psychology essays conclusion

How to Write a Psychology Essay

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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Before you write your essay, it’s important to analyse the task and understand exactly what the essay question is asking. Your lecturer may give you some advice – pay attention to this as it will help you plan your answer.

Next conduct preliminary reading based on your lecture notes. At this stage, it’s not crucial to have a robust understanding of key theories or studies, but you should at least have a general “gist” of the literature.

After reading, plan a response to the task. This plan could be in the form of a mind map, a summary table, or by writing a core statement (which encompasses the entire argument of your essay in just a few sentences).

After writing your plan, conduct supplementary reading, refine your plan, and make it more detailed.

It is tempting to skip these preliminary steps and write the first draft while reading at the same time. However, reading and planning will make the essay writing process easier, quicker, and ensure a higher quality essay is produced.

Components of a Good Essay

Now, let us look at what constitutes a good essay in psychology. There are a number of important features.

• Global Structure – structure the material to allow for a logical sequence of ideas. Each paragraph / statement should follow sensibly from its predecessor. The essay should “flow”. The introduction, main body and conclusion should all be linked.
• Each paragraph should comprise a main theme, which is illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).
• Knowledge and Understanding – recognize, recall, and show understanding of a range of scientific material that accurately reflects the main theoretical perspectives.
• Critical Evaluation – arguments should be supported by appropriate evidence and/or theory from the literature. Evidence of independent thinking, insight, and evaluation of the evidence.
• Quality of Written Communication – writing clearly and succinctly with appropriate use of paragraphs, spelling, and grammar. All sources are referenced accurately and in line with APA guidelines.

In the main body of the essay, every paragraph should demonstrate both knowledge and critical evaluation.

There should also be an appropriate balance between these two essay components. Try to aim for about a 60/40 split if possible.

Most students make the mistake of writing too much knowledge and not enough evaluation (which is the difficult bit).

It is best to structure your essay according to key themes. Themes are illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).

Choose relevant points only, ones that most reveal the theme or help to make a convincing and interesting argument.

Knowledge and Understanding

Remember that an essay is simply a discussion / argument on paper. Don’t make the mistake of writing all the information you know regarding a particular topic.

You need to be concise, and clearly articulate your argument. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences.

Each paragraph should have a purpose / theme, and make a number of points – which need to be support by high quality evidence. Be clear why each point is is relevant to the argument. It would be useful at the beginning of each paragraph if you explicitly outlined the theme being discussed (.e.g. cognitive development, social development etc.).

Try not to overuse quotations in your essays. It is more appropriate to use original content to demonstrate your understanding.

Psychology is a science so you must support your ideas with evidence (not your own personal opinion). If you are discussing a theory or research study make sure you cite the source of the information.

Note this is not the author of a textbook you have read – but the original source / author(s) of the theory or research study.

For example:

Bowlby (1951) claimed that mothering is almost useless if delayed until after two and a half to three years and, for most children, if delayed till after 12 months, i.e. there is a critical period.

Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs. When one need is fulfilled a person seeks to fullfil the next one, and so on.

As a general rule, make sure there is at least one citation (i.e. name of psychologist and date of publication) in each paragraph.

Remember to answer the essay question. Underline the keywords in the essay title. Don’t make the mistake of simply writing everything you know of a particular topic, be selective. Each paragraph in your essay should contribute to answering the essay question.

Critical Evaluation

In simple terms, this means outlining the strengths and limitations of a theory or research study.

There are many ways you can critically evaluate:

Methodological evaluation of research

Is the study valid / reliable ? Is the sample biased, or can we generalize the findings to other populations? What are the strengths and limitations of the method used and data obtained?

Be careful to ensure that any methodological criticisms are justified and not trite.

Rather than hunting for weaknesses in every study; only highlight limitations that make you doubt the conclusions that the authors have drawn – e.g., where an alternative explanation might be equally likely because something hasn’t been adequately controlled.

Compare or contrast different theories

Outline how the theories are similar and how they differ. This could be two (or more) theories of personality / memory / child development etc. Also try to communicate the value of the theory / study.

Debates or perspectives

Refer to debates such as nature or nurture, reductionism vs. holism, or the perspectives in psychology . For example, would they agree or disagree with a theory or the findings of the study?

What are the ethical issues of the research?

Does a study involve ethical issues such as deception, privacy, psychological or physical harm?

Gender bias

If research is biased towards men or women it does not provide a clear view of the behavior that has been studied. A dominantly male perspective is known as an androcentric bias.

Cultural bias

Is the theory / study ethnocentric? Psychology is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise. In some texts, over 90% of studies have US participants, who are predominantly white and middle class.

Does the theory or study being discussed judge other cultures by Western standards?

Animal Research

This raises the issue of whether it’s morally and/or scientifically right to use animals. The main criterion is that benefits must outweigh costs. But benefits are almost always to humans and costs to animals.

Animal research also raises the issue of extrapolation. Can we generalize from studies on animals to humans as their anatomy & physiology is different from humans?

The PEC System

It is very important to elaborate on your evaluation. Don’t just write a shopping list of brief (one or two sentence) evaluation points.

Instead, make sure you expand on your points, remember, quality of evaluation is most important than quantity.

When you are writing an evaluation paragraph, use the PEC system.

• Make your P oint.
• E xplain how and why the point is relevant.
• Discuss the C onsequences / implications of the theory or study. Are they positive or negative?

For Example

• Point: It is argued that psychoanalytic therapy is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority.
• Explain: Because psychoanalytic therapy involves talking and gaining insight, and is costly and time-consuming, it is argued that it is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority. Evidence suggests psychoanalytic therapy works best if the client is motivated and has a positive attitude.
• Consequences: A depressed client’s apathy, flat emotional state, and lack of motivation limit the appropriateness of psychoanalytic therapy for depression.

Furthermore, the levels of dependency of depressed clients mean that transference is more likely to develop.

Using Research Studies in your Essays

Research studies can either be knowledge or evaluation.

• If you refer to the procedures and findings of a study, this shows knowledge and understanding.
• If you comment on what the studies shows, and what it supports and challenges about the theory in question, this shows evaluation.

Writing an Introduction

It is often best to write your introduction when you have finished the main body of the essay, so that you have a good understanding of the topic area.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your introduction.

Ideally, the introduction should;

Identify the subject of the essay and define the key terms. Highlight the major issues which “lie behind” the question. Let the reader know how you will focus your essay by identifying the main themes to be discussed. “Signpost” the essay’s key argument, (and, if possible, how this argument is structured).

Introductions are very important as first impressions count and they can create a h alo effect in the mind of the lecturer grading your essay. If you start off well then you are more likely to be forgiven for the odd mistake later one.

Writing a Conclusion

So many students either forget to write a conclusion or fail to give it the attention it deserves.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your conclusion.

Ideally the conclusion should summarize the key themes / arguments of your essay. State the take home message – don’t sit on the fence, instead weigh up the evidence presented in the essay and make a decision which side of the argument has more support.

Also, you might like to suggest what future research may need to be conducted and why (read the discussion section of journal articles for this).

Don”t include new information / arguments (only information discussed in the main body of the essay).

If you are unsure of what to write read the essay question and answer it in one paragraph.

Points that unite or embrace several themes can be used to great effect as part of your conclusion.

The Importance of Flow

Obviously, what you write is important, but how you communicate your ideas / arguments has a significant influence on your overall grade. Most students may have similar information / content in their essays, but the better students communicate this information concisely and articulately.

When you have finished the first draft of your essay you must check if it “flows”. This is an important feature of quality of communication (along with spelling and grammar).

This means that the paragraphs follow a logical order (like the chapters in a novel). Have a global structure with themes arranged in a way that allows for a logical sequence of ideas. You might want to rearrange (cut and paste) paragraphs to a different position in your essay if they don”t appear to fit in with the essay structure.

To improve the flow of your essay make sure the last sentence of one paragraph links to first sentence of the next paragraph. This will help the essay flow and make it easier to read.

Finally, only repeat citations when it is unclear which study / theory you are discussing. Repeating citations unnecessarily disrupts the flow of an essay.

Referencing

The reference section is the list of all the sources cited in the essay (in alphabetical order). It is not a bibliography (a list of the books you used).

In simple terms every time you cite/refer to a name (and date) of a psychologist you need to reference the original source of the information.

If you have been using textbooks this is easy as the references are usually at the back of the book and you can just copy them down. If you have been using websites, then you may have a problem as they might not provide a reference section for you to copy.

References need to be set out APA style :

Author, A. A. (year). Title of work . Location: Publisher.

Journal Articles

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title, volume number (issue number), page numbers

A simple way to write your reference section is use Google scholar . Just type the name and date of the psychologist in the search box and click on the “cite” link.

Next, copy and paste the APA reference into the reference section of your essay.

Once again, remember that references need to be in alphabetical order according to surname.

• How to Write a Strong Psychology Essay Conclusion with an Example

A conclusion is an essential component of a psychology essay. It restates the main argument of your essay and helps to a lasting impression your reader. Let us dive in and learn how to create impactful conclusions within a short period without having to use a language model.

Table of Contents

How to Write a Strong Psychology Essay Conclusion

Introduction.

In the structure of a psychology essay, a conclusion is an essential component. Firstly, it serves to restate the main points that were covered in the essay using the shortest number of words possible.   Secondly, it presents an opportunity to develop recommendations and reflections on the implications of your argument for psychology practice. A conclusion should not have in-text citations, as no new information is presented. Here, as a student, you are supposed to synthesize the main points, showing your comprehensive understanding of the topic. In this short post, I am going to show you how to write a conclusion of a psychology essay. I will discuss the recommended length, the steps you should follow and provide an example.

What is the length of a psychology essay conclusion?

The conclusion length of a psychology essay depends on the length of your whole paper. Whilst answering this question, Robin Turner, who was a former English lecturer at Bilkent University, states, “You don’t want your conclusion to be more than a fifth of your essay,” which translates to 20% of your essay.  However, in my undergraduate and master’s psychology university education, the rule of thumb was that your conclusion should be 10% of the total word count limit.  That is the case for most universities globally.  We normally advise that you keep it at 10% of your essay’s total word count.

What are the steps for writing a conclusion for a psychology essay?

Restate your specific thesis statement. This involves linking back to the question that your essay was seeking to answer. There is an ongoing debate if you should use the phrase “in conclusion.” While answering this question, Ali Mullin, who is an instructor at Louisiana State University terms ending your conclusion with the phrase as being reductionist. She suggested the use of such styles as “[idea 1], [idea 2], and [idea 3] all illustrate [concept/argument]. Considering these [ideas] synthesizes/realizes/proves my point that [argument]. In the future, I hope to see [idea]”.

Summarize and synthesize the main points that were discussed in the essay, showing great mastery of the topic that you discussed.

Present your conclusion from the point of view of the conclusion that you provided, linking it to the main argument of your essay.

Finally, provide a broad statement that suggests how your conclusion impacts, is related, or is essential in practice.

For more information on h0w to write other parts of a psychology essay, check out our comprehensive guide .

Concisely, human beings use both the exemplar and prototype theories as framework for categorizing concepts. Even though both theories are essential, they are varied in their manner of application since the prototypes are appropriate for simple and hierarchical categories. On other hand, exemplars are suitable for flat and nuanced domains. Cultural differences in relation to various concepts such as classification of fruits and leadership shape categorization affecting prototypes and how conclusions are made in relation to specific examples. By harnessing both prototype and exemplar perspectives, people can optimize learning and creativity, drawing upon existing knowledge to navigate new terrain.

The first sentence restates the thesis statement.

The second and third sentences synthesizes the main points that were developed in the paper.

The last sentence is a broad statement regarding the argument that the essay makes.

It is worth noting that we discourage the use of language models in your psychology essay. However, you can use AI specifically Gemini to develop your conclusion.

We highly recommend seeking help from our psychology assignment experts .

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How to Write a Good Conclusion in a Psychology Essay

Psychology essays or Psychology academic writing are often used to explore and explain human behavior. To effectively do this, a good conclusion should be included in the essay. A good conclusion is one that is logical, concise, and provides a sense of closure. It should also be able to connect the argument to a larger context and leave the reader with a lasting impression. In this article, we will discuss the steps and tips for writing a good conclusion in a psychology essay.

Definition of a Good Conclusion  

A good conclusion is the last part of an essay that ties all the ideas and evidence together and provides closure for the reader. It should be concise, logical, and provide a sense of finality. The conclusion should also be able to connect the argument to a larger context, either in the field of psychology or in the real world.

Purpose of a Good Conclusion  

The purpose of a good conclusion is to tie all of the ideas and evidence together in a concise and logical way. It should be able to explain the implications of the argument and provide a sense of closure for the reader. Additionally, it should be able to connect the argument to a larger context and provide a lasting impression on the reader.

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Steps for Writing a Good Conclusion  

• Restate the Main Argument: The first step in writing a good conclusion is to restate the main argument of the essay. This will help to remind the reader of the main points of the essay and will provide a sense of closure.
• Summarize the Supporting Evidence: The next step is to summarize the supporting evidence for the argument. This will help to reinforce the main points of the essay and will provide a sense of finality for the reader.
• Connect the Argument to a Broader Context: The next step is to connect the argument to a larger context. This could be in the field of psychology or in the real world. This will help to provide a sense of relevance for the reader and will leave the reader with a lasting impression.
• Leave the Reader with a Final Thought: The final step is to leave the reader with a final thought. This could be a call to action, a warning, or a thought-provoking question. This will help to leave the reader with a lasting impression and will provide a sense of closure.  

Tips for Writing a Good Conclusion  

• Avoid Introducing New Ideas: It is important to avoid introducing new ideas in the conclusion. This could confuse the reader and could lead to an unclear conclusion.
• Don’t Repeat Yourself: It is important to avoid repeating yourself in the conclusion. This could lead to a repetitive conclusion and could be confusing for the reader.
• Use Appropriate Language: It is important to use appropriate language in the conclusion. This could be formal or informal language, depending on the context.
• Be Concise: Finally, it is important to be concise in the conclusion. This will help to keep the conclusion clear and will provide a sense of closure for the reader.

Summary of Steps and Tips for Writing a Good Conclusion

  In summary, the steps and tips for writing a good conclusion in a psychology essay are to restate the main argument, summarize the supporting evidence, connect the argument to a larger context, leave the reader with a final thought, avoid introducing new ideas, don’t repeat yourself, use appropriate language, and be concise. Following these steps and tips will help to ensure that the conclusion of the essay is clear and concise and will provide a sense of closure for the reader.

Final Thoughts on Writing a Good Conclusion  

Writing a good conclusion in a psychology essay is an important part of the essay writing process. It should be concise, logical, and provide a sense of closure for the reader. Additionally, it should be able to connect the argument to a larger context and provide a lasting impression on the reader. By following the steps and tips outlined in this article, you can ensure that you write a good conclusion in your psychology essay. If you want to be sure your conclusion will be clear and concise, better order a custom essay written by EasyEssay.us . Furthermore, by understanding the implications of narcissism and how to manipulate it, you can ensure that your conclusion will be effective.

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How to Write a Psychology Essay

Writing a psychology essay can be daunting, because of the constant changes in understanding and differing perspectives that exist in the field. However, if you follow our tips and guidelines you are guaranteed to produce a first-class, high quality psychology essay.

Types of Psychology essay

Psychology essays can come in a range of formats:

• Compare and contrast.

For example:

• Compare the benefits of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) with psychoanalysis on patients with schizophrenia.
• Evaluate the effectiveness of family therapy for children of drug addicts.
• CBT is the most effective form of treatment for those struggling with mental illness. Discuss

Once you understand what is being asked of you, and thus the focus of your essay, you can move on to identifying how to structure your work. In all cases the broad structure is similar – an introduction – body section and conclusion. Furthermore, in all cases, your work, and any statements you make should be made using only verifiable, credible sources that should be referenced clearly at the end of your work. To support you in delivering a premium psychology essay, we have indicated a general structure for you to follow.

Introduction

The most important thing about your introduction is it just that. An introduction. It should be short, captivating and hook your reader into wanting to carry on. A good introduction introduces a few key points about the topic so that the reader knows the subject of your paper and its background.

You should also include a thesis statement which describes your intent and perspective on the matter. The statement comes from first identifying a question you wish to ask, for example, “how does CBT differ from psychoanalysis in treating schizophrenics”. This will then enable you to identify a clear statement such as “CBT is more effective in treating schizophrenics than psychoanalysis”. In effect, a captivating introduction sets out what you will be saying in your essay, clearly, concisely, and objectively.

Body of the Essay

The body of the essay is where you make all your relevant points and undertake a dissection of the central themes of your work in the topic area. Note when undertaking a compare and contrast essay it is a good practice to indicate all the similarities and then the differences to ensure a smooth coherent flow.

For each point you make, use a separate paragraph, and ensure that any statements you make are backed up by credible evidence and properly referenced sources. In an evaluation essay, you should indicate the analysis undertaken to make the judgement you have, again backed by credible sources. Discussive psychology essays require you to state your point and then debate it with pros and cons for each side.

Overall, in the body section, you body text should be focused on providing valuable insights and evaluation of the topic and enable you to demonstrate deductive reasoning (“as a result of x… it can be indicated that”) and evidence based analysis (“although x indicates that y, a suggests an alternative view based on…”). Following a logical flow with one point per paragraph ensures the reader is able to follow your thinking process and eventually draw the same conclusions.

Furthermore, it is important when writing a psychology essay to examine a wide range of sources, that cover both sides of a topic or phenomenon. Without demonstrating a wide-ranging knowledge of the diversity of perspectives, you cannot be objective in evaluating a subject area.

In addition, you should recognise that not all your readers may be familiar with psychological terms or acronyms so these need to be explained briefly and concisely the first time they are used. Furthermore, you should avoid definitive statements, because psychology is constantly evolving so do not use phrases such as “this proves…”, instead use terms such as “this is consistent with work by…” or “this supports x’s view that…”. It is also not appropriate to use the first person (“I”), even when expressing opinions, always use the third person and where possible the past tense.

As with the introduction, the conclusion should hold the reader, and crystallise all the arguments and points made into an overall summation of your views. This summation should be in line with your thesis statement which has to be restated here and leave no room for unanswered questions. Your aim is to reaffirm that the points you have made in your body text sum up and provide a clear answer to the task of the psychology essay – whether this compare and contrast, discussion, or evaluation.

Key Phrases for a Psychology Essay

• Previous work in the area has suggested that…
• However, prior studies did not consider…
• In this paper it is therefore argued that…
• The significance of this view is that…
• In light of this indication, there is a potential that…
• In order to understand x, it is necessary to also recognise that…
• Similarly, it has been suggested that…
• Furthermore, additional evidence from x indicates that…
• Conversely, x suggests that…
• Similarly, the indications from … are that…
• That being said, it is also evident that…

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How to Write a Psychology Research Paper

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

 James Lacy, MLS, is a fact-checker and researcher.

Are you working on a psychology research paper this semester? Whether or not this is your first research paper, the entire process can seem a bit overwhelming at first. But, knowing where to start the research process can make things easier and less stressful.

While it can feel very intimidating, a research paper can initially be very intimidating, but it is not quite as scary if you break it down into more manageable steps. The following tips will help you break down the process into steps so it is easier to research and write your paper.

Decide What Kind of Paper You Are Going to Write

Before you begin, you should find out the type of paper your instructor expects you to write. There are a few common types of psychology papers that you might encounter.

Original Research or Lab Report

A report or empirical paper details research you conducted on your own. This is the type of paper you would write if your instructor had you perform your own psychology experiment. This type of paper follows a format similar to an APA format lab report. It includes a title page, abstract , introduction, method section, results section, discussion section, and references.

Literature Review

The second type of paper is a literature review that summarizes research conducted by other people on a particular topic. If you are writing a psychology research paper in this form, your instructor might specify the length it needs to be or the number of studies you need to cite. Student are often required to cite between 5 and 20 studies in their literature reviews and they are usually between 8 and 20 pages in length.

The format and sections of a literature review usually include an introduction, body, and discussion/implications/conclusions.

Literature reviews often begin by introducing the research question before narrowing the focus to the specific studies cited in the paper. Each cited study should be described in considerable detail. You should evaluate and compare the studies you cite and then offer your discussion of the implications of the findings.

Select an Idea for Your Research Paper

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Once you have figured out the type of research paper you are going to write, it is time to choose a good topic . In many cases, your instructor may assign you a subject, or at least specify an overall theme on which to focus.

As you are selecting your topic, try to avoid general or overly broad subjects. For example, instead of writing a research paper on the general subject of attachment , you might instead focus your research on how insecure attachment styles in early childhood impact romantic attachments later in life.

Narrowing your topic will make writing your paper easier because it allows you to focus your research, develop your thesis, and fully explore pertinent findings.

Develop an Effective Research Strategy

As you find references for your psychology paper, take careful notes on the information you use and start developing a bibliography. If you stay organized and cite your sources throughout the writing process, you will not be left searching for an important bit of information you cannot seem to track back to the source.

So, as you do your research, make careful notes about each reference including the article title, authors, journal source, and what the article was about. 

Write an Outline

You might be tempted to immediately dive into writing, but developing a strong framework can save a lot of time, hassle, and frustration. It can also help you spot potential problems with flow and structure.

If you outline the paper right off the bat, you will have a better idea of how one idea flows into the next and how your research supports your overall hypothesis .

You should start the outline with the three most fundamental sections: the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. Then, start creating subsections based on your literature review. The more detailed your outline, the easier it will be to write your paper.

Draft, Revise, and Edit

Once you are confident in your outline, it is time to begin writing. Remember to follow APA format as you write your paper and include in-text citations for any materials you reference. Make sure to cite any information in the body of your paper in your reference section at the end of your document.

Writing a psychology research paper can be intimidating at first, but breaking the process into a series of smaller steps makes it more manageable. Be sure to start early by deciding on a substantial topic, doing your research, and creating a good outline . Doing these supporting steps ahead of time make it much easier to actually write the paper when the time comes.

• Beins, BC & Beins, A. Effective Writing in Psychology: Papers, Posters, and Presentation. New York: Blackwell Publishing; 2011.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Drawing Conclusions and Reporting the Results

Rajiv S. Jhangiani; I-Chant A. Chiang; Carrie Cuttler; and Dana C. Leighton

Learning Objectives

• Identify the conclusions researchers can make based on the outcome of their studies.
• Describe why scientists avoid the term “scientific proof.”
• Explain the different ways that scientists share their findings.

Drawing Conclusions

Since statistics are probabilistic in nature and findings can reflect type I or type II errors, we cannot use the results of a single study to conclude with certainty that a theory is true. Rather theories are supported, refuted, or modified based on the results of research.

If the results are statistically significant and consistent with the hypothesis and the theory that was used to generate the hypothesis, then researchers can conclude that the theory is supported. Not only did the theory make an accurate prediction, but there is now a new phenomenon that the theory accounts for. If a hypothesis is disconfirmed in a systematic empirical study, then the theory has been weakened. It made an inaccurate prediction, and there is now a new phenomenon that it does not account for.

Although this seems straightforward, there are some complications. First, confirming a hypothesis can strengthen a theory but it can never prove a theory. In fact, scientists tend to avoid the word “prove” when talking and writing about theories. One reason for this avoidance is that the result may reflect a type I error.  Another reason for this  avoidance  is that there may be other plausible theories that imply the same hypothesis, which means that confirming the hypothesis strengthens all those theories equally. A third reason is that it is always possible that another test of the hypothesis or a test of a new hypothesis derived from the theory will be disconfirmed. This  difficulty  is a version of the famous philosophical “problem of induction.” One cannot definitively prove a general principle (e.g., “All swans are white.”) just by observing confirming cases (e.g., white swans)—no matter how many. It is always possible that a disconfirming case (e.g., a black swan) will eventually come along. For these reasons, scientists tend to think of theories—even highly successful ones—as subject to revision based on new and unexpected observations.

A second complication has to do with what it means when a hypothesis is disconfirmed. According to the strictest version of the hypothetico-deductive method, disconfirming a hypothesis disproves the theory it was derived from. In formal logic, the premises “if  A  then  B ” and “not  B ” necessarily lead to the conclusion “not  A .” If  A  is the theory and  B  is the hypothesis (“if  A  then  B ”), then disconfirming the hypothesis (“not  B ”) must mean that the theory is incorrect (“not  A ”). In practice, however, scientists do not give up on their theories so easily. One reason is that one disconfirmed hypothesis could be a missed opportunity (the result of a type II error) or it could be the result of a faulty research design. Perhaps the researcher did not successfully manipulate the independent variable or measure the dependent variable.

A disconfirmed hypothesis could also mean that some unstated but relatively minor assumption of the theory was not met. For example, if Zajonc had failed to find social facilitation in cockroaches, he could have concluded that drive theory is still correct but it applies only to animals with sufficiently complex nervous systems. That is, the evidence from a study can be used to modify a theory.  This practice does not mean that researchers are free to ignore disconfirmations of their theories. If they cannot improve their research designs or modify their theories to account for repeated disconfirmations, then they eventually must abandon their theories and replace them with ones that are more successful.

The bottom line here is that because statistics are probabilistic in nature and because all research studies have flaws there is no such thing as scientific proof, there is only scientific evidence.

Reporting the Results

The final step in the research process involves reporting the results. As described in the section on Reviewing the Research Literature in this chapter, results are typically reported in peer-reviewed journal articles and at conferences.

The most prestigious way to report one’s findings is by writing a manuscript and having it published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. Manuscripts published in psychology journals typically must adhere to the writing style of the American Psychological Association (APA style). You will likely be learning the major elements of this writing style in this course.

Another way to report findings is by writing a book chapter that is published in an edited book. Preferably the editor of the book puts the chapter through peer review but this is not always the case and some scientists are invited by editors to write book chapters.

A fun way to disseminate findings is to give a presentation at a conference. This can either be done as an oral presentation or a poster presentation. Oral presentations involve getting up in front of an audience of fellow scientists and giving a talk that might last anywhere from 10 minutes to 1 hour (depending on the conference) and then fielding questions from the audience. Alternatively, poster presentations involve summarizing the study on a large poster that provides a brief overview of the purpose, methods, results, and discussion. The presenter stands by their poster for an hour or two and discusses it with people who pass by. Presenting one’s work at a conference is a great way to get feedback from one’s peers before attempting to undergo the more rigorous peer-review process involved in publishing a journal article.

Drawing Conclusions and Reporting the Results Copyright © by Rajiv S. Jhangiani; I-Chant A. Chiang; Carrie Cuttler; and Dana C. Leighton is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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How to Write a Psychological Essay: 6 Tips for Students

Students who study the field of Psychology often write various written works: reports, term papers, and essays. In the article, we tell you how to write an essay on psychology, what its structure is, and what the rules of writing are.

1. What is a psychological essay?

An essay in psychology is a short paper in which the author describes their thoughts and reflections on a given or free topic. This type of essay is written by college and university students, as well as psychologists, for their professional activities. Sometimes, these people think, "Can I find someone to write my essay for me ?" The reason is that they don't know how such papers should be written. But don't worry, as we are going to tell you how to do it right.

An essay on psychology gives students many useful skills:

• Essay helps develop creative skills in students.
• It helps organize the independent work of students.
• An essay on psychology consolidates and expands students' knowledge.
• This type of work teaches students to express their thoughts.
• The psychology essay teaches students to work with additional sources of information.

2. Psychological essay structure

A psychological essay does not have strict writing requirements; however, it is better to adhere to a certain composition:

• Introduction
• Argumentation
• Conclusion.

In the introduction, you need to tell what the paper will be about. You can start from afar or jump straight to the topic of the essay:

"A person, being a part of society, every day becomes a participant in some kind of relationship. For example, in the morning, they have breakfast with their family; at lunch, they are already among their work colleagues; in the evening – in the company of friends, and in the interval, they manage to meet an acquaintance and exchange a few words with them, then ride on the bus and give up their seat to the old lady, etc.

Moreover, with everyone with whom they had any contact, they had a certain "distance." What does distance in a relationship even mean? This is a certain level of communication, namely the closeness of people between each other, while everyone sets this distance themselves, and it depends on how close a person is ready to let another into their life, how much they are ready to open up to them and trust.

Therefore, the people with whom we communicate should not cause any discomfort or inconvenience; if, after all, there are such individuals in our environment, relations with them are regulated by distance. Namely, it goes to the maximum limit." (Essay on the topic: "Distance in relationships between people," introduction).

In the introduction, you need to write down a thesis - what you will prove throughout the paper:

"Therefore, the people with whom we communicate should not cause any discomfort or inconvenience; if, after all, there are such individuals in our environment, relations with them are regulated by distance, namely, it goes to the maximum limit." (Essay on the topic: "Distance in relationships between people," thesis).

Next comes the argument, which consists of evidence of the thesis. These could be examples from life or literary works, quotes from philosophers, or research works by psychologists:

"Well, what should be the distance between people so that people do not feel pain so that suffering does not take over? Because personal inner life can be empty and monotonous, society brings people together, but their flaws can drive them apart. The average measure of distance that they finally find as the only possible way to stay together is politeness and good morals.

In England, they say to someone who does not observe proper measures when approaching, "Keep your distance!" Although under such conditions, the need for mutual warm participation is satisfied only very imperfectly, the pricks of needles are also felt. Those who have a lot of their own inner warmth should better stay away from society so as not to burden themselves or others." (Essay on the topic: "Distance in relationships between people," argumentation).

At the end, there is a conclusion. Here, you need to summarize what was said above, draw conclusions, and show that the thesis has been proven:

"Of course, distance is needed. I think the most important thing is to be able to understand people. After all, from the first words, you can understand whether this is your person or not, and even if it seems that they are yours, you don't need to immediately let them into your life until you are completely convinced whether this person will be worth your suffering later.

There cannot be many loved ones; each person has their own. They are unique in their own way and perhaps even similar to each other. The main thing is to take care of them and show that you value them, and they will respond in kind. I think it's sad to be alone when there are so many people around who can share all the good and bad with you.

And no formal relationship can fill that inner emptiness that pushes us to communicate with people because you can get rid of it only by filling it with the warmth of people and feelings that formal relationships can never give, only if the formality disappears." (Essay on the topic: "Distance in relationships between people," conclusion).

3. Tips on how to write an essay on psychology

When you write an essay on psychology, use our tips:

• 1. Try to keep within the recommended amount. Typically, this is 2-4 pages of printed text.
• Do not jump to other topics; strictly adhere to the topic of the paper.
• Psychology is a science, so support all your opinions and thoughts with examples and quotes.
• 4. Do not overuse unclear scientific terms and abbreviations.
• Do not use other people's thoughts; an essay is an author's work; it should reflect the students' thoughts.
• At the end of your paper, check the text for errors and consistency of presentation.

4. Essay on psychology: example for students

If you don't know how to write an essay on psychology, look at the ready-made example:

4.1 Essay on the topic "E. Fromm "The Art of Loving"

Only after reading Erich Fromm's book "The Art of Loving" did I fully understand its title. At first, it seemed that the author used this phrase more as a pun. But no. The author examined the phenomenon of love so deeply and multifacetedly that it cannot be called anything other than "art."

Perhaps I would think more about the term "science." The science of love... But no. Yet behind this feeling, there is much more emotion and creation. It cannot be calculated, proven, or described according to laws and axioms.

After reading Erich Fromm's book "The Art of Love," I gained a better understanding of what love really is. Fromm's idea views love in its true light. He begins with a few facts about the meaning in which people usually view love.

Two strangers meet, they break personal boundaries between each other, and they feel so close, like one whole. And here, many can say, "Yes, this is true love, genuine, without conditions!" But Fromm writes that this is not true love; this is an infatuation.

The author of the book describes this feeling as "one of the most exciting events in life." Fromm argues that this is an initial craze, and it has a natural tendency to gradually fade away as people get to know each other better and better and understand that not everything is so simple and magical.

Fromm discusses what has disappeared from love in our time. One of the most common and familiar reasons for the distortion of love is the distortion of its perception. For the average person, love is about creating the perfect union, where you find yourself together against the rest of the world. But we must understand that the surrounding reality is not created for us personally, and it is not a computer program.

The art of love requires courage, maturity, self-discovery, and, inevitably, hard work. This book is an excellent starting point for those who want to find genuine answers to how the concept of the Art of Love coincides with the concept of the Art of Living.

At the end of the book, Fromm comes to the conclusion that love is not an emotion or even a feeling; it is a decision, and it is a judgment, a promise. To love means to trust another without expecting any guarantees in return. Love is an act of boundless extreme faith. After reading this book, I feel like I have a better understanding of what true love is.

It seems to me that if more people read this book, they would come to understand that true love is not about being loved but about loving yourself and being in this feeling. Then, it seems to me this world would be much better and more honest.

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4 Chapter 1. Conclusions

In conclusion, the first chapter of this textbook has provided you with a glimpse into the multifaceted nature of the field of psychology. We have explored the fundamental question of “What is Psychology?” and have discussed its diverse subfields and applications. Moreover, we have delved into the rich history of psychology, acknowledging both its achievements and its ugliness, such as psychology’s contribution to eugenics and its failure to recognize the intellectual potential of BIPOC people and women. We have highlighted the transformative efforts of social justice activists within the discipline. As you consider becoming a psychology major or potential careers in psychology, it is important to recognize the profound impact psychologists can have on individuals and society as a whole. By studying the human mind and behavior, we can contribute to understanding, supporting, and advocating for the well-being of others. With this knowledge, we hope that you will embrace opportunities to make a positive difference and foster social change.

Introduction to Psychology (A critical approach) Copyright © 2021 by Rose M. Spielman; Kathryn Dumper; William Jenkins; Arlene Lacombe; Marilyn Lovett; and Marion Perlmutter is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Home / Essay Samples / Psychology

Psychology Essay Examples

Psychology is a fascinating field that delves into the complexities of human behavior, emotions, cognition, and more. An essay example in psychology serves a crucial purpose in offering insights into the application of psychological theories, research methods, and analysis of human experiences. It provides readers with a tangible illustration of how psychological concepts can be explored and discussed in written form. A psychology essay example effectively illustrates theoretical concepts, such as theories of personality, cognitive development, or social behavior. It demonstrates how these theories can be applied to real-life scenarios, making the abstract ideas more relatable and understandable for readers. Essay examples in psychology often showcase how research methods are employed to investigate various psychological phenomena. Readers can see how experiments, surveys, case studies, and observations are conducted to gather data and draw meaningful conclusions. Psychology essay examples involve critical analysis of research findings, theories, or concepts. This analysis highlights the strengths and limitations of different approaches and encourages readers to think critically about psychological research and its implications. Writing Tips for Essays About Psychology:

Clear Thesis: Begin with a clear and concise thesis statement that outlines the main argument or point of your essay. Evidence-Based: Support your arguments with relevant research findings, empirical evidence, or case examples. Structure: Organize your essay with an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Each paragraph should focus on a specific point and connect logically to the next. Analysis: Engage in critical analysis and evaluation of psychological theories, research, or concepts. Discuss strengths, weaknesses, and implications. Cohesiveness: Ensure that your essay flows smoothly, with coherent transitions between paragraphs and ideas. References: Properly cite your sources using the appropriate citation style (e.g., APA, MLA) to give credit to the original authors and avoid plagiarism.

A psychology essay example serves as a valuable tool for demonstrating the practical applications of psychological concepts and research methods. By studying and analyzing these examples, readers can gain insights into how to effectively convey complex psychological ideas through written essays and deepen their understanding of the field.

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• Child Development
• Clinical Psychology
• Cognitive Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Psychologist
• Operant Conditioning
• Growth Mindset
• Emotional Intelligence
• Procrastination
• Problem Solving
• Intelligence
• Big Five Personality Traits
• William James
• Abnormal Psychology
• Attribution Theory
• Birth Order
• Conflict Resolution Theory
• Covert Observations
• Critical Reflection
• Educational Psychology
• Experimental Psychology
• Milgram Experiment
• Neuroscience
• Personal Development Planning
• Positive Attitude
• Positive Psychology
• Psychological Theories
• Short Term Memory
• Social Psychology
• Stroop Effect
• The Bystander Effect

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