐depth interviews were conducted among 30 nurses from February 2022 to April 2022 until data saturation was reached. Data saturation refers to a state in which new insights or meanings can no longer be drawn from the data collected (Glaser & Strauss,  1967 ). Each interview took about 30–40 min. The study included all cadres of registered nurses employed and working in any healthcare facility in Lagos State, Nigeria. However, retired nurses and nurses employed in states other than Lagos were excluded. The interviews were conducted online via Zoom. The first and second authors, male registered nurses with PhD and bachelor's degrees in nursing with experience in qualitative data collection, conducted the interviews. An information sheet with the research details was presented to the participants, and their consent was obtained before the interview, after which demographic data were collected. Experts in nursing research developed the semi‐structured interview guide from a detailed literature review. The interviews were conducted virtually and were audio‐recorded after the participants gave their consent. The structure of nursing cadre in Nigeria is such that years of experience is a major determinant for getting promoted to another cadre. A minimum of 3 years of experience is required for promotion from one nursing officer cadre to the next.

2.4. Data analysis

Data were analysed using the NVIVO 12 software. The authors trained in data transcription did a verbatim transcription of the recordings. Thematic analysis was utilised for data analysis. The six phases include: familiarising with the data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming the themes, and producing the report (Braun & Clarke,  2019 ; Polit & Beck,  2019 ). See Figure  1 .

Six‐Step Approach to Thematic Analysis.

Various strategies were taken to ensure rigour in this study. Credibility and confirmability were ensured through member checking and peer debriefing, while dependability and transferability were ensured through audit trails and detailed method descriptions (Anney,  2014 ; Elo et al.,  2014 ).

2.5. Ethical consideration

Ethical approval to conduct the study was obtained from the Ethical Review Committee (ERC) of the Lagos University Teaching Hospital (LUTH) and Lagos State Health Service Commission (LSHSC), with approval numbers: ADM/DSCST/HREC/APP/4930 and LSHSC/DNS/RESEARCH/VOL III/169 respectively. In addition, informed consent was gained from participants before joining the study. Confidentiality was assured, and the participants' right to refuse to participate was respected.

Table  1 shows that most of the respondents were females (76.67%) with bachelor's degrees (60%) working in tertiary settings (56.67%). The respondents were drawn from the various ranks in nursing, with Nursing Officer I having the highest percentage (23.33%). The years of experience also varied among the participants, with 26.67% having less than 5 years of experience in nursing. Although 73.33% had more than 5 years' experience in nursing, 83.33% had less than 5 years' experience in research, and 93.33% had conducted less than five research. More than 80.00% do not have any publication, and 90.00% had not presented a paper at a local or international conference.

Three major themes emerged: challenges of nurses with research, the state of nursing research in Lagos State, and strategies to improve the state of research in Lagos State. The themes were elaborated into various sub‐themes (See Table  2 ).

Themes and Sub‐themes.

3.1. Theme 1: Challenges of nurses with research

Six categories of the participants' concerns regarding their challenges with research came to the fore. They are further elaborated under the following sub‐themes:

3.1.1. The challenging clinical environment

The participants verbalised their concerns about the demanding nature of the clinical environment. They recounted the challenges they encountered while rendering their services, including a heavy workload, a shortage of nurses and limited time available for research.

When you have only an intern‐nurse and maybe a staff nurse to run a 30‐bed ward, research is the last thing on our minds. It's tough; we are in crisis. (P15, 55 years, ADNS)

In Lagos state, we don't have the time of our own, and the shortage of nurses is killing everybody. I have worked round the clock since yesterday till this moment, and somebody is telling me that I have to carry out research, it will not work. (P10, 55 years ADNS)

…if someone is running a 16‐hour or 24‐hour shift with no free time, with family to cater for, combining this will not be possible. (P4, 35 years, SNO)

3.1.2. Faulty foundation in research

Some participants decried the quality of research they were exposed to as students. Some lamented that they did not have good supervisors, while others were not interested in research.

I realised that the supervisors are practically the problem of the students. Some don't know how to simplify supervision; they make it so complex. Because they have the privilege to supervise your project, they take advantage of that to rubbish your work without giving you directions. Research supervisors are supposed to be like mentors, but they often condemn whatever you do without giving proper guidance. (P20, 40 years, ACNO)

…the research I did in the nursing school then was not top‐notch; it truly affected my interest in it. Although I knew it was necessary, I did not fancy it. I saw it as an academic requirement to move to the next level. (P25, 30 years, NO II)

We did not take it seriously because of how we were taught. So, my competency is so low; honestly, I cannot regard myself as a researcher. (P22, 40 years, ACNO)

3.1.3. Lack of continuing education in research

Many participants also revealed that they had not been exposed to continuing education in research since they graduated from their schools.

…after school, there's no training on research, most of the training we do is just to renew our license and keep the work going‐ the MCPDP or something…. (P18, 35 years, NO I)

3.1.4. The stressful nature of conducting nursing research in Lagos

A major concern of the participants was the stress associated with conducting research in Lagos state.

Conducting research in this Lagos state is a bit stressful. Like the last I did on children with neuro disorders, sometimes, before I get there, it's already rowdy; mothers are not patient. If I give out ten questionnaires, hardly will I get five back because everybody is concerned about seeing their doctors. Even after that, they just want to go home. Even for me, moving from Ikorodu to Lagos Island to go and get data is very stressful. (P18, 35 years, NO I)

3.1.5. Brain drain

Another major challenge that emerged was the loss of nurses that are good with research through migration for greener pastures.

…those nurses I know that are excellent in research are leaving the country for better jobs, and once they go, they go with all their intellectual abilities. (P8,39 years, PNO)

3.1.6. Poor institutional support

The participants lamented their institutions' poor support in academics and research.

And another thing is that the system does not encourage you like you want to do research okay o, let's give her two weeks break because she's doing research, nooo, you will do it on your normal duty, who sent you research (laughs). Even if they take you to the nursing leaders, they will tell you, who sent you, is it part of the work we employed you to do…. (P25–30 years NO II)

…even when you are trying to go to the academic area, that is, you want to go and do your masters, Lagos state will not support you to go and do masters unless you leave your work, they just want you to work and work. (P9, 30 years, SNO)

3.2. Theme 2: The state of research in Lagos state

This theme provided an insight into the current state of nursing research in the State, the attitude of nurses to research and the research needs of nurses. This theme is further discussed under five sub‐themes.

3.2.1. The attitude of nurses to research

This sub‐theme reflects the various attitudes of nurses in the State to research.

…our attitude towards research is very poor. Since I left school, I have not conducted any research, and I have not seen any research conducted in my hospital that is really nursing‐related. (P26, 29 years, NOI)

Some participants lamented that they were not interested in research because there is a huge gap between research and practice.

I do not think the research done is being implemented. There is a massive gap between what we are finding and what is being done. (P16, 24 years, Nurse‐Intern)

While the majority opined that the attitude of nurses to research is poor, some observed that nurses have a good attitude to research.

I enjoy doing research anyway, I love trying to find solutions to problems. I think it's my personality. Even when I'm not appreciated, I enjoy doing research. (P28, 29 years, NOI)

I believe that Lagos state nurses are eager to do stuff. They are eager, my friends are eager. Even if you come to my ward, my matron is eager. (P7, 27 years, NO I)

3.2.2. Minimal research by nurses

Some participants observed that nurses are lagging in research in the State. Similarly, many declared that they had no experience in publication of findings.

…most of the research is done by doctors, and the administration believes that doctors will do it better. They just believe that whatever we do is just by the way. (P26, 29 years, NO I)

Research publication, haa, no, although, I want to join some people; but presently, none. (P18 35 years NO I)

I don't have experience in publishing. You know Nigeria is not helping when you come to that…. (P30, 40 years, PNO)

Although many participants opined that nurses do little research and not many have a good attitude towards the research, some believed that younger nurses seem more versatile in research.

…the new generation of nurses are younger, more versatile and with better education. They seem to have a flair for research, but the way we were brought up, we were not brought up to be researching, so the little research was merely part of the requirement for the nursing council exam (P18, 51 years, PNO)

3.3. Poor funding for nursing research in the State

Many participants decried nurses' limited remuneration alongside the unavailability of grants for conducting research.

Nurses' income is meagre. There's hardly any grant to carry out any research. So, if anyone wants to do research, it would be from their purse, no grant no support. (P5, 54 years, DDNS)

…we are underpaid, so you can't imagine the little amount you're earning that you have to start pumping into the research, except you have grants. (P9, 30 years, SNO)

3.3.1. Perceived competence of nurses in research

Majority of the participants rated their competence in research as average.

I will say 50%. If there is a need to conduct research, I will need to dust my books so I can get to like 60%, then maybe with proper guidance, I can get to 70. Who will (P8, 39 years, PNO)

…maybe five on a scale of 1‐10 (laughs). Due to my location, nobody is encouraging you; even when you have the knowledge, the environment will kill it. So maybe when I find myself in an environment that wants to use my findings, that will encourage me to do better. (P30, 40 years, PNO)

3.3.2. Research needs of nurses and research capacity of nursing departments

Several research needs came to the fore during the interviews. While the majority claimed they needed training in all the areas of nursing research, there was a preponderance of needs in research methodology and data analysis.

I need training in all areas of research. If there is an online platform that nurses can connect to from the comfort of their homes, they can learn at their pace, this will be helpful. (P28, 29 years, NO I)

…I'll need to brush through the research methodology and data analysis all over again…. (P12, 31 years, SNO)

Many of the participants perceived that although the nursing departments have the capacity to conduct research, many of them are currently not doing that. Many reported that their hospitals do not have a research unit but an education unit. Few of them claimed their hospitals had a research unit.

Aah, well, for my institution, I can still say that the capacity is below average. You know we are just starting, but will there be coordination, will they have time to go about it…these are the questions. (P3, 54 years, SNO)

3.4. Theme 3: Strategies to improve the state of research in Lagos state.

Seven categories of strategies emerged from the interviews. They are further elaborated under the sub‐themes below:

3.4.1. Increased awareness in research

Some participants observed that nurses would have been more involved in research if they had been more enlightened.

…When you are enlightened, you don't do things the old way. The awareness should not just be for the young ones, start from the top, capturing the young ones is not a problem. (P28, 29 years, NO I)

3.4.2. Increased funding for research

The participants opined that many nurses would be involved in nursing research is funded.

It takes a lot because they need money to do many things. If nurses can get sponsorship to carry out their research, I think many people will try to get involved. (P5 55 years ADNS)

3.4.3. Need for research Centre, research units and research nurses

The participants observed that if relevant structures were put in place, nursing research would be successful in the State. Some structures include a coordinating research centre, hospital research units, and research nurses focused solely on research.

Yes, it will be great if we have a research centre in Lagos. We can utilise the Lagos State research sub‐committee of the NMCN to reach out to all institutions in the state. So, if we have a consultant that can work with us to ensure that the subcommittee works, we are ready to go. (P1, 55 years, DNS)

Having a research unit in the hospital is another good idea, where nurses can work as researchers. Because many of the nurses at the bedside have these things in them, but they are dying. (P2, 35 years, NO I)

…we can have nurses that their work is basically research, and they are in that research unit. it is possible, it happens in other countries, so I don't think ours should be an exemption. (P29 45 years, SNO)

3.4.4. Continuing education in research

As some of the participants reported that they had not been involved in research training since they graduated from their schools, the place of continuing education in research was stressed.

I admonish that it should be embedded in our unit clinical training settings for continuous education; this will help. (P5 54 years ADNS )

3.4.5. Support from institutions, governmental and non‐governmental organisations

The participants also emphasised the need for more support from the relevant stakeholders in the State.

…if Lagos state can do it in a way that upon approval, researchers will be given a time frame to conduct their research with job security. (P4, 35 years, SNO)

On the part of the government, they should try to make this country a research place. They should play their part by funding nursing research. Some NGOs will always want to support research but fall back if the government does not align. (P6, 40 years, PNO)

3.4.6. Train the trainers

While some of the participants lamented their experiences with research supervision, some recommended the need for training courses for research supervisors.

The people who are supervising research should be trained. There is something called “train the trainer” The trainers should be trained properly; the people who are supervising research are not helpful. (P20 40 years, ACNO)

3.4.7. Involve young and male nurses in research

Some participants observed that male nurses seem more interested in research and can mobilise the younger nurses; hence, they recommended that they be involved in research.

Male nurses are learned, and I think they are interested in research. If they can be approached because they influence the junior nurses, I think they will know how to mobilise others. (P25 30 years NO II)

4. DISCUSSION

Clinical decision‐making is based on sound, evident, valid and currently available research output which helps in optimal healthcare (Coyne et al.,  2016 ). Nurses are open to various roles in research ranging from being a participant or investigator to an end user, i.e. utilising the outcomes (Hernon & Dalton,  2019 ). However, being an investigator and also utilising outcomes require knowledge and experience in research. This study aimed to explore the experiences of Lagos State nurses in research. The first theme in this study highlighted the challenges nurses face with research at the individual and institutional levels. Nurses in Lagos State were limited by various barriers arising from their work environments, such as heavy workload and shortage of nurses. Similar to the findings of a recent qualitative research study in Australia by Hines et al. ( 2022 ) where several organisational issues surrounding work cultures, staffing level, disinterest and supportiveness were emphasised by nurses as challenges facing their fitting into their sphere of research in their clinical nursing practice. This also conforms to a previous finding by Abam et al. ( 2014 ) among nurses in Calabar, South–South Nigeria, where excessive workload on the ward and inadequate staffing was a major constraint in conducting research. Earley ( 2014 ) identified that research methodology and the utilisation of research outputs in real‐life situations are mostly taught in tertiary institutions, however, nurses in Lagos State recounted their faulty foundations in research and lack of continuing education in research, which may have an impact on their interest in conducting research as a graduate nurse. This conforms to the study of Wu et al. ( 2019 ) which revealed that research education and training are essential to improving the interest and skills of nurses in conducting research.

Another major challenge pointed out by this study was the poor institutional support nurses that nurses receive. Lagos is a diverse and overpopulated state, with many clinical responsibilities placed on nurses. Unfortunately, due to short‐staffing, hospitals do not approve leave or break for workers to participate in research activities, which further reduces nurses' interest in carrying out research. This challenge aligns with the finding of Asuquo et al. ( 2013 ), which indicated that most nurses are not well represented at the institutional level in decisions related to research. Furthermore, the Nigerian health sector is currently witnessing the “brain drain” phenomenon, wherein the country's best professionals are leaving the country for academic or professional purposes (Lawal et al.,  2022 ). This has affected all aspects of healthcare delivery, including research activities (Olorunfemi et al.,  2020 ). This study revealed that the migration of nurses out of the country is a challenge affecting research capacity as many that are good at research are leaving the country's shores, taking along all their intellectual abilities.

The second theme reflected the state of nursing research in Lagos state. Findings from this study showed that although research is mandatory for awarding a nursing certificate from diploma to postgraduate level (Emelonye et al.,  2016 ), most nurses do not get involved in clinical research after graduation, re‐iterating the poor attitude of nurses to research. This is consistent with the study carried out by Abam et al. ( 2014 ), where nurses were found to have a low motivation towards research due to a lack of enabling environment and support. There is, therefore, a need to motivate nurses to see research as an integral part of their practice while also providing support and encouragement to carry out research. Perceived research competence among nurses in this study was placed at an average. Although a study by Grande et al. ( 2021 ) showed that most nurses are familiar with the research process. However, training programmes for nurses are crucial to developing competence in research (Wu et al.,  2019 ).

The third theme for this study was the strategies to improve the state of research in Lagos state. Enlightenment of nurses on the importance of research was one of the major strategies. Furthermore, as the need to improve funding of nursing education in Nigeria has been identified in the literature (Arowolo et al.,  2023 ), adequate funding to cover research expenses will go a long way in increasing the research capacity of nurses (Torres et al., 2017 ). In addition, the Federal Ministry of Health (FMoH), in Nigeria has reported low annual budget funds for research in the country (FMoH,  2015 ). An upward review of the budget with a focus on nursing research is hereby warranted. This can also help in accessing high‐quality studies published in open‐access journals. These have improved the research capacity of nurses in Scotland (Hu et al., 2019 ).

Although there are professional continuing development programmes for nurses, many of our respondents submitted that research is missing from the content of these programmes and that nurses merely attend such programmes for the purpose of licence renewal. Hence, we recommend a review of these programmes with research content. Also, as the use of digital devices increased in Nigeria during the COVID‐19 pandemic (Akingbade et al.,  2022 ; Akingbade et al.,  2023 ), and recent research revealed that Nigerian nurses find virtual learning impactful; continuing education programmes can also leverage online platforms to build research competencies of nurses, as is the case at the Institute of Nursing Research Nigeria (Adesuyi et al., 2023 ). However, it will be important to address the challenges that some might encounter with internet connectivity (Ogbeide et al.,  2022 ).

Furthermore, as Ndubisi et al. (2021) identified that there is a limited number of nurses in the system who can provide mentoring and supervision to young researchers; therefore, it is essential to train nurse leaders and lecturers to ensure they provide adequate training with a focus on young nurses as reported in this study. Furthermore, as postgraduate programmes play a crucial role in the preparation of nurses with competence in research, we recommend the provision of more funds to support postgraduate programs in Nigeria, as evidence suggests that these programmes are few and underfunded (Onwe,  2018 ). Owing to barriers such as lack of time and unavailability of funds, support from concerned stakeholders is one of the strategies for improving the state of research. This is consistent with the findings of previous studies that identified leadership as one of the factors influencing the involvement of nurses in research (Li et al.,  2019 ; Warren et al., 2016 ).

Additionally, as our study participants recommended the establishment of a research unit in hospitals managed by research nurses, and a centre for the coordination of such activities, we recommend collaboration with the Institute of Nursing Research (INR) Nigeria for technical support in establishing these units and centres. Research‐dedicated nurses and units in each hospital will be beneficial in improving the competencies of clinical nurses in research (Mulkey,  2021 ). Similarly, we recommend further collaboration between academic and clinical institutions on research projects. Furthermore, support can be obtained from INR Nigeria for the training of the nurses in research to improve their research knowledge and capacity. Similarly, as funding is crucial for the establishment of such initiatives, we recommend financial support from the Lagos State Ministry of Health and other local and international organisations to make this project a reality.

4.1. Implication for policy

To improve the research knowledge and skills of Lagos state nurses, policymakers in nursing should incorporate training and continuing education in research into the professional development programmes. Also, as time is a significant constraint to conducting research, nurses can be given a break or leave for research activities. Hospital management should embrace and welcome research output from nurses and ensure such results are implemented to improve patients' care. Lastly, awards and other means of motivation can be used to encourage research participation.

4.2. Strength and limitation

As this descriptive phenomenological qualitative study was conducted among a few nurses in Lagos, Nigeria, this might not reflect the experiences of nurses in other States in Nigeria, which might limit the generalisability of the study. Hence, this should be considered when interpreting the findings. However, this study has addressed a significant gap in the literature.

5. CONCLUSION

This study has provided insight into the experiences of Lagos State nurses in research alongside the challenges they face and strategies to improve their research capacity and that of nursing departments in the state. It is hoped that suggestions from this study will improve the state of nursing research in Lagos state.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Study design: OA, OE, AAS, EOA, EBI, ZOA, BCO, RTA, EO, KA. Data collection: OA, OE, AAS, EOA, EBI. Data analysis: OA, CJE. Manuscript writing: OA, OE, AAS, EOA, EBI, ZOA, CJE. Critical revision: OA, OE, AAS, KA. Study supervision: OA, OE, KA.

FUNDING INFORMATION

No funding was secured for this study.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

The authors do not have any potential conflicts of interest to declare.

Supporting information

Appendix S1.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was part of a project conducted during the Global Nursing Leadership Institute program of the International Council of Nurses (ICN). We appreciate the ICN leadership for the scholarship and the leadership of the Institute of Nursing Research, Osogbo, Osun State, Nigeria for the support while the project lasted.

Akingbade, O. , Eniola, O. , Sulaiman, A. A. , Adesuyi, E. O. , Ilesanmi, E. B. , Adesokan, Z. O. , Ogunlowo, B. C. , Akinokun, R. T. , Oviri, E. , Eze, C. J. , & Ayodele, B. O. (2023). ‘Research is the last thing on our minds, we are in crisis’: Experiences of Lagos state nurses towards research and scholarly endeavours . Nursing Open , 10 , 7073–7083. 10.1002/nop2.1967 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

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Nigerian health research needs more regular funding

Professor of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Benin

Disclosure statement

Friday Okonofua does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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Nigeria’s Tertiary Education Trust Fund has approved N8.5bn (US$16.83m) for medical research this year an increase of 13.33%. Of this amount, N1bn (US$1.98m) is specifically for research on COVID-19. The fund was set up in 1993 to improve federal and state tertiary education in Nigeria, partly by supporting research and publications. Its main source of income is the 2% education tax paid by registered companies. It’s managed by an 11-member board of trustees. The Conversation Africa’s Wale Fatade asked Friday Okonofua, professor of medicine and pioneer vice-chancellor of Nigeria’s first university of medical sciences, to comment on the latest announcement.

Is this a step in the right direction in funding medical research?

I believe so. Nigeria is currently one of the countries with the lowest health research funding in the world. It contributes 0.22% of its GDP to research. Despite the plethora of health issues in the country, and the poor health indicators , very little appropriation exists in the national budget for addressing health research. The budget for research was N5bn ($9.9mn) in 2019 under the National Research Fund. It was raised to N7.5bn ($14.85mn) in 2020 and is still the same this year. It is to this fund that N1bn ($1.98mn) has just been added. This extra is specifically for research around COVID-19. The National Research Fund is managed by the Tertiary Education Trust Fund. I believe this intervention is not enough to address the inadequate provision for health research in the country. It is also important because global research and development pipelines for diseases that affect African countries are inadequate .

How is medical research funded generally in Nigeria?

Medical research is not well funded in Nigeria. I have never seen any provision made for health research funding by any teaching hospital in Nigeria. Most universities provide little or no funding for health research. Existing funds for research come from donor organisations. These include the Gates Foundation, the International Development Research Centre, Canada and the World Health Organisation. The federal government got a loan in 2014 from the World Bank which enabled the establishment of some centres of excellence in Nigerian universities. A few of these centres focus on health issues. Very little funding for health research comes from within the country.

Read more: Science and technology hold the key to Nigeria reaching its full potential

What percentage of medical research funding comes from the federal government in Nigeria?

It is tough to say specifically apart from figures we have on research generally. While the education trust fund has done well in funding specific health-related research in some Nigerian universities, it is not enough. Some medical researchers across the country have accessed these funds for their research. Apart from this, I am not aware of any other intervention of the federal government to address health research in Nigeria.

How can we improve funding for medical research?

The answer is simple. The federal government and all state governments should allocate funds for health research in their annual budgets. This should be for health research specifically and not research generally. The education trust fund should continue its present great work. But its contribution is not sufficient to handle the quantum of health challenges that need to be resolved in Nigeria, along with innovations that need to be identified to promote the health and social well-being of all Nigerians.

Health is a critical component of the Sustainable Development Goals . And as COVID-19 has demonstrated, it is essential for any country’s prospective development. Research is needed to galvanise Nigeria’s health system, which ranks 187th out of 195 countries (according to the World Health Organisation).

What lessons can we learn from other countries’ approach to funding medical research?

Regarding the contribution of governments to research, it is evident that African countries have performed relatively poorly as compared to other countries. In total, available evidence indicates that sub-Saharan African countries contribute 0.4% of their gross domestic product (GDP) to research, compared to Europe, Asia, and North America that contribute 27%, 31%, and 37%. Nigeria contributes 0.22% , one of the lowest in the world.

Furthermore, the Nigerian government is often unable to synthesise research evidence for decision-making. This limits its ability to understand and prioritise the importance of indigenous research in health within the context of health improvement and social development. A proper integration of research frameworks within policy making in Nigeria is critically important to improve the integrated performance of the country’s healthcare system. This should include capacity building for managers and policymakers to enable them to make adequate provisions in the annual budget and development planning for research, their involvement in setting research agendas, planning for the delivery of health research, and the effective use of research results.

Read more: What it will take to produce vaccines in Nigeria: money's just the first step

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Importance Of Research in Nigeria

According to The Merriam- ( Webster online Dictionary ). A studious inquiry or examination, especially; investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or law in the light of new facts or practical application of such new or revised theories or law. The purpose of research is to inform action. Research must always be of high quality in order to produce knowledge that is applicable outside of the research setting. Furthermore, the results of your study may have implications for policy and future project implementation.

Lack of quality research constitutes an impediment to the growth and development in Nigeria. Despite the enormous human resources Nigeria has, only a fraction of its research outputs is palpable. This is despite the challenges facing the country, many of which are manageable via robust and efficient research. Notably, among these barriers are lack of funding, equipment and mentoring.

One problem that often plagues progress in global health is the slow translation of research into practice. Often, a disconnect exists between those who conduct research and those who are positioned to implement the research findings. The underlying problem is that “the production of evidence is organized institutionally with highly centralized mechanisms, whereas the application of that science is highly decentralized. This social distance prevails because scientists are more oriented to the international audiences of other scientists for which they publish than to the needs of practitioners , policy makers, or the local public.

Benefits  Of Research

• More fact corroboration:  When you find a fact in one reference source that is supported in another reference source, you can be assured that the fact you are using in your business paper or assignment is accurate.
• More viewpoints:  The more resources you use, the more viewpoints you will consider during your topic exploration. This allows you to consider more ideas than the original one you may have been assigned.
• More facts:  When you use more research skills and sources, you will be able to gain more facts for your final project.
• Larger frame of understanding:  Because different research sources offer different kinds of information, you can find different ways to understand your topic, depending on the manner in which you need to present your findings.
• Gain knowledge quickly:  If you need to prepare for a presentation or a test, you want to be able to find the facts about your topic quickly. With basic research skills, you will find what you need promptly.

Importance of  Research 

Research encourages curiosity

Having curiosity and a love for learning takes you far in life. Research opens you up to different opinions and new ideas. It also builds discerning and analytical skills. The research process rewards curiosity. When you’re committed to learning, you’re always in a place of growth. Curiosity is also good for your health. Studies shows that curiosity is associated with higher levels of positivity, better satisfaction with life, and lower anxiety.

Research expands your knowledge base

The most obvious reason to do research is that you’ll learn more. There’s always more to learn about a topic, even if you are already well-versed in it. If you aren’t, research allows you to build on any personal experience you have with the subject. The process of research opens up new opportunities for learning and growth.

Research helps you know what you’re up against

In business, you’ll have competition. Researching your competitors and what they’re up to helps you formulate your plans and strategies. You can figure out what sets you apart. In other types of research, like medicine, your research might identify diseases, classify symptoms, and come up with ways to tackle them. Even if your “enemy” isn’t an actual person or competitor, there’s always some kind of antagonist force or problem that research can help you deal with.

Research helps with problem-solving

Whether it’s a personal or professional problem, it helps to look outside yourself for help. Depending on what the issue is, your research can focus on what others have done before. You might just need more information, so you can make an informed plan of attack and an informed decision. When you know you’ve collected good information, you’ll feel much more confident in your solution.

Research builds your credibility

People will take what you have to say more seriously when they can tell you’re informed. Doing research gives you a solid foundation on which you can build your ideas and opinions. You can speak with confidence about what you know is accurate. When you’ve done the research, it’s much harder for someone to poke holes in what you’re saying. Your research should be focused on the best sources. If your “research” consists of opinions from non-experts, you won’t be very credible. When your research is good, though, people are more likely to pay attention.

Research helps you narrow your scope

When you’re circling a topic for the first time, you might not be exactly sure where to start. Most of the time, the amount of work ahead of you is overwhelming. Whether you’re writing a paper or formulating a business plan, it’s important to narrow the scope at some point. Research helps you identify the most unique and/or important themes. You can choose the themes that fit best with the project and its goals.

Research teaches you better discernment

Doing a lot of research helps you sift through low-quality and high-quality information. The more research you do on a topic, the better you’ll get at discerning what’s accurate and what’s not. You’ll also get better at discerning the gray areas where information may be technically correct but used to draw questionable conclusions.

Research introduces you to new ideas

You may already have opinions and ideas about a topic when you start researching. The more you research, the more viewpoints you’ll come across. This encourages you to entertain new ideas and perhaps take a closer look at yours. You might change your mind about something or, at least, figure out how to position your ideas as the best ones.

Research helps you reach people

Research is used to help raise awareness of issues like  climate change , racial discrimination, gender inequality, and more. Without hard facts, it’s very difficult to prove that climate change is getting worse or that gender inequality isn’t progressing as quickly as it should. The public needs to know what the facts are, so they have a clear idea of what “getting worse” or “not progressing” actually means. Research also entails going beyond the raw data and sharing real-life stories that have a more personal impact on people.

Research gives you the latest information

Research encourages you to find the most recent information available. In certain fields, especially scientific ones, there’s always new information and discoveries being made. Staying updated prevents you from falling behind and giving info that’s inaccurate or doesn’t paint the whole picture. With the latest info, you’ll be better equipped to talk about a subject and build on ideas.

How to Conduct a Good Research

Conducting research is an important component for the development of scientific thinking. Research adds to the body of knowledge and propels our medical specialty forward. The process also allows the clinician to better understand the nuances of published research and more readily discern the strengths and weaknesses of journal articles.

A busy practitioner may foresee considerable barriers to conducting research, the most significant being the lack of knowledge on how to begin. Here is a suggested blueprint:

Develop a research question. It may be something you have wondered about during one of your patient encounters. Even if it’s a simple question, don’t assume the research has been done.

Conduct a thorough search of the published medical literature. A good resource is pubmed.org ( http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/) which is a searchable engine of key terms for published medical studies. Even if there already has been research into your topic, there is s value in conducting additional research.

Carefully plan the methodology to test your research question. This is the most important component of conducting research. Without sound methodology, the results may not be accurate and the conclusions unsubstantiated.

After data are collected, the results must be statistically tested. This is a good time to seek help from a biostatistician.

Conclusions are drawn from the results and all of the components above are then synthesized and submitted to a peer-reviewed journal. Dissemination of the research findings through the medical literature is critical. In this way, the results will not only influence how you approach your patients, but how your colleagues approach theirs as well.

The practitioner in a nonacademic setting faces substantial challenges to conducting research, including time, money, and personnel. However, these barriers can be overcome with enthusiasm and a fundamental understanding of the research process. SEE: 10 Importance of a Doctor In a Society

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Evaluating the Role of Households' Food Security Status and Socioeconomic Determinants on Child Mortality in Nigeria

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• Published: 01 June 2024

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• Adebayo Isaiah Ogunniyi 1 ,
• Abiodun Olusola Omotayo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4423-9983 2 ,
• Kehinde Oluseyi Olagunju 3 ,
• Mistura Adedoyin Rufai 4 ,
• Kabir Kayode Salman 5 ,
• Oluwadara Pelumi Omotayo 6 ,
• Bisola Oyediran 7 ,
• Mobolaji Victoria Adejoorin 5 ,
• Bola Amoke Awotide 8 &
• Adeyemi Oladapo Aremu 9  

When addressing global development, it is imperative to recognize the relationship between food security and child mortality. Despite the targeted goals of SDGs 2 (zero hunger) and 3 (good health and well-being), Nigeria continues to grapple with relatively high rates of child malnutrition, alongside persistent challenges in child mortality and food insecurity that affect its population significantly. This study employed the Nigeria Living Standard Survey (NLSS) dataset with 11,655 households to estimate the impact of food (in)security on child mortality using the Propensity Score Matching (PSM). The study shows that food insecurity is predominant in the rural northern and urban southern part of Nigeria. Child mortality rates were found to be influenced by various factors such as maternal education, maternal age, geopolitical zones, place of residence, and access to healthcare facilities, showcasing a complex interplay of positive and negative impacts. The empirical estimates revealed that households’ food insecurity had a significant impact on child mortality in Nigeria. Hence, in order to achieve the SDG’s 2 and 3 in Nigeria, a more concerted effort should be geared towards food security and child mortality among the Nigerian rural and urban communities. The insights from this study underscore the importance of prioritizing interventions that drives food security, enhancing nutritional access, and tackling underlying social determinants to substantially reduce child mortality rates. It is imperative for policymakers, healthcare professionals, and communities to integrate complementarity approaches in developing sustainable solutions that safeguard the well-being and prospects of Nigeria's children.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

In the context of global development, food security and child mortality are closely intertwined, representing two crucial aspects that deeply impact each other . Ensuring access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food plays a pivotal role in promoting child health and survival (Pérez-Escamilla, 2017 ; Wertheim-Heck et al., 2019 ). Despite the efforts of international and local institutions towards the eradication of food insecurity and hunger, the number of malnourished and hungry individuals around the world remain on the rise. Insufficient food is a problem for more than 821 million people worldwide (Kakaei et al., 2022 ). This figure indicates that almost one in nine individuals worldwide are undernourished (Behera et al., 2019 ; Kilic, 2022 ; Moseley & Battersby, 2020 ). The majority of the world's hungry people reside in developing nations (McGuire, 2015 ; Mota et al., 2019 ) with 12.9% of the global population suffering from malnutrition (Kilic, 2022 ).

According to Wudil et al. ( 2022 ), the region with the highest incidence of hunger is the Sub-Saharan Africa, where one in four individuals suffer from malnutrition. Every year, one in five newborn children dies from malnutrition (Adeyeye et al., 2017 , 2023 ; Kilic, 2022 ). One in six children in underdeveloped nations die from malnutrition while one-fourth of the children around the world do not exhibit adequate physical development (Kilic, 2022 ). Many developing nations, including Nigeria, are still at risk as a result of this issue. Nigeria sometimes depends on imports because it cannot grow enough or store enough food to satisfy its population (Eme et al., 2014 ; Garrity et al., 2010 ; Sanchez, 2019 ). This condition, known as food insecurity, is not encouraging and describes a circumstance in which there is a limited or unclear supply of foods that are safe and nutritionally appropriate, or a restricted or uncertain capacity to obtain acceptable healthy foods (Ivers, 2015 ; Richterman et al., 2019 ; Tarasuk & Beaton, 1999 ; UNICEF, 2015 ). Children and the elderly are especially impacted by the issue of food (in)security (Barrett, 2010 ; Black et al., 2013 ; Boserup et al., 2013 ).

Children suffer from malnutrition when their diet lacks the necessary amounts of protein and calories for growth and maintenance, or when they are unable to fully utilize the food they consume owing to conditions such as illness and disease. Nigeria presently ranks second in the world in terms of infant mortality, and a UNICEF assessment on children and women found that 50% of infant fatalities there were caused by malnutrition (Liu et al., 2012 ; Olusegun et al., 2012 ). Additionally, according to the research by UNICEF ( 2011 ), the three primary factors contributing to child malnutrition in the nation are food instability, subpar child care policies, and subpar health services. Current estimates show that 65% of Nigerians experience food insecurity based on the findings by Osagie ( 2013 ), The correlations between children's health/development and food security have been previously examined (Cordeiro et al., 2012 ; Dean & Sharkey, 2011 ; Herba et al., 2016 ). Furthermore, several findings (Cook & Frank, 2008 ; Hadley & Patil, 2006 ; Pakravan-Charvadeh et al., 2021 ) indicated that food insecurity is linked to increased rates of negative health outcomes for children at household level.

Children in Nigeria face a significant risk of negative health outcomes and mortality due to the nation's high level of food insecurity. This issue has been documented by various studies (Anema et al., 2009 ; Black et al., 2013 ; Olusegun et al., 2012 ). Moreover, the limited access to essential resources is further exacerbated by the disparity in infrastructure development between rural and urban areas, such as inadequate roads and power supply. Nigeria's economy is burdened by significant challenges, including food security and child mortality. While there is an established association between household food insecurity and child stunting (Baig-Ansari et al., 2006 ) as well as underweight, the connection with child mortality lacks thorough characterization in literature.

This study differentiates itself from previous studies (Bjornlund et al., 2022 ; Dennard et al., 2022 ) on linking food insecurity to child mortality by looking at the study, first, in the lens of public health significance. This implies that understanding the major drivers of child mortality in Nigeria is crucial for public health interventions and policymaking which are scarce in previous studies. If there is a significant association between identified factors and child mortality, targeted interventions can be designed to address these factors and reduce child mortality rates. Secondly, contribution to global knowledge– considering that child mortality is a global concern, and insights gained from studying the Nigerian context can contribute to the broader understanding of factors influencing child health due to high incidence of deprivations in the country. This study may offer valuable insights applicable to other regions facing similar challenges.

In addition, unlike other studies (e.g., Cassidy-Vu et al., 2022 ) that investigated the interrelationships among food security, child mortality, and socioeconomic factors, this study relies on a nationally representative dataset. The study tends to answer two major research questions and hypotheses: (i) What are the main major drivers of child mortality in Nigeria? H 0  =  There is no significant association between the identified major drivers and child mortality in Nigeria. (ii) Does household food security status influence child mortality in Nigeria? H 0  =  There is no significant relationship between household food security status and child mortality in Nigeria. Additionally, we assess the distribution of household food security across different regions of Nigeria. Based on the aforementioned, the objectives of this study are to identify factors influencing child mortality in Nigeria and examine the impact of food insecurity on child mortality. It is expected that these findings will enhance our understanding of how food security influences child health outcomes and inform the development of appropriate policies to improve child nutrition and reduce child mortality rates in Nigeria.

2 Literature Review

This section presents the conceptual issues for food security, defined as the consistent availability of food to ensure a healthy life for all individuals (Almadini, 2024 ; Berry et al., 2015 ; Capone et al., 2014 ). The study embraces a theoretical framework that aligns with this food security definition (Kanter et al., 2015 ; Nicholson et al., 2020 ). In this context, the aspect of food availability evaluates how easily households can access food, primarily influenced by crop production and livestock ownership. The concept of food availability pertains to the "supply side" of food security and is influenced by factors such as the quantity of food production, stock levels, and net trade. Another closely related concept is food access , indicating the ability to obtain an adequate amount of food. Merely having a sufficient amount of food at the national or global scale does not automatically ensure food security at the household level. The emphasis on addressing concerns related to inadequate access to food has led to an increased policy attention on factors such as incomes, expenditures, markets, and prices as essential components in attaining food security goals.

Food utilization mainly focuses on the quality of the diet. Utilization is generally recognized as the manner in which the body optimally utilizes different nutrients present in food. Adequate energy and nutrient intake by individuals are outcomes of effective care and feeding practices, food preparation methods, dietary diversity, and the equitable distribution of food within households. The last concept of food security is stability. Stability in the other three dimensions over time is crucial. Even with sufficient food intake today, you may be deemed food insecure if you face periodic challenges in accessing food, risking a decline in your nutritional well-being. Factors such as adverse weather conditions, political instability, or economic challenges such as unemployment and escalating food prices can influence your food security status. This study will be assessing food security with the lens of food accessibility in the context of expenditures.

The interrelationship between food security and child mortality is a complex and critical issue that draws policymaker’s attention (Cassidy-Vu et al., 2022 ; Pérez-Escamilla, 2017 ; Wudil et al., 2022 ). The existence of disparities in food security has significant implications for child mortality rates. When certain populations or regions experience limited access to sufficient and nutritious food, children within those communities are more vulnerable to health complications and higher mortality rates (Cassidy-Vu et al., 2022 ). These disparities in food security can manifest in various ways. For instance, socioeconomic factors such as poverty, unemployment, and income inequality can contribute to inadequate food availability and affordability for certain households. Inadequate access to quality healthcare services and sanitation facilities further exacerbate the impact of food insecurity on child health (Pérez-Escamilla, 2017 ; Wudil et al., 2022 ).

Meanwhile, it is important to understand the pathways through which food insecurity affects child health outcomes which is crucial for developing effective strategies to mitigate the negative impact. Several key pathways contribute to this relationship: in the context of malnutrition , food insecurity often leads to inadequate access to a diverse and nutritious diet, resulting in malnutrition among children (Gulati, 2010 ; Narayan et al., 2019 ). Insufficient intake of essential nutrients, such as proteins, vitamins, and minerals, can impair growth and development, weaken the immune system, and increase the risk of diseases (Cassidy-Vu et al., 2022 ).

Another important pathway of food insecurity-nutrition relationship is through the impaired cognitive development. The inadequate nutrition due to food insecurity can impair cognitive development in children. The malnourished children may experience difficulties in learning, memory, attention, and problem-solving abilities, which can have long-term consequences on their educational attainment and overall well-being (Gallegos et al., 2021 ; Shankar et al., 2017 ). The increased susceptibility to infections is critical pathway of association between food insecurity and child mortality. Usually, malnutrition weakens the immune system, making children more susceptible to infectious diseases (Palar et al., 2017 ; Pryor & Dietz, 2022 ). Undernourished children are more likely to experience severe illness and have a higher mortality risk when exposed to common infections such as diarrhea, respiratory infections, and malaria (Palar et al., 2017 ; Pryor & Dietz, 2022 ).

Families facing food insecurity may struggle to access adequate healthcare services , including preventive care, immunizations, and timely treatment for illnesses. Limited financial resources may lead to delayed or inadequate healthcare seeking behaviors, thereby further exacerbating child health issues. Social and economic factors is a critical pathway of interconnection between the two variables. Food insecurity is often associated with poverty and limited resources (Matemilola, 2017 ; Omotayo, 2016 ; Omotayo et al., 2022 ; Omotoso et al., 2018 ). The stress and strain caused by food insecurity can disrupt family dynamics, impact parental mental health, and reduce the capacity to provide a nurturing and supportive environment for children (Lambi et al., 2012 ; Mugambiwa & Tirivangasi, 2017 ). Addressing these pathways requires a comprehensive approach that includes interventions aimed at improving household food security, promoting nutrition education and behavior change, enhancing healthcare access, and addressing underlying socioeconomic determinants such as poverty and inequality. By targeting these pathways, efforts can be directed towards improving child health outcomes and breaking the cycle of food insecurity and its detrimental effects on the well-being of children.

Empirically, there are studies (Banerjee et al., 2021 ; Cassidy-Vu et al., 2022 ; Kind et al., 2006 ; Lee et al., 2016 ), that have examined the relationship between food (in)security and child health outcomes including child mortality. For instance, Lee et al. ( 2016 ) investigated 95 lower-income countries, the study found that reduced access to food correlated with an upsurge in both undernourishment and overall infant mortality rates. Additionally, in rural Gambia, Kind et al. ( 2006 ) found that enhancing the consumption of protein, calcium, and iron resulted in higher birth weights and a decrease in perinatal mortality. In North Carolina (USA), Cassidy-Vu et al. ( 2022 ) found that food insecurity is positively correlated with infant mortality. Banerjee et al. ( 2021 ) found that food insecurity leads to higher mortality and cardiovascular mortality.

3 Methodology

3.1 study area.

As shown in Fig.  1 , Nigeria is divided into six geopolitical regions (Olatomiwa et al., 2015 ). The geopolitical zones in Nigeria comprises of the north central, north east, north west, south east, south west and south south. Generally, studies have suggested that the food and nutrition security issues differ along the geopolitical. For instance, the household survey of 2018/19 conducted by FAO ( 2022 ), shows that the North-East and North-West regions exhibit the most severe levels of food insecurity in Nigeria compare to the southern regions, a trend substantiated by the Cadre Harmonise surveys (FAO, 2022 ). The survey further reveals substantial variations in food insecurity rates between urban (18%) and rural areas (52%), a perspective corroborated by other findings (Mekonen et al., 2023 ; Mekonnen et al., 2021 ).

Geopolitical location of the six geographical zones of Nigeria

With a population of over 200 million, Nigeria is the most populated black country in the world (Kalu, 2020 ; Olarewaju, 2021 ) with 102,407,327 (or around 50% of the population) people living in deep poverty. The significance of Nigeria being the world's largest black country is multifaceted and carries cultural, historical, and socio-political implications. For instance, Cultural and Ethnic Diversity : Nigeria is home to a rich tapestry of ethnicities, languages, and cultures. Being the largest black country underscores the incredible diversity within the Black community, showcasing the multitude of traditions, customs, and languages that exist within Nigeria. Economic Influence : Nigeria is one of the largest economies in Africa, and its economic strength contributes to the overall well-being and development of the continent. As the world's most populous Black nation, Nigeria's economic successes and challenges have reverberations on a global scale, influencing discussions on trade, development, and investment in Africa.

In Nigeria, the Yoruba, Hausa-Fulani, and Igbo ethnic groups make up the majority of the population. Nigeria is a nation with an increased number of individuals experiencing food insecurity (Owoo, 2018 ; Poulsen et al., 2015 ). Despite reducing its population's undernourishment by more than half, from 19.3% in 1990 to 8.5% between 2010 and 2012, Nigeria had an increase in undernourished residence between 2010 and 2012, going from about 10 million to almost 13 million (Owoo, 2021 ). In addition, food security varies across the nation depending on area, rurality, urbanity, and culture. The degree of food insecurity varies within households and is directly correlated with intra-household traits including family structure and decision-making procedures (Zingwe et al., 2023 ).

The complex and diverse family structures in Nigeria may have an impact on the resource and wealth distribution, which are key factors in determining both household and individual’s food security (Owoo, 2018 ). Indeed, Nigeria is characterized by complex and diverse family structures. The nation's demographic diversity is reflected in a variety of familial arrangements, shaped by cultural, ethnic, religious, and regional factors (Gururani et al., 2021 ; Mai-Bornu & Mai-Bornu, 2020 ; Salawu, 2010 ). In Nigeria, family structures can encompass extended families, nuclear families, and variations in between, all influenced by the specific traditions and customs of the various ethnic groups across the country (George et al., 2014 ; Idogo, 2015 ). This diversity in family structures plays a crucial role in shaping social dynamics, relationships, and community bonds within Nigerian society (Falade & Eseadi, 2022 ).

3.2 Data Source and Description

Data from the Nigeria Living Standard Survey (NLSS)was utilized, it provides details on 11,655 Nigerian homes. The children sampled in the study is around 37,780 children. The NLSS provides thorough information on the self-produced food and household spending on different food types. The sampling design used a stratified random sampling technique with two stages, the first of which involved identifying housing unit clusters known as Enumeration Areas and the second of which involved selecting housing units at random. In a cycle of 30 days, seven interviewers paid the chosen home visits at minimum four-day intervals. A diary of daily food intake and expenditures was included in the questionnaire to track households' non-food spending as well as the food that they produced and bought. The following six food groups' expenditure profiles for each family were also included: 1) Basic foods, 2) meat and fish, 3) dairy items, 4) fruits and vegetables, 5) fats and oils, and 6) sugars. The dataset also provided in-depth details on non-food expenditure items, as well as communication. Additionally, it listed the socioeconomic characteristics of the household, and principal engagement of the household head. Information about the mother and the child was also available.

3.3 Measurement of Food Security

Using per capita food expenditure as a measure of food security has become a common practice (Ogundari, 2017 ; Regmi et al., 2019 ; Russell et al., 2018 ; Usman & Haile, 2022 ), often employed to evaluate how easily people can access food. While Hendriks and Msaki ( 2009 ) argue that spending on food reflects both the accessibility of food and, to some extent, how vulnerable a household is to food insecurity, Faridi and Wadood ( 2010 ) suggest that higher spending proportions mainly indicate vulnerability to food insecurity over time. In essence, food expenditure acts as a stand-in for the aspect of food security related to accessibility since it is influenced by food prices and household resources. It is worth noting that food expenditure does not reveal details about the nutritional content consumed by households but rather demonstrates how household resources affect the quantity of food consumed. This study, following previous approaches (Ogundari, 2017 ; Usman & Haile, 2022 ), uses a threshold set at two-thirds of the mean of per capita expenditure, categorizing a household as food secure (or food insecure) based on whether the observed per capita food expenditure is greater (or less) than the specified threshold.

3.4 Analytical Framework: Impact Assessment using Propensity Score Matching

In this study, we assessed the impact of food (in)security on child mortality using the propensity score matching (PSM) approach. The choice of this method is to estimate the impact of a household being food secure, which will serve as treatment (with a value of 1), as against household that are food insecure serving as a counterfactual (with a value of 0). The counterfactual, or what would have happened if the household is not food secure, must be estimated in an impact assessment. By comparing a control group to the treatment group (food secure), the influence of the food security on the child mortality can be assessed to determine the counterfactual. The two groups are similar except from food security of the households. When it is not practical to randomly assign people to receive the intervention, propensity scores are another approach of measuring the impact of getting an intervention. Propensity score matching (PSM) is the process of matching the propensity scores of the intervention and control units, as well as possibly other covariates, and eliminating all unmatched units. Although it can be utilized to analyze more than two groups of subjects, its primary function is to compare two groups of subjects. According to Diaz and Handa ( 2004 ), PSM is effective as long as the survey instrument used to measure the outcomes is the same for both sets of participants. The effectiveness of PSM is also based on the data that is available and the variables that are utilized for matching.

Rosenbaum & Rubin, ( 1983 ) established the propensity score matching (PSM) concept first, while Heckman et al., ( 1997 ) also contributed to the development of PSM by concentrating on selection bias and emphasizing the use of casual inferences in the presence of non-random participant assignment. PSM is a technique for evaluating programs that is based on the notion of comparing the outcomes of program participants with'equivalent' non-participants. Except for program participation, all observed features between the two groups are comparable, hence it is presumed that the program is to blame for any disparities in the outcomes. The conditional likelihood of being assigned to a specific treatment, given a vector of observable covariates x i, is known as the estimated propensity score for subject e ( x i ) , (i  =  1,…, N ) (Rosenbaum & Rubin, 1983 ):

1 for treatment

0 for control

the vector of observed covariates for the i th subject.

An ideal propensity score for each participant in a randomized experiment contrasting two groups would be 0.50. The propensity score is a probability with values ranging from 0 to 1. This is so that each participant would have a 50% chance of being randomly allocated to either the treatment group or the control group. It is necessary to estimate the propensity score in study designs without randomization, such as in a quasi-experimental design. Values for propensity scores are based on a vector of observed factors that are connected to receiving an intervention. The propensity score matching (PSM) method was employed in this study to assess the effect of food security on infant mortality in Nigeria. This method enables assessors to determine the mean effect of the program on the participants. If Y 1 represents the prospective outcome contingent upon participation (food secure) and Y 0 represents the potential outcome contingent upon non-participation (food insecurity), the influence of the program is indicated by :

3.5 Estimating the Impact (Average Treatment Effect on the Treated)

The matched sample was used to compute the Average Treatment Effect for the treated (impact). It is estimated as follows:

where D = 1 stands for a home that has access to food (treatment) and is a group of conditioning variables that were used to match the individuals. If equation E (Y0| D = 1, X) had not been present, equation 5 would have been simple to estimate. This is the average of the counterfactual, which represents what the results would have been for all participants if they had not undergone the treatment. PSM offers a method for calculating this equation. PSM has the distinct advantage that individuals only need to match on a single item, the propensity score, which calculates the likelihood that they would participate in the program, as opposed to a vector of characteristics. The mean effect of the treatment is calculated as the mean difference in the outcomes of the matched pairs under the condition that the conditional independence assumption and the common support assumption is true:

Although the equation is easily adapted to many programs, it is appropriate to single programs if the treatment variable is categorical and has just two mutually exclusive categories (Imbens, 2004 ; Lechner, 1999 , 2001 ). The ATE, or average treatment effect, is the following for a person chosen at random from the entire population:

where N 0 represents the number in the control group and N 1 represents the number in the treatment group. The relationship between ATT (average treatment on treated), ATE (average treatment effect on an individual), and ATU (average treatment on untreated) may be seen in the equation above.

3.6 Logistic Regression Model

The variables that will have a substantial impact on under-five child mortality in families were found using a logistic regression model. The logistic regression model is employed when the dependent variable is dichotomous, and the independent factors can be of any type. It expresses a qualitative dependent variable as a function of many independent variables. The dependent variable in this analysis, child mortality (Z), has a value of 1 if any children in the family under the age of five die, and 0 otherwise. In other words, Z = 1 if any children in the home between the ages of 1 and 5 die, and 0 otherwise. The logistic model assumes (P i ) that child mortality is a function of an index (Z i ) where: (Z i ) is an inverse of the standard logistic cumulative function of P i i.e. \({P}_{i}\left(y\right)=f\left({Z}_{i}\right)\) (Z i ) is also an inverse of the standard logistic cumulative function of P i i.e. \({P}_{i}\left(y=1\right)=f\left({Z}_{i}\right)\) . The probability of child mortality is given by:

e represents the base of natural logarithms (2.718). The probability of no child mortality is given by

The probability that child mortality occurs is calculated from Z i value

X 1 -X n are the independent variables described in Table 1

under-five child mortality in household (1 if yes, 0 otherwise)

is the coefficient of the X’s variables.

child mortality (1 if yes, 0 otherwise)

4 Results and Discussions

4.1 distribution of household food insecurity across geopolitical zones in nigeria.

Food security is the ability of a household to consistently obtain food in quantities and of a quality that allows all of its members to live healthy, active lives (Gillespie & Haddad, 2001 ). However, poverty and a lack of financial means are directly responsible for early childhood malnutrition and food insecurity (Begin et al., 1999 ). The data shows that a sizable part of Nigerian homes with children under the age of five experienced food insecurity, with this percentage being determined to be at 42.03%. When the distribution of food insecurity among the geopolitical zones was examined, the North-east had the largest proportion (63.71%) of households with this status. According to the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF & WHO., 2003 ), over 50% of under-five deaths in Nigeria, primarily in the Northern region of the country, were attributed to malnutrition.

This is in line with the findings of Adebayo et al., ( 2016 ), which discovered that the majority of households in northern Nigeria are food insecure, with a high proportion of male and rural residents. These findings may be related to the incidence of insurgencies and societal crises in the area. The South-South and South-East had the lowest levels of food insecurity, respectively (Table  1 ) (NBS, 2004 ). In the United States, the prevalence of food insecurity was higher in rural than in urban areas as indicated by, the United States Department of Agriculture report on household food security (Mueller, 2010 ). In the sectorial review, the rural population often had the highest levels of food insecurity (Table  2 ).

4.2 Determinants of Child Mortality in Nigeria

Using logistic regression analysis, we estimate the factors determining child mortality in Nigeria (Table 6 ). The results, demonstrated that the combined dependent variables account for 76.9% of the variance in child mortality. Among the total explanatory factors included in the model, 22 were identified as statistically significant at different levels of significance. Additionally, several other explanatory variables exhibited the expected direction of influence, despite varying levels of statistical significance.

Geopolitical Zones

In 2015, UNICEF reported that child health indices in Nigeria show significant geographical differences, with the North East and North West geopolitical zones having the lowest rates of child survival. This evidence is supported by our findings, which show that three of the six zones—North Central, North East, and North West—in the northern area of Nigeria significantly influenced under-five child mortality, increasing the likelihood that this would happen. Due to a variety of factors, including social unrest, terrorism, extreme poverty, low educational attainment, and subpar healthcare facilities, the North region experiences a high level of food insecurity (Table  2 ). Specifically, the likelihood of child mortality increases by 44.5, 34.5 and 23.0 percentage-points if the child’s household is located in the North Central, North East and North West region respectively. There is a likelihood of a decreased incidence of child mortality in the Southern area. The results shows a negative and significant relationship with child mortality. Compared to the northern region, where social and cultural constraints limit the adoption of innovations that can benefit society, the southern region is tranquil and known for having higher levels of education and openness.

Place of Residence

Infrastructure is the fundamental element that makes it easier for people to engage in activities such as production, distribution, and consumption, which has an impact on their quality of life. In terms of the most fundamental aspects of development, rural communities in Nigeria are severely underdeveloped and frequently have limited options. Potable water, electricity, health care, educational, recreational, and adequate roads are typically lacking in rural places. They have high rates of population increase, which are correlated with short life expectancy, high newborn and maternal mortality, and a lack of contemporary tools to exploit the natural resources they depend on to survive (Chinsman, 1998 ; Galadima & Muraza, 2014 ). The findings show that these difficulties raise the likelihood of under-five child mortality incidence in rural Nigerian homes. The result suggest that the likelihood of child mortality increase by 34.4% if the child residence in the rural households.

Demographic Characteristics

Mothers are the main care giver in most households, particularly for the under-five child. The findings indicated that female headed homes had a higher likelihood of reducing child mortality, with a probability of 98.7% (Table  3 ) than those headed by males. However, experience as a caregiver is essential when determining chances of child survival. A young mother might lack the necessary experience to overcome possible challenges that arise during child care. Therefore, an increase in mothers age reduces the likelihood of child mortality (Bryce et al., 2005 ) with higher education significantly reducing the probability of infant and child mortality (Mondal et al., 2009 ; Pamuk et al., 2011 ).

Parental education plays a dual role in shaping a child's health and nutritional status. First, more productive livelihood engagements should result from improved education, raising earnings and improving food security. Parents that are more educated are likely to be better equipped to use the information that is available on child nutrition and health. They may also opt to have fewer children, which may also reflect the increasing opportunity cost of the mother's time. Depending on the caliber of the education received, successful completion of basic school or functional literacy may be adequate. Furthermore, even if education does not have any benefit, it can be contributing to a positive coefficient. We discovered that a mother who has higher education has a better chance of lowering the infant death rate. The dependency ratio—the proportion of non-working to working (or total) household members—can be influenced by the size and makeup of the household. If a large home has a lot of able-bodied individuals of working age, its welfare should be higher and the child's health and nutritional condition should be better due in part to economies of scale in consumption. However, individuals of a higher birth order are particularly susceptible to infant mortality if there are many young children vying for resources.

Infrastructural Characteristics

Basic amenities need to be available to raise the chances of survival of a child, safe sanitation/waste management, potable water, primary health care and immunization services, have a negative and significant relationship with child mortality. By implication, access to all the listed infrastructural facilities leads to a reduction in the probability of child mortality in Nigeria. Exposure to undesirable microorganism through poor waste management practices can result in a child being vulnerable to diseases. Better health care services are essential to eradicating child mortality incidence, particularly in the rural households. Access to immunization to prevent and reduce the severity of childhood diseases reduces the likelihood of child mortality in Nigeria.

Sociopolitical and Economic Characteristics

Household income is a significance player in food security and combating malnutrition. Household income had the probability of reducing child mortality, as it has a negative and significant relationship with child mortality. Specifically, a unit increase in income is associated with a 68.9 percentage-point decrease in the probability of experiencing child mortality. Credit facilities help to cushion the effects of low income as it is being used to augment the loop hole left behind by low income by engaging in productive activities which generate income. Access to credit facilities by the household head had the likelihood of reducing child mortality. The result implies that if the household receive credit, there is likelihood of reducing child mortality by 67.8 percentage-point.

Membership of a social group is a form of social capital is known to have a strong linkage in reducing poverty. Hence, being a membership of a social group reduces the probability of child mortality as the parent has access to information on health related issues for themselves and their children. This can as also be due to various programs that may be available to them to attend that creates awareness about how improve family hygiene and reduce or prevent common illnesses. Agricultural production in Nigeria is unable to sustain its rural families, many of whom rely on subsistence agriculture to feed themselves, with farmers being classified as the poor of the poorest. In addition, there is insufficient employment in agriculture to accommodate all rural dwellers, some of which is seasonal, with parents who rely solely on such wages being more likely to experience child mortality due to hunger and malnutrition.

Environmental Characteristics

The result shows household near dumping site have a positive relationship with child mortality. Hence the result suggests households located near dumping site are more likely to experience child mortality. The probable reason may be due to the increased presence of disease carrying organisms. In rural areas, firewood is the major sources of energy, which generates smoke and potentially pollutes the environment. Environmental pollution remains dangerous to the health of the child in any environment. The result from our study suggest that the likelihood of child survival is reduced in areas of high pollution. Specifically, the result indicates that the likelihood of child mortality increases by 76.8 percentage point.

4.3 Common Support: Propensity Scoring

Common support graphs were created to provide a visual grasp of the caliber of the matching procedures in order to construct the test for balancing, or the quality of matching two opposing situations. The propensity score overlap between the intervention and control cases is demonstrated by this test. According to Dehejia & Wahba, ( 2002 ), a higher percentage of overlap denotes a good match between them. As shown in Figs. 2 , 3 , 4 , and 5 , there is a significant amount of overlap between the propensity scores of the intervention and control participants, indicating that they are well-matched and balanced.

Test of region of common support: child mortality

Test of region of common support: Rural–urban child mortality

Test of region of common support: Northern child mortality

Test of region of common support: Southern child mortality

4.4 Average Impact Estimates of Propensity Score Matching of Food Security on Child Mortality

To obtain a clearer understanding of the impact of the household food security status (HFSS) on child mortality, we estimated its impact using households with child mortality records with the three most commonly adopted matching methods; Nearest-Neighbor Matching (NNM), Radius–Based Matching (RBM) and the Kernel-Based Matching (KBM) in the literature. We reported kernel matching following the necessary selection conditions, such as smallest pseudo-R 2 , quality of match, significance level, reduction bias and smallest variance. The impact of introducing a spatial dimension approach was estimated by considering national data, geopolitical zones and sectoral (rural and urban).

A significant and negative result implied a potentially significant reduction in child mortality rate if the household is food secured, with a probability of reducing child mortality. As noted by UNICEF & WHO, ( 2013 ), Nigeria is the second highest contributor to the world's under-five and maternal mortality rates, with almost 2,300 deaths for children under five and 145 for women who are childbearing age every day. Globally, at least 6.3 million children under the age of five died in 2013—nearly 17,000 every day. Malnutrition and food insecurity are major contributors to the high child mortality rate, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa (2015). Based on the KBM results (Table  4 ), the data from the national statistics demonstrate that HFSS has a negative and significant impact on child mortality.

The data indicates the average difference between the child mortality of similar pairs of households, with each belonging to a different food security group. Herewith, the Average Treatment Effect on the Treated (Attah), which gives the average effect of the HFSS on child mortality for food secure households was of interest. Specifically, the KBM causal effect of HFSS on child mortality suggests that child mortality was potentially reduced by about 0.03 in food secure households than food insecure household. In terms of the percentage decrease in child mortality generated by the food security status of the households, the results of KBM show that the food had an approximately 24.0% decrease in child mortality (Table  4 ). The result suggests that ensuring food security of the household perhaps in the context of increase food expenditure to enhance household dietary diversity, consumption to nutrient-rich foods will decrease vulnerability of the child to susceptible diseases emerging due to poor nutrition. This result supports the findings of Kind et al., ( 2006 ) that found that enhancing the consumption of protein, calcium, and iron resulted in a decrease in perinatal mortality (Table  5 ).

4.5 Average Impact Estimates of Household Food Security on Child Mortality: Rural and Urban

According to Adepoju, ( 2015 ), more children die in rural parts of Nigeria than in urban areas, with a rural infant mortality rate of 95 per 1,000 live births in 2008 compared to 67 per 1,000 in urban areas. Furthermore, Rutstein, ( 2008 ) explained that there were 121 fatalities per 1,000 live births in urban areas compared to 191 deaths per 1,000 live births in rural regions. Estimates of the impact of HFSS on child mortality within the six areas in Nigeria indicate that food security has had a negative and significant influence on both rural and urban child mortalities. The estimated average impact of HFSS on child mortality of a sample rural and urban households was denoted by ATT, with the impact parameter suggesting that it is likely to decrease the probability of child mortality by 0.05 and 0.08 for rural and urban households respectively. Levels of 11.4% and 26.3% reduction in child mortality were recorded as a result of food security for rural and urban households respectively. This result is congruence with the findings of (Rezende et al., 2014 ), which suggested a strong linkage between household food security and alleviation of under-five child and pregnant women mortality. However, a higher impact was observed at the urban than rural areas, (Adebayo et al., 2016 ; Schiller et al., 2012 ), with more than 75% of rural dwellers living on agriculture as their means of livelihood (Attah, 2012 ).

4.6 Average Impact Estimates of Household Food Security on Child Mortality: Northern Nigeria

Based on the study by Adepoju, ( 2015 ), the Northern region of Nigeria had the highest child mortality rate of 200.90 deaths per 1000 births. In addition, WFP, ( 2012 ) reported that due to violence, the food security in the Northern part of the nation continues to be a challenge and under-five mortality is on the increase. The impact shows that there were significant differences in the child mortality between the food secure and counterfactual households for the Northern region of Nigeria (North central, North West and North East) at 1% significance level for all the considered zones. Among the Northern states, the North eastern zone experienced a higher frequency of insurgency more than other zones, resulting in food insecurity being very high (see Table  2 ). The North West had the highest probability of a reduction in child mortality, followed by North East and North Central respectively (see Table  6 ). Food secure households in the Northern region of Nigeria will reduce the probability of child mortality by 8.88%, 7.25% and 8.19% for North Central, North East and North West respectively.

4.7 Average Impact Estimates of Household Food Security on Child Mortality: Southern Nigeria

Contrary to the Northern region, the Southern region had the lowest child mortality rate of 92.4 deaths per 1000 births (Fayehun & Omololu, 2009 ). Otaha ( 2013 ) reported that excessive rainfall and floods in the Southern region is a contributor to food insecurity in the region. We found that food insecurity is less in the Southern than the Northern region (see Table  2 ). Using the ATT that measures the average difference between child mortality rate of food secure and the food insecure household of the corresponding match, with a statistically significant difference of changes in the probability of reduction in child mortality between the two. Thus, our findings confirmed that there were substantial decreases in the probability of child mortality in households as a result of being food secure in the Southern region of Nigeria. This confirmed that food and nutritional security is essential for reducing the high child mortality rates in SSA (Table  7 ).

5 Conclusion and Policy Implications

Child mortality remains a global area of public health concern, with its clear link to a hunger, food insecurity, poverty and lack of health facilities. The study examined the impact of household food security on under-five child mortality in Nigeria and found that a large proportion of those were food insecure. A significant percentage of the households did not have the purchasing capacity to access the less available food in Nigeria due to low food production and recession facing the nation. The results indicated that the drivers of child mortality in Nigeria include maternal education and age, geopolitical zones, place of dwelling (rural or urban) and access to health care facilities. The estimates in this national level study across the Northern and Southern regions and rural and urban households revealed that food security had an impact on child mortality. Food security had a probability of reducing the child mortality rate in Nigeria, with the most populous Northern region having the highest food insecurity level and with its associated impact compared to their Southern region. The current findings suggest that by prioritizing food security, improving access to nutrition, and addressing underlying social determinants, we can significantly reduce child mortality rates. It is imperative for policymakers, healthcare providers, and communities to work collaboratively towards creating sustainable solutions that safeguard the well-being and future of children in Nigeria.

Data Availability

Data used in this research can be made available on tangible request from the first author.

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Ogunniyi, A.I., Omotayo, A.O., Olagunju, K.O. et al. Evaluating the Role of Households' Food Security Status and Socioeconomic Determinants on Child Mortality in Nigeria. Child Ind Res (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-024-10134-5

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