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Writing A Case Study

Case Study Examples

Brilliant Case Study Examples and Templates For Your Help

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A Complete Case Study Writing Guide With Examples

Simple Case Study Format for Students to Follow

Understand the Types of Case Study Here

It’s no surprise that writing a case study is one of the most challenging academic tasks for students. You’re definitely not alone here!

Most people don't realize that there are specific guidelines to follow when writing a case study. If you don't know where to start, it's easy to get overwhelmed and give up before you even begin.

Don't worry! Let us help you out!

We've collected over 25 free case study examples with solutions just for you. These samples with solutions will help you win over your panel and score high marks on your case studies.

So, what are you waiting for? Let's dive in and learn the secrets to writing a successful case study.

• 1. An Overview of Case Studies
• 2. Case Study Examples for Students
• 3. Business Case Study Examples
• 4. Medical Case Study Examples
• 5. Psychology Case Study Examples 
• 6. Sales Case Study Examples
• 7. Interview Case Study Examples
• 8. Marketing Case Study Examples
• 9. Tips to Write a Good Case Study

An Overview of Case Studies

A case study is a research method used to study a particular individual, group, or situation in depth. It involves analyzing and interpreting data from a variety of sources to gain insight into the subject being studied. 

Case studies are often used in psychology, business, and education to explore complicated problems and find solutions. They usually have detailed descriptions of the subject, background info, and an analysis of the main issues.

The goal of a case study is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject. Typically, case studies can be divided into three parts, challenges, solutions, and results. 

Here is a case study sample PDF so you can have a clearer understanding of what a case study actually is:

Case Study Sample PDF

How to Write a Case Study Examples

Learn how to write a case study with the help of our comprehensive case study guide.

Case Study Examples for Students

Quite often, students are asked to present case studies in their academic journeys. The reason instructors assign case studies is for students to sharpen their critical analysis skills, understand how companies make profits, etc.

Below are some case study examples in research, suitable for students:

Case Study Example in Software Engineering

Qualitative Research Case Study Sample

Software Quality Assurance Case Study

Social Work Case Study Example

Ethical Case Study

Case Study Example PDF

These examples can guide you on how to structure and format your own case studies.

Struggling with formatting your case study? Check this case study format guide and perfect your document’s structure today.

Business Case Study Examples

A business case study examines a business’s specific challenge or goal and how it should be solved. Business case studies usually focus on several details related to the initial challenge and proposed solution. 

To help you out, here are some samples so you can create case studies that are related to businesses: 

Here are some more business case study examples:

Business Case Studies PDF

Business Case Studies Example

Typically, a business case study discovers one of your customer's stories and how you solved a problem for them. It allows your prospects to see how your solutions address their needs. 

Medical Case Study Examples

Medical case studies are an essential part of medical education. They help students to understand how to diagnose and treat patients. 

Here are some medical case study examples to help you.

Medical Case Study Example

Nursing Case Study Example

Want to understand the various types of case studies? Check out our types of case study blog to select the perfect type.

Psychology Case Study Examples 

Case studies are a great way of investigating individuals with psychological abnormalities. This is why it is a very common assignment in psychology courses. 

By examining all the aspects of your subject’s life, you discover the possible causes of exhibiting such behavior. 

For your help, here are some interesting psychology case study examples:

Psychology Case Study Example

Mental Health Case Study Example

Sales Case Study Examples

Case studies are important tools for sales teams’ performance improvement. By examining sales successes, teams can gain insights into effective strategies and create action plans to employ similar tactics.

By researching case studies of successful sales campaigns, sales teams can more accurately identify challenges and develop solutions.

Sales Case Study Example

Interview Case Study Examples

Interview case studies provide businesses with invaluable information. This data allows them to make informed decisions related to certain markets or subjects.

Interview Case Study Example

Marketing Case Study Examples

Marketing case studies are real-life stories that showcase how a business solves a problem. They typically discuss how a business achieves a goal using a specific marketing strategy or tactic.

They typically describe a challenge faced by a business, the solution implemented, and the results achieved.

This is a short sample marketing case study for you to get an idea of what an actual marketing case study looks like.

 Here are some more popular marketing studies that show how companies use case studies as a means of marketing and promotion:

“Chevrolet Discover the Unexpected” by Carol H. Williams

This case study explores Chevrolet's “ DTU Journalism Fellows ” program. The case study uses the initials “DTU” to generate interest and encourage readers to learn more. 

Multiple types of media, such as images and videos, are used to explain the challenges faced. The case study concludes with an overview of the achievements that were met.

Key points from the case study include:

• Using a well-known brand name in the title can create interest.
• Combining different media types, such as headings, images, and videos, can help engage readers and make the content more memorable.
• Providing a summary of the key achievements at the end of the case study can help readers better understand the project's impact.

“The Met” by Fantasy

“ The Met ” by Fantasy is a fictional redesign of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, created by the design studio Fantasy. The case study clearly and simply showcases the museum's website redesign.

The Met emphasizes the website’s features and interface by showcasing each section of the interface individually, allowing the readers to concentrate on the significant elements.

For those who prefer text, each feature includes an objective description. The case study also includes a “Contact Us” call-to-action at the bottom of the page, inviting visitors to contact the company.

Key points from this “The Met” include:

• Keeping the case study simple and clean can help readers focus on the most important aspects.
• Presenting the features and solutions with a visual showcase can be more effective than writing a lot of text.
• Including a clear call-to-action at the end of the case study can encourage visitors to contact the company for more information.

“Better Experiences for All” by Herman Miller

Herman Miller's minimalist approach to furniture design translates to their case study, “ Better Experiences for All ”, for a Dubai hospital. The page features a captivating video with closed-captioning and expandable text for accessibility.

The case study presents a wealth of information in a concise format, enabling users to grasp the complexities of the strategy with ease. It concludes with a client testimonial and a list of furniture items purchased from the brand.

Key points from the “Better Experiences” include:

• Make sure your case study is user-friendly by including accessibility features like closed captioning and expandable text.
• Include a list of products that were used in the project to guide potential customers.

“NetApp” by Evisort 

Evisort's case study on “ NetApp ” stands out for its informative and compelling approach. The study begins with a client-centric overview of NetApp, strategically directing attention to the client rather than the company or team involved.

The case study incorporates client quotes and explores NetApp’s challenges during COVID-19. Evisort showcases its value as a client partner by showing how its services supported NetApp through difficult times. 

• Provide an overview of the company in the client’s words, and put focus on the customer. 
• Highlight how your services can help clients during challenging times.
• Make your case study accessible by providing it in various formats.

“Red Sox Season Campaign,” by CTP Boston

The “ Red Sox Season Campaign ” showcases a perfect blend of different media, such as video, text, and images. Upon visiting the page, the video plays automatically, there are videos of Red Sox players, their images, and print ads that can be enlarged with a click.

The page features an intuitive design and invites viewers to appreciate CTP's well-rounded campaign for Boston's beloved baseball team. There’s also a CTA that prompts viewers to learn how CTP can create a similar campaign for their brand.

Some key points to take away from the “Red Sox Season Campaign”: 

• Including a variety of media such as video, images, and text can make your case study more engaging and compelling.
• Include a call-to-action at the end of your study that encourages viewers to take the next step towards becoming a customer or prospect.

“Airbnb + Zendesk” by Zendesk

The case study by Zendesk, titled “ Airbnb + Zendesk : Building a powerful solution together,” showcases a true partnership between Airbnb and Zendesk. 

The article begins with an intriguing opening statement, “Halfway around the globe is a place to stay with your name on it. At least for a weekend,” and uses stunning images of beautiful Airbnb locations to captivate readers.

Instead of solely highlighting Zendesk's product, the case study is crafted to tell a good story and highlight Airbnb's service in detail. This strategy makes the case study more authentic and relatable.

Some key points to take away from this case study are:

• Use client's offerings' images rather than just screenshots of your own product or service.
• To begin the case study, it is recommended to include a distinct CTA. For instance, Zendesk presents two alternatives, namely to initiate a trial or seek a solution.

“Influencer Marketing” by Trend and WarbyParker

The case study "Influencer Marketing" by Trend and Warby Parker highlights the potential of influencer content marketing, even when working with a limited budget. 

The “Wearing Warby” campaign involved influencers wearing Warby Parker glasses during their daily activities, providing a glimpse of the brand's products in use. 

This strategy enhanced the brand's relatability with influencers' followers. While not detailing specific tactics, the case study effectively illustrates the impact of third-person case studies in showcasing campaign results.

Key points to take away from this case study are:

• Influencer marketing can be effective even with a limited budget.
• Showcasing products being used in everyday life can make a brand more approachable and relatable.
• Third-person case studies can be useful in highlighting the success of a campaign.

Marketing Case Study Template

Marketing Case Study Example

Now that you have read multiple case study examples, hop on to our tips.

Tips to Write a Good Case Study

Here are some note-worthy tips to craft a winning case study 

• Define the purpose of the case study This will help you to focus on the most important aspects of the case. The case study objective helps to ensure that your finished product is concise and to the point.
• Choose a real-life example. One of the best ways to write a successful case study is to choose a real-life example. This will give your readers a chance to see how the concepts apply in a real-world setting.
• Keep it brief. This means that you should only include information that is directly relevant to your topic and avoid adding unnecessary details.
• Use strong evidence. To make your case study convincing, you will need to use strong evidence. This can include statistics, data from research studies, or quotes from experts in the field.
• Edit and proofread your work. Before you submit your case study, be sure to edit and proofread your work carefully. This will help to ensure that there are no errors and that your paper is clear and concise.

There you go!

We’re sure that now you have secrets to writing a great case study at your fingertips! This blog teaches the key guidelines of various case studies with samples. So grab your pen and start crafting a winning case study right away!

Having said that, we do understand that some of you might be having a hard time writing compelling case studies.

But worry not! Our expert case study writing service is here to take all your case-writing blues away! 

With 100% thorough research guaranteed, our online essay service can craft an amazing case study within 24 hours! 

So why delay? Let us help you shine in the eyes of your instructor!

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Dr. Barbara is a highly experienced writer and author who holds a Ph.D. degree in public health from an Ivy League school. She has worked in the medical field for many years, conducting extensive research on various health topics. Her writing has been featured in several top-tier publications.

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Keep reading

Welcome to the online RICA Test preparation course presented by ricatest.com.

The contents of this article comes from part of our RICA Test Prep online course .

On this page, you will learn the background knowledge about the RICA Test Case Study that you will receive in Subtest 3.

The RICA Test case study is typically the most feared section on the RICA exam, but fear not because in this guide, we will walk you through everything you need to know, as well as provide you with all of the right resources to help you ace your case study written response!

About The Case Study

Test takers will encounter the case study problem while completing Subtest 3.

According to the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing,

“For this assignment, candidates receive substantial background information about a student and samples of materials illustrating the student’s reading performance. Candidates are asked to assess the student’s reading performance, describe appro­priate instructional strategies, and explain why these strategies would be effective. The examination includes one case study, which includes content related to all five domains of the revised RICA Content Specifications and requires a typed response of approximately 300–600 words.”

What To Expect

First, it’s important to note that the Case Study section of your Subtest 3 exam includes information covered in domains 2 through 5.

The Case Study section of your Subtest 3 exam asks examinees to write a 300 – 600 word response, which counts for a total of 20% of the total examination score. Examinees taking Subtest 3 are given a total of 1 hour and 30 minutes to complete the entire exam. Because Subtest 3 includes a total of 25 multiple-choice questions, we suggest planning to spend approximately 1 hour to complete your case study written response

Test Format

Beginning 8/16/2021, the RICA exam will be segmented into the three separate sections:

• Subtest I : 35 multiple-choice questions and 2 constructed-response questions
• Subtest II : 35 multiple-choice questions and 2 constructed-response questions
• Subtest III : 25 multiple-choice questions and 1 constructed-response question

* For more information regarding each subtest, click the appropriate links above.

Scoring Weight

• Multiple Choice: 80%
• Case Study: 20%

Writing Passing Essay Responses

There are a total of four essay questions, not including the Case Study. Within those four essay questions, two are shorter in length, and two are longer in length.

For the essay questions presented in Subtests 1 and 2, use this framework:

• Identify one need demonstrated by the student described in the question.
• Describe an instructional strategy to address this student’s need.
• Explain why the strategy you chose would effectively address this student’s need.

Remember the following:

• Using simple-to-understand words, while demonstrating your knowledge of reading instruction vocabulary.
• Answer every section of the essay question.
• Write concisely; don’t be wordy.

Writing a Passing Case Study Response

The case study is covered extensively and completely in the online course. Watch, listen, and take notes to understand the examinee tasks and effective strategies to write a passing case study response.

Started by watching this video. Then, use the online course to master the material!

Making The Right Decision: Time Management

A decision that you will want to make prior to beginning Subtest 3 is whether you will complete the multiple-choice questions or case study response first.

On one hand, if you complete the multiple-choice questions first, reading the questions and answers can activate RICA vocabulary, and you can jot notes as you take the test as you come across key terms.

On the other hand, completing your case study first gives you the advantage of writing while you’re fresh and full of energy.

How Your Writing Is Evaluated

Your written case study response is evaluated based on the extent to which you demonstrate knowledge and skills important for effective delivery of a balanced, comprehensive reading program using the following criteria:

Purpose : The candidate demonstrates an understanding of the relevant content and pedagogical knowledge by fulfilling the purpose of the assignment.

Application of Content: The candidate accurately and effectively applies the relevant content and pedagogical knowledge.

Support : The candidate supports the response with appropriate examples, evidence, and rationales based on the relevant content and pedagogical knowledge.

In this next section of the lesson, you’ll learn

How To Organize Your Case Study Written Response

In receiving your Case Study prompt, you will be presented with information about a student’s reading performance, where you will be required to examine and analyze the student’s assessments to apply your knowledge of reading assessment and instruction to analyze this case study. Your response should include three parts:

We are going to pause this lesson here.

You’ve learned how to think about and how to start your Case Study written response, but that is only the beginning.

Master writing your Case Study written response by clicking the button below and enrolling into our Rica® Test Prep online course.

This is an on-demand course that allows you to study when you want and where you want.

Hope over to check it out by clicking on the button below.

For further introductions to the Case Study, watch our video directly below.

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Writing a Case Study Response

The assignment of a case study is a typical job for college and university students, who want to improve their professional and critical thinking skills and become expert in their main discipline, because a case study is a research of a definite problem of a certain topic which requires time and efforts.

If one is asked to complete a case study, he should devote much attention to the process and collect enough reliable facts, which will be helpful in the process of the analysis. There is always a certain problem and the student should find out about the cause and effect of the problem and solve the ‘puzzle’ of the case professionally. Evidently, students are always nervous and frustrated while writing the case study, because the topics are not always easy and require efforts and knowledge.Nevertheless, if a student has finished the case study, he will need to defend it effectively and now the problem of case study response writing appears. The main difficulty of writing a case study response is the set of the special requirements to the paper. For example, the response should be brief but explain the problem of the case study and the purpose of writing in detail.

We Will Write a Custom Case Study Specifically For You For Only $13.90/page!

It is quite difficult to complete such a well-analyzed, well-summarized but narrow paper being an inexperienced student.First of all the paper should describe the general topic of the case study in order to give the reader a general idea about the discipline, the topic and the definite problem of the case. After that it is important to focus of the direct narrower issues which are suggested for the research and the student should present a logical list of these core points.Writing a response to a case study students do the common mistake: they fail to connect their background knowledge with the facts gained during the research of the case. This connection of required for the high-quality comparison of the topic and professional conclusions. The student should also pay attention to the various research approached which can be used and have been used for the research of the problem and he is expected to evaluate the methodology and the research approach in his case.

Furthermore, it is sensible to suggest the alternative solutions to the problem and predict the effect of these alternative methods on the quality of the research.In general, the student who is going to do a case study response should try to insert much essential information about the case in the brief and logical paper. In conclusion one should evaluate the importance of the research and share the personal achievements and impressions concerning the paper with the reader. Additionally, professional case study response writing help is available online.

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Cornell Law School's Alumni Magazine

Battling Antisemitism through a Legal Lens and Historical Study

Menachem Rosensaft had been teaching about war crimes, genocide, and the law for more than a decade—at Cornell Law School, Columbia Law School, and Syracuse University College of Law—when he began to envision a different kind of course to be taught. “I needed to step down from my day jobs first,” said Rosensaft, who retired as general counsel and associate executive vice president at the World Jewish Congress at the end of last August. He was planning to “relax and recharge my batteries” and take time to prepare a syllabus for a new course on antisemitism.

“To have a real understanding of genocide, you need to understand antisemitism,” says Rosensaft, adjunct professor of law at Cornell. “Antisemitism was at the core of the perpetration of the Holocaust.” He figured it would take several months to develop a syllabus that would look at antisemitism throughout history and through a legal lens.

Then, October 7 happened.

Within days, Rosensaft gathered with his students in his law of genocide class for open conversation. They expressed emotions and viewpoints, encouraged by their professor who for four decades has been involved in the Israeli-Palestinian peace process. Rosensaft also got a call from Jens David Ohlin, Allan R. Tessler Dean and Professor of Law, who asked if he could accelerate the syllabus and start teaching the new course in January.

“A course like this is rare among law schools,” says Ohlin. “It’s one of many things that makes Cornell distinctive. It demonstrates how our faculty bring their intellectual prowess into the classroom and shape curricula for relevance, always with an eye to the world outside the classroom.” Ohlin, a scholar in international law, war crimes, and genocide, saw the new course as an opportunity to bring legal and moral clarity to emotionally charged issues playing out on college campuses and beyond.

“This is how Cornell responds,” says Ohlin. “We respond with more education, so that our students will understand history, how to get beyond the sound bites and slogans, how to fight antisemitism in the courts, and how the rule of law can battle ignorance and prejudice.”

“Antisemitism in the Courts and in Jurisprudence” spans legal cases from nineteenth- century Europe through Nazi Germany and Stalinist U.S.S.R. to contemporary times. Among the topics covered are ritual murder trials, the Dreyfus affair in France, the Leo Frank trial in Georgia, the defamation case against Henry Ford (publisher of an antisemitic newspaper), the Nazi Nuremberg racial laws, the crimes against humanity charges at the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg, the prosecution of Jews (“refuseniks”) who wanted to leave the Soviet Union, court proceedings following the Tree of Life Synagogue killings, and recent campus protests.

Rosensaft will present cases where the judicial process was manipulated to frame an innocent individual because of antisemitic attitudes and beliefs. “It’s critical for my students to understand that antisemitism is different from other forms of racism, bigotry, Islamophobia. It’s not that it’s more serious; it’s not. It is, however, different in that every other bigotry is binary, based on race or religion or color or nationality or political orientation or class or gender or sexual orientation. Antisemitism is multi-faceted; it can be more than one of those things combined, and you have to understand which manifestation of antisemitism you’re dealing with in order to counteract it.”

Rosensaft says his goal in the course, offered separately to undergraduates and law students, “is to have my students be able to have nuanced conversations and be comfortable with the uncomfortable. There are gray areas both in history and the law, and they need to be able to navigate them and put them into context. In order to understand the moral imperative of the law, you need to understand the historical and philosophical context. The law can help us take the necessary action against antisemitism.”

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2024 - WFP’s Support to Strengthening Social Protection Systems Around the Globe

This series of case studies draws from rapid literature reviews, interviews and consultations with WFP staff and key stakeholders. It evaluates WFP’s long-term contributions to supporting and strengthening national social protection systems across a range of different ‘building blocks’, examining its strategic objectives and role in each context and highlighting key successes, challenges, and lessons learned. 

The series covers the following fifteen countries: Bangladesh, Cambodia, the Caribbean, Colombia, Djibouti, Ecuador, Ghana, Haiti, India, Iraq, Mauritania, Pakistan, Philippines, Uganda, and Zimbabwe.

The series of case studies was conducted by the Centre for Social Protection of the Institute of Development Studies (IDS) for WFP.

Publications

2024 - measuring the value of using social protection for emergency response: research programme.

2024 - Maximizing impact: the intersection of social protection and resilience. WFP Social Protection and Resilience Policy Brief

Regional Evaluation of WFP’s contribution to Shock-Responsive Social Protection in Latin America and the Caribbean (2015–2022)

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CDC A(H5N1) Bird Flu Response Update June 28, 2024

At a glance.

CDC provides an update on its response activities related to the multistate outbreak of avian influenza A(H5N1) virus, or "H5N1 bird flu," in dairy cows and other animals in the United States.

June 28, 2024 – CDC continues to respond to the public health challenge posed by a multistate outbreak of avian influenza A(H5N1) virus, or "H5N1 bird flu," in dairy cows and other animals in the United States . CDC is working in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), state public health and animal health officials, and other partners using a One Health approach . To date, there have been three human cases associated with an ongoing multistate outbreak of A(H5N1) in U.S. dairy cows. A Based on the information available at this time, CDC's current H5N1 bird flu human health risk assessment for the U.S. general public remains low. All three sporadic cases had direct contact with sick cows. On the animal health side, USDA is reporting that 132 dairy cow herds in 12 U.S. states have confirmed cases of avian influenza A(H5N1) virus infections in dairy cows as the number of infected herds continues to grow.

Among other activities previously reported in past spotlights and still ongoing, recent highlights of CDC's response to this include:

• Posting the CDC H5N1 Science Agenda that summarizes the key research issues that the agency hopes to address related to the ongoing outbreak of A(H5N1) virus in dairy cows and other animals in the United States.
• Posting updated recommendations for agricultural fair organizers and people exhibiting animals at agricultural fairs on how to reduce the risk of novel influenza A viruses spreading between animals and people at these events. These recommendations, which previously focused on reducing the risk of spreading swine-origin flu viruses between pigs and people, have been expanded to include cattle, given the ongoing outbreak of H5N1 bird flu in U.S. poultry and cattle. Millions of people in the United States attend agricultural fairs each year, usually in the summer season. When large numbers of animals and people are in close contact with each other, this raises the risk of disease spread. Measures to reduce the risk of infection include avoiding animal exposures, which is especially important for people who are at higher risk of developing serious flu complications, and frequent handwashing. Read the updated documents: Considerations and Information for Fair Exhibitors to Help Prevent Influenza and Considerations and Information for Fair Organizers to Help Prevent Influenza .
• The Michigan Department of Health and Human Services (MDHHS) launched an H5N1 bird flu seroprevalence study of individuals exposed to sick cows. The study aims to determine if there has been asymptomatic infection with H5N1 bird flu among people who have worked with sick cows, if certain jobs might increase risk of exposure, and how personal protective equipment (PPE) can protect against infection. CDC is providing technical assistance.
• Continuing to support strategies to maximize protection of farm workers, who are at higher risk of infection based on their exposures. This includes outreach to farm workers in affected counties through Meta (Facebook and Instagram), digital display, and audio (Pandora). These resources provide information in English and Spanish about potential risks of A(H5N1) infection, recommended preventive actions, symptoms to be on the look-out for, and what to do if they develop symptoms. Since May 30, when English assets launched, Meta outreach has generated more than 4.5 million impressions. Spanish Meta assets launched on June 6, and since then have garnered 650,000 impressions. Additionally, CDC continues to create additional materials, including fact sheets in K'iche' and Nahuatl , in addition to Spanish .
• Continuing to work with public health laboratories to monitor influenza virus testing. While 53 people have been tested for A(H5N1) virus associated with the dairy cow outbreak, it is important to look at exposure-based testing in the context of CDC's wider testing for flu in the United States. Since March 3, 2024, 31,223 specimens have been tested by public health laboratories for flu with results being reported to CDC. These were specimens submitted to public health laboratories for flu testing and subtyping as part of regular flu surveillance activities. Public health laboratories report data to CDC each week, and more than 200,000 specimens are tested each year. These laboratories use a testing protocol that would detect A(H5N1) virus and other novel viruses. Among those more than 30,000 specimens tested since March 3, 2024, no cases of H5N1 bird flu were detected.

CDC Yearly Lab Work on Flu Viruses

1,600,000: More than 1.6 million patient specimens are tested in clinical labs participating in CDC domestic disease surveillance.*

200,000: More than 200,000 specimens are tested in 93 state/local public health labs.

6,000: CDC conducts full genetic sequencing on about 6,000 flu viruses each year.

3,000: CDC tests more than 3,000 flu viruses to determine their immune properties.

60: CDC prepares more than 60 viruses for possible use in vaccine production.

*Numbers represent average annual data as reported to CDC's Influenza Division from 2015-2022, excluding the 2020-2021 season when there was little influenza activity.

• Continuing to support states that are monitoring people with exposure to cows, birds, or other domestic or wild animals infected, or potentially infected, with avian influenza A(H5N1) viruses. To date, more than 780 people have been monitored as a result of their exposure to infected or potentially infected animals, and at least 53 people who have developed flu-like symptoms have been tested as part of this targeted, situation-specific testing. Testing of exposed people who develop symptoms is happening at the state or local level, and CDC conducts confirmatory testing. More information on monitoring can be found at Symptom Monitoring Among Persons Exposed to HPAI .
• Overall, for the most recent week of data, CDC flu surveillance systems show no indicators of unusual flu activity in people, including avian influenza A(H5N1) viruses.

CDC Recommendations

As a reminder, CDC recommends that:

• People should avoid exposures to sick or dead animals, including wild birds, poultry, other domesticated birds, and other wild or domesticated animals (including cows), if possible.
• People should also avoid exposures to animal poop, bedding (litter), unpasteurized ("raw") milk, or materials that have been touched by, or close to, birds or other animals with suspected or confirmed A(H5N1) virus, if possible.
• People should not drink raw milk. Pasteurization kills A(H5N1) viruses, and pasteurized milk is safe to drink.
• People who have job-related contact with infected or potentially infected birds or other animals should be aware of the risk of exposure to avian influenza viruses and should take proper precautions. People should wear appropriate and recommended personal protective equipment when exposed to an infected or potentially infected animal(s). CDC has recommendations for worker protection and use of personal protective equipment (PPE) .
• CDC has interim recommendations for prevention, monitoring, and public health investigations of A(H5N1) virus infections in people.

Following these recommendations is central to reducing a person's risk and containing the overall public health risk.

In addition to limiting interactions between infected animals and people, containing the outbreak among animals also is important, which underscores the urgency of the work being done by USDA and animal health and industry partners.

This is a rapidly changing situation, and CDC is committed to providing frequent and timely updates.

• The first human case of H5N1 bird flu linked to an outbreak in dairy cows in the United States was reported on April 1, 2024 , in Texas. It was also likely the first human infection with avian influenza A(H5N1) virus from a cow globally. A second human case associated with the dairy cow outbreak was identified in Michigan on May 22, 2024 . A third human case associated with the dairy cow outbreak was identified in Michigan on May 30, 2024 . None of these three cases are associated with the others. These cases were actually the second, third, and fourth human cases of H5N1 bird flu ever reported in the United States. The first human case of H5N1 bird flu in the United States was reported on April 28, 2022 , in a person in Colorado who had direct exposure to poultry and who was involved in depopulating poultry with presumptive H5N1 bird flu. The 2022 human case was not related to dairy cattle. The person only reported fatigue without any other symptoms and recovered.

Avian influenza or bird flu refers to the disease caused by infection with avian (bird) influenza (flu) Type A viruses.

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Medical terms in lay language.

Please use these descriptions in place of medical jargon in consent documents, recruitment materials and other study documents. Note: These terms are not the only acceptable plain language alternatives for these vocabulary words.

This glossary of terms is derived from a list copyrighted by the University of Kentucky, Office of Research Integrity (1990).

For clinical research-specific definitions, see also the Clinical Research Glossary developed by the Multi-Regional Clinical Trials (MRCT) Center of Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard  and the Clinical Data Interchange Standards Consortium (CDISC) .

Alternative Lay Language for Medical Terms for use in Informed Consent Documents

A   B   C   D   E   F   G   H   I  J  K   L   M   N   O   P   Q   R   S   T   U   V   W  X  Y  Z

ABDOMEN/ABDOMINAL body cavity below diaphragm that contains stomach, intestines, liver and other organs ABSORB take up fluids, take in ACIDOSIS condition when blood contains more acid than normal ACUITY clearness, keenness, esp. of vision and airways ACUTE new, recent, sudden, urgent ADENOPATHY swollen lymph nodes (glands) ADJUVANT helpful, assisting, aiding, supportive ADJUVANT TREATMENT added treatment (usually to a standard treatment) ANTIBIOTIC drug that kills bacteria and other germs ANTIMICROBIAL drug that kills bacteria and other germs ANTIRETROVIRAL drug that works against the growth of certain viruses ADVERSE EFFECT side effect, bad reaction, unwanted response ALLERGIC REACTION rash, hives, swelling, trouble breathing AMBULATE/AMBULATION/AMBULATORY walk, able to walk ANAPHYLAXIS serious, potentially life-threatening allergic reaction ANEMIA decreased red blood cells; low red cell blood count ANESTHETIC a drug or agent used to decrease the feeling of pain, or eliminate the feeling of pain by putting you to sleep ANGINA pain resulting from not enough blood flowing to the heart ANGINA PECTORIS pain resulting from not enough blood flowing to the heart ANOREXIA disorder in which person will not eat; lack of appetite ANTECUBITAL related to the inner side of the forearm ANTIBODY protein made in the body in response to foreign substance ANTICONVULSANT drug used to prevent seizures ANTILIPEMIC a drug that lowers fat levels in the blood ANTITUSSIVE a drug used to relieve coughing ARRHYTHMIA abnormal heartbeat; any change from the normal heartbeat ASPIRATION fluid entering the lungs, such as after vomiting ASSAY lab test ASSESS to learn about, measure, evaluate, look at ASTHMA lung disease associated with tightening of air passages, making breathing difficult ASYMPTOMATIC without symptoms AXILLA armpit

BENIGN not malignant, without serious consequences BID twice a day BINDING/BOUND carried by, to make stick together, transported BIOAVAILABILITY the extent to which a drug or other substance becomes available to the body BLOOD PROFILE series of blood tests BOLUS a large amount given all at once BONE MASS the amount of calcium and other minerals in a given amount of bone BRADYARRHYTHMIAS slow, irregular heartbeats BRADYCARDIA slow heartbeat BRONCHOSPASM breathing distress caused by narrowing of the airways

CARCINOGENIC cancer-causing CARCINOMA type of cancer CARDIAC related to the heart CARDIOVERSION return to normal heartbeat by electric shock CATHETER a tube for withdrawing or giving fluids CATHETER a tube placed near the spinal cord and used for anesthesia (indwelling epidural) during surgery CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) brain and spinal cord CEREBRAL TRAUMA damage to the brain CESSATION stopping CHD coronary heart disease CHEMOTHERAPY treatment of disease, usually cancer, by chemical agents CHRONIC continuing for a long time, ongoing CLINICAL pertaining to medical care CLINICAL TRIAL an experiment involving human subjects COMA unconscious state COMPLETE RESPONSE total disappearance of disease CONGENITAL present before birth CONJUNCTIVITIS redness and irritation of the thin membrane that covers the eye CONSOLIDATION PHASE treatment phase intended to make a remission permanent (follows induction phase) CONTROLLED TRIAL research study in which the experimental treatment or procedure is compared to a standard (control) treatment or procedure COOPERATIVE GROUP association of multiple institutions to perform clinical trials CORONARY related to the blood vessels that supply the heart, or to the heart itself CT SCAN (CAT) computerized series of x-rays (computerized tomography) CULTURE test for infection, or for organisms that could cause infection CUMULATIVE added together from the beginning CUTANEOUS relating to the skin CVA stroke (cerebrovascular accident)

DERMATOLOGIC pertaining to the skin DIASTOLIC lower number in a blood pressure reading DISTAL toward the end, away from the center of the body DIURETIC "water pill" or drug that causes increase in urination DOPPLER device using sound waves to diagnose or test DOUBLE BLIND study in which neither investigators nor subjects know what drug or treatment the subject is receiving DYSFUNCTION state of improper function DYSPLASIA abnormal cells

ECHOCARDIOGRAM sound wave test of the heart EDEMA excess fluid collecting in tissue EEG electric brain wave tracing (electroencephalogram) EFFICACY effectiveness ELECTROCARDIOGRAM electrical tracing of the heartbeat (ECG or EKG) ELECTROLYTE IMBALANCE an imbalance of minerals in the blood EMESIS vomiting EMPIRIC based on experience ENDOSCOPIC EXAMINATION viewing an  internal part of the body with a lighted tube  ENTERAL by way of the intestines EPIDURAL outside the spinal cord ERADICATE get rid of (such as disease) Page 2 of 7 EVALUATED, ASSESSED examined for a medical condition EXPEDITED REVIEW rapid review of a protocol by the IRB Chair without full committee approval, permitted with certain low-risk research studies EXTERNAL outside the body EXTRAVASATE to leak outside of a planned area, such as out of a blood vessel

FDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration, the branch of federal government that approves new drugs FIBROUS having many fibers, such as scar tissue FIBRILLATION irregular beat of the heart or other muscle

GENERAL ANESTHESIA pain prevention by giving drugs to cause loss of consciousness, as during surgery GESTATIONAL pertaining to pregnancy

HEMATOCRIT amount of red blood cells in the blood HEMATOMA a bruise, a black and blue mark HEMODYNAMIC MEASURING blood flow HEMOLYSIS breakdown in red blood cells HEPARIN LOCK needle placed in the arm with blood thinner to keep the blood from clotting HEPATOMA cancer or tumor of the liver HERITABLE DISEASE can be transmitted to one’s offspring, resulting in damage to future children HISTOPATHOLOGIC pertaining to the disease status of body tissues or cells HOLTER MONITOR a portable machine for recording heart beats HYPERCALCEMIA high blood calcium level HYPERKALEMIA high blood potassium level HYPERNATREMIA high blood sodium level HYPERTENSION high blood pressure HYPOCALCEMIA low blood calcium level HYPOKALEMIA low blood potassium level HYPONATREMIA low blood sodium level HYPOTENSION low blood pressure HYPOXEMIA a decrease of oxygen in the blood HYPOXIA a decrease of oxygen reaching body tissues HYSTERECTOMY surgical removal of the uterus, ovaries (female sex glands), or both uterus and ovaries

IATROGENIC caused by a physician or by treatment IDE investigational device exemption, the license to test an unapproved new medical device IDIOPATHIC of unknown cause IMMUNITY defense against, protection from IMMUNOGLOBIN a protein that makes antibodies IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE drug which works against the body's immune (protective) response, often used in transplantation and diseases caused by immune system malfunction IMMUNOTHERAPY giving of drugs to help the body's immune (protective) system; usually used to destroy cancer cells IMPAIRED FUNCTION abnormal function IMPLANTED placed in the body IND investigational new drug, the license to test an unapproved new drug INDUCTION PHASE beginning phase or stage of a treatment INDURATION hardening INDWELLING remaining in a given location, such as a catheter INFARCT death of tissue due to lack of blood supply INFECTIOUS DISEASE transmitted from one person to the next INFLAMMATION swelling that is generally painful, red, and warm INFUSION slow injection of a substance into the body, usually into the blood by means of a catheter INGESTION eating; taking by mouth INTERFERON drug which acts against viruses; antiviral agent INTERMITTENT occurring (regularly or irregularly) between two time points; repeatedly stopping, then starting again INTERNAL within the body INTERIOR inside of the body INTRAMUSCULAR into the muscle; within the muscle INTRAPERITONEAL into the abdominal cavity INTRATHECAL into the spinal fluid INTRAVENOUS (IV) through the vein INTRAVESICAL in the bladder INTUBATE the placement of a tube into the airway INVASIVE PROCEDURE puncturing, opening, or cutting the skin INVESTIGATIONAL NEW DRUG (IND) a new drug that has not been approved by the FDA INVESTIGATIONAL METHOD a treatment method which has not been proven to be beneficial or has not been accepted as standard care ISCHEMIA decreased oxygen in a tissue (usually because of decreased blood flow)

LAPAROTOMY surgical procedure in which an incision is made in the abdominal wall to enable a doctor to look at the organs inside LESION wound or injury; a diseased patch of skin LETHARGY sleepiness, tiredness LEUKOPENIA low white blood cell count LIPID fat LIPID CONTENT fat content in the blood LIPID PROFILE (PANEL) fat and cholesterol levels in the blood LOCAL ANESTHESIA creation of insensitivity to pain in a small, local area of the body, usually by injection of numbing drugs LOCALIZED restricted to one area, limited to one area LUMEN the cavity of an organ or tube (e.g., blood vessel) LYMPHANGIOGRAPHY an x-ray of the lymph nodes or tissues after injecting dye into lymph vessels (e.g., in feet) LYMPHOCYTE a type of white blood cell important in immunity (protection) against infection LYMPHOMA a cancer of the lymph nodes (or tissues)

MALAISE a vague feeling of bodily discomfort, feeling badly MALFUNCTION condition in which something is not functioning properly MALIGNANCY cancer or other progressively enlarging and spreading tumor, usually fatal if not successfully treated MEDULLABLASTOMA a type of brain tumor MEGALOBLASTOSIS change in red blood cells METABOLIZE process of breaking down substances in the cells to obtain energy METASTASIS spread of cancer cells from one part of the body to another METRONIDAZOLE drug used to treat infections caused by parasites (invading organisms that take up living in the body) or other causes of anaerobic infection (not requiring oxygen to survive) MI myocardial infarction, heart attack MINIMAL slight MINIMIZE reduce as much as possible Page 4 of 7 MONITOR check on; keep track of; watch carefully MOBILITY ease of movement MORBIDITY undesired result or complication MORTALITY death MOTILITY the ability to move MRI magnetic resonance imaging, diagnostic pictures of the inside of the body, created using magnetic rather than x-ray energy MUCOSA, MUCOUS MEMBRANE moist lining of digestive, respiratory, reproductive, and urinary tracts MYALGIA muscle aches MYOCARDIAL pertaining to the heart muscle MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION heart attack

NASOGASTRIC TUBE placed in the nose, reaching to the stomach NCI the National Cancer Institute NECROSIS death of tissue NEOPLASIA/NEOPLASM tumor, may be benign or malignant NEUROBLASTOMA a cancer of nerve tissue NEUROLOGICAL pertaining to the nervous system NEUTROPENIA decrease in the main part of the white blood cells NIH the National Institutes of Health NONINVASIVE not breaking, cutting, or entering the skin NOSOCOMIAL acquired in the hospital

OCCLUSION closing; blockage; obstruction ONCOLOGY the study of tumors or cancer OPHTHALMIC pertaining to the eye OPTIMAL best, most favorable or desirable ORAL ADMINISTRATION by mouth ORTHOPEDIC pertaining to the bones OSTEOPETROSIS rare bone disorder characterized by dense bone OSTEOPOROSIS softening of the bones OVARIES female sex glands

PARENTERAL given by injection PATENCY condition of being open PATHOGENESIS development of a disease or unhealthy condition PERCUTANEOUS through the skin PERIPHERAL not central PER OS (PO) by mouth PHARMACOKINETICS the study of the way the body absorbs, distributes, and gets rid of a drug PHASE I first phase of study of a new drug in humans to determine action, safety, and proper dosing PHASE II second phase of study of a new drug in humans, intended to gather information about safety and effectiveness of the drug for certain uses PHASE III large-scale studies to confirm and expand information on safety and effectiveness of new drug for certain uses, and to study common side effects PHASE IV studies done after the drug is approved by the FDA, especially to compare it to standard care or to try it for new uses PHLEBITIS irritation or inflammation of the vein PLACEBO an inactive substance; a pill/liquid that contains no medicine PLACEBO EFFECT improvement seen with giving subjects a placebo, though it contains no active drug/treatment PLATELETS small particles in the blood that help with clotting POTENTIAL possible POTENTIATE increase or multiply the effect of a drug or toxin (poison) by giving another drug or toxin at the same time (sometimes an unintentional result) POTENTIATOR an agent that helps another agent work better PRENATAL before birth PROPHYLAXIS a drug given to prevent disease or infection PER OS (PO) by mouth PRN as needed PROGNOSIS outlook, probable outcomes PRONE lying on the stomach PROSPECTIVE STUDY following patients forward in time PROSTHESIS artificial part, most often limbs, such as arms or legs PROTOCOL plan of study PROXIMAL closer to the center of the body, away from the end PULMONARY pertaining to the lungs

QD every day; daily QID four times a day

RADIATION THERAPY x-ray or cobalt treatment RANDOM by chance (like the flip of a coin) RANDOMIZATION chance selection RBC red blood cell RECOMBINANT formation of new combinations of genes RECONSTITUTION putting back together the original parts or elements RECUR happen again REFRACTORY not responding to treatment REGENERATION re-growth of a structure or of lost tissue REGIMEN pattern of giving treatment RELAPSE the return of a disease REMISSION disappearance of evidence of cancer or other disease RENAL pertaining to the kidneys REPLICABLE possible to duplicate RESECT remove or cut out surgically RETROSPECTIVE STUDY looking back over past experience

SARCOMA a type of cancer SEDATIVE a drug to calm or make less anxious SEMINOMA a type of testicular cancer (found in the male sex glands) SEQUENTIALLY in a row, in order SOMNOLENCE sleepiness SPIROMETER an instrument to measure the amount of air taken into and exhaled from the lungs STAGING an evaluation of the extent of the disease STANDARD OF CARE a treatment plan that the majority of the medical community would accept as appropriate STENOSIS narrowing of a duct, tube, or one of the blood vessels in the heart STOMATITIS mouth sores, inflammation of the mouth STRATIFY arrange in groups for analysis of results (e.g., stratify by age, sex, etc.) STUPOR stunned state in which it is difficult to get a response or the attention of the subject SUBCLAVIAN under the collarbone SUBCUTANEOUS under the skin SUPINE lying on the back SUPPORTIVE CARE general medical care aimed at symptoms, not intended to improve or cure underlying disease SYMPTOMATIC having symptoms SYNDROME a condition characterized by a set of symptoms SYSTOLIC top number in blood pressure; pressure during active contraction of the heart

TERATOGENIC capable of causing malformations in a fetus (developing baby still inside the mother’s body) TESTES/TESTICLES male sex glands THROMBOSIS clotting THROMBUS blood clot TID three times a day TITRATION a method for deciding on the strength of a drug or solution; gradually increasing the dose T-LYMPHOCYTES type of white blood cells TOPICAL on the surface TOPICAL ANESTHETIC applied to a certain area of the skin and reducing pain only in the area to which applied TOXICITY side effects or undesirable effects of a drug or treatment TRANSDERMAL through the skin TRANSIENTLY temporarily TRAUMA injury; wound TREADMILL walking machine used to test heart function

UPTAKE absorbing and taking in of a substance by living tissue

VALVULOPLASTY plastic repair of a valve, especially a heart valve VARICES enlarged veins VASOSPASM narrowing of the blood vessels VECTOR a carrier that can transmit disease-causing microorganisms (germs and viruses) VENIPUNCTURE needle stick, blood draw, entering the skin with a needle VERTICAL TRANSMISSION spread of disease

WBC white blood cell

US Supreme Court leaves Judge Tanya Chutkan to parse Trump immunity

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Implementing Industry 4.0 Technologies for Enhanced Material Flow and Handling Management: : A Case Study in Logistics

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Bibliometrics & citations, view options, recommendations, drivers and barriers of industry 4.0 adoption in indonesian manufacturing industry.

Industry 4.0, the fourth revolution Industry, has become a global trend in the manufacturing industry because it is able to produce a "smart factory" with cyber-physical systems (CPS). CPS integrate the physical world with digital by monitoring physical ...

Effect of Business Process Management on Level of Automation and Technologies Connected to Industry 4.0

The paper is discussing BPM (Business Process Management) which is considered as an approach promising successful business management. BPM can bring many benefits to the companies and our main intention was to study it in context of Industry 4.0. ...

Assessing the Industry 4.0 European divide through the country/industry dichotomy

• Recurring to Eurostat data, three Industry 4.0 characterizing dimensions were found.
• Dimensions named Industry 4.0 infrastructure, big data maturity and Industry 4.0 applications.
• Countries and industries grouped in five clusters ...

Industry 4.0 refers to the application of new technologies to production and supply chain processes under the fourth industrial revolution (4 th IR) paradigm and has been studied mainly in manufacturing. The present study looks to understand how ...

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A review of impedance spectroscopy technique: applications, modelling, and case study of relative humidity sensors development.

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da Silva, G.M.G.; Faia, P.M.; Mendes, S.R.; Araújo, E.S. A Review of Impedance Spectroscopy Technique: Applications, Modelling, and Case Study of Relative Humidity Sensors Development. Appl. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 5754. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14135754

da Silva GMG, Faia PM, Mendes SR, Araújo ES. A Review of Impedance Spectroscopy Technique: Applications, Modelling, and Case Study of Relative Humidity Sensors Development. Applied Sciences . 2024; 14(13):5754. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14135754

da Silva, Georgenes M. G., Pedro M. Faia, Sofia R. Mendes, and Evando S. Araújo. 2024. "A Review of Impedance Spectroscopy Technique: Applications, Modelling, and Case Study of Relative Humidity Sensors Development" Applied Sciences 14, no. 13: 5754. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14135754

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Research: Speed Matters When Companies Respond to Social Issues

• Alison Wood Brooks,
• Maya Balakrishnan,
• Julian De Freitas

An analysis of Instagram posts by Fortune 500 companies after George Floyd’s murder found that customers were skeptical of those who waited too long to make a statement.

Companies and their leaders face new pressures to make public statements about controversial and sometimes divisive social and political issues. New research shows that timing matters: consumers perceive a relationship between speed and authenticity, and discount statements from companies that wait too long to respond. Leaders can use four questions to understand when and how they should shape their response.

In the wake of George Floyd’s killing by Minneapolis police officers in 2020, individuals began protesting racial injustice both in person and online. But it wasn’t just individuals — many well-known companies in corporate America seemed to publicly align themselves with protestors, rather than staying silent or neutral.

• Alison Wood Brooks is the O’Brien Associate Professor of Business Administration at Harvard Business School.
• JN Jimin Nam is a doctoral candidate in marketing at Harvard Business School.
• MB Maya Balakrishnan is a doctoral candidate in technology and operations management at Harvard Business School.
• Julian De Freitas is an assistant professor in the marketing unit at Harvard Business School.

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Case Study Hub | Samples, Examples and Writing Tips

Writing a case study response.

The assignment of a case study is a typical job for college and university students, who want to improve their professional and critical thinking skills and become expert in their main discipline, because a case study is a research of a definite problem of a certain topic which requires time and efforts. If one is asked to complete a case study, he should devote much attention to the process and collect enough reliable facts, which will be helpful in the process of the analysis. There is always a certain problem and the student should find out about the cause and effect of the problem and solve the ‘puzzle’ of the case professionally. Evidently, students are always nervous and frustrated while writing the case study, because the topics are not always easy and require efforts and knowledge.

Nevertheless, if a student has finished the case study, he will need to defend it effectively and now the problem of case study response writing appears. The main difficulty of writing a case study response is the set of the special requirements to the paper. For example, the response should be brief but explain the problem of the case study and the purpose of writing in detail. It is quite difficult to complete such a well-analyzed, well-summarized but narrow paper being an inexperienced student.

First of all the paper should describe the general topic of the case study in order to give the reader a general idea about the discipline, the topic and the definite problem of the case. After that it is important to focus of the direct narrower issues which are suggested for the research and the student should present a logical list of these core points.

Writing a response to a case study students do the common mistake: they fail to connect their background knowledge with the facts gained during the research of the case. This connection of required for the high-quality comparison of the topic and professional conclusions. The student should also pay attention to the various research approached which can be used and have been used for the research of the problem and he is expected to evaluate the methodology and the research approach in his case. Furthermore, it is sensible to suggest the alternative solutions to the problem and predict the effect of these alternative methods on the quality of the research.

In general, the student who is going to do a case study response should try to insert much essential information about the case in the brief and logical paper. In conclusion one should evaluate the importance of the research and share the personal achievements and impressions concerning the paper with the reader. Additionally, professional case study response writing help is available online.

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What Happened to Stanford Spells Trouble for the Election

By Renée DiResta

Ms. DiResta is the former research director of the Stanford Internet Observatory, a unit of Stanford University that studies abuse of online platforms.

In 2020 the Stanford Internet Observatory, where I was until recently the research director, helped lead a project that studied election rumors and disinformation. As part of that work, we frequently encountered conspiratorial thinking from Americans who had been told the 2020 presidential election was going to be stolen.

The way theories of “the steal” went viral was eerily routine . First, an image or video, such as a photo of a suitcase near a polling place, was posted as evidence of wrongdoing. The poster would tweet the purported evidence, tagging partisan influencers or media accounts with large followings. Those accounts would promote the rumor, often claiming, “Big if true!” Others would join, and the algorithms would push it out to potentially millions more. Partisan media would follow.

If the rumor was found to be false — and it usually was — corrections were rarely made and even then, little noticed. The belief that “the steal” was real led directly to the events of Jan. 6, 2021.

Within a couple of years, the same online rumor mill turned its attention to us — the very researchers who documented it. This spells trouble for the 2024 election.

For us, it started with claims that our work was a plot to censor the right. The first came from a blog related to the Foundation for Freedom Online, the project of a man who said he “ran cyber” at the State Department. This person, an alt-right YouTube personality who’d gone by the handle Frame Game, had been employed by the State Department for just a couple of months .

Using his brief affiliation as a marker of authority, he wrote blog posts styled as research reports contending that our project, the Election Integrity Partnership, had pushed social media networks to censor 22 million tweets. He had no firsthand evidence of any censorship, however: his number was based on a simple tally of viral election rumors that we’d counted and published in a report after the election was over. Right-wing media outlets and influencers nonetheless called it evidence of a plot to steal the election, and their followers followed suit.

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