the text structure is the organizational pattern of an essay

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9.3 Organizing Your Writing

Learning objectives.

• Understand how and why organizational techniques help writers and readers stay focused.
• Assess how and when to use chronological order to organize an essay.
• Recognize how and when to use order of importance to organize an essay.
• Determine how and when to use spatial order to organize an essay.

The method of organization you choose for your essay is just as important as its content. Without a clear organizational pattern, your reader could become confused and lose interest. The way you structure your essay helps your readers draw connections between the body and the thesis, and the structure also keeps you focused as you plan and write the essay. Choosing your organizational pattern before you outline ensures that each body paragraph works to support and develop your thesis.

This section covers three ways to organize body paragraphs:

• Chronological order
• Order of importance
• Spatial order

When you begin to draft your essay, your ideas may seem to flow from your mind in a seemingly random manner. Your readers, who bring to the table different backgrounds, viewpoints, and ideas, need you to clearly organize these ideas in order to help process and accept them.

A solid organizational pattern gives your ideas a path that you can follow as you develop your draft. Knowing how you will organize your paragraphs allows you to better express and analyze your thoughts. Planning the structure of your essay before you choose supporting evidence helps you conduct more effective and targeted research.

Chronological Order

In Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , you learned that chronological arrangement has the following purposes:

• To explain the history of an event or a topic
• To tell a story or relate an experience
• To explain how to do or to make something
• To explain the steps in a process

Chronological order is mostly used in expository writing , which is a form of writing that narrates, describes, informs, or explains a process. When using chronological order, arrange the events in the order that they actually happened, or will happen if you are giving instructions. This method requires you to use words such as first , second , then , after that , later , and finally . These transition words guide you and your reader through the paper as you expand your thesis.

For example, if you are writing an essay about the history of the airline industry, you would begin with its conception and detail the essential timeline events up until present day. You would follow the chain of events using words such as first , then , next , and so on.

Writing at Work

At some point in your career you may have to file a complaint with your human resources department. Using chronological order is a useful tool in describing the events that led up to your filing the grievance. You would logically lay out the events in the order that they occurred using the key transition words. The more logical your complaint, the more likely you will be well received and helped.

Choose an accomplishment you have achieved in your life. The important moment could be in sports, schooling, or extracurricular activities. On your own sheet of paper, list the steps you took to reach your goal. Try to be as specific as possible with the steps you took. Pay attention to using transition words to focus your writing.

Keep in mind that chronological order is most appropriate for the following purposes:

• Writing essays containing heavy research
• Writing essays with the aim of listing, explaining, or narrating
• Writing essays that analyze literary works such as poems, plays, or books

When using chronological order, your introduction should indicate the information you will cover and in what order, and the introduction should also establish the relevance of the information. Your body paragraphs should then provide clear divisions or steps in chronology. You can divide your paragraphs by time (such as decades, wars, or other historical events) or by the same structure of the work you are examining (such as a line-by-line explication of a poem).

On a separate sheet of paper, write a paragraph that describes a process you are familiar with and can do well. Assume that your reader is unfamiliar with the procedure. Remember to use the chronological key words, such as first , second , then , and finally .

Order of Importance

Recall from Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” that order of importance is best used for the following purposes:

• Persuading and convincing
• Ranking items by their importance, benefit, or significance
• Illustrating a situation, problem, or solution

Most essays move from the least to the most important point, and the paragraphs are arranged in an effort to build the essay’s strength. Sometimes, however, it is necessary to begin with your most important supporting point, such as in an essay that contains a thesis that is highly debatable. When writing a persuasive essay, it is best to begin with the most important point because it immediately captivates your readers and compels them to continue reading.

For example, if you were supporting your thesis that homework is detrimental to the education of high school students, you would want to present your most convincing argument first, and then move on to the less important points for your case.

Some key transitional words you should use with this method of organization are most importantly , almost as importantly , just as importantly , and finally .

During your career, you may be required to work on a team that devises a strategy for a specific goal of your company, such as increasing profits. When planning your strategy you should organize your steps in order of importance. This demonstrates the ability to prioritize and plan. Using the order of importance technique also shows that you can create a resolution with logical steps for accomplishing a common goal.

On a separate sheet of paper, write a paragraph that discusses a passion of yours. Your passion could be music, a particular sport, filmmaking, and so on. Your paragraph should be built upon the reasons why you feel so strongly. Briefly discuss your reasons in the order of least to greatest importance.

Spatial Order

As stated in Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , spatial order is best used for the following purposes:

• Helping readers visualize something as you want them to see it
• Evoking a scene using the senses (sight, touch, taste, smell, and sound)
• Writing a descriptive essay

Spatial order means that you explain or describe objects as they are arranged around you in your space, for example in a bedroom. As the writer, you create a picture for your reader, and their perspective is the viewpoint from which you describe what is around you.

The view must move in an orderly, logical progression, giving the reader clear directional signals to follow from place to place. The key to using this method is to choose a specific starting point and then guide the reader to follow your eye as it moves in an orderly trajectory from your starting point.

Pay attention to the following student’s description of her bedroom and how she guides the reader through the viewing process, foot by foot.

Attached to my bedroom wall is a small wooden rack dangling with red and turquoise necklaces that shimmer as you enter. Just to the right of the rack is my window, framed by billowy white curtains. The peace of such an image is a stark contrast to my desk, which sits to the right of the window, layered in textbooks, crumpled papers, coffee cups, and an overflowing ashtray. Turning my head to the right, I see a set of two bare windows that frame the trees outside the glass like a 3D painting. Below the windows is an oak chest from which blankets and scarves are protruding. Against the wall opposite the billowy curtains is an antique dresser, on top of which sits a jewelry box and a few picture frames. A tall mirror attached to the dresser takes up most of the wall, which is the color of lavender.

The paragraph incorporates two objectives you have learned in this chapter: using an implied topic sentence and applying spatial order. Often in a descriptive essay, the two work together.

The following are possible transition words to include when using spatial order:

• Just to the left or just to the right
• On the left or on the right
• Across from
• A little further down
• To the south, to the east, and so on
• A few yards away
• Turning left or turning right

On a separate sheet of paper, write a paragraph using spatial order that describes your commute to work, school, or another location you visit often.

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

Key Takeaways

• The way you organize your body paragraphs ensures you and your readers stay focused on and draw connections to, your thesis statement.
• A strong organizational pattern allows you to articulate, analyze, and clarify your thoughts.
• Planning the organizational structure for your essay before you begin to search for supporting evidence helps you conduct more effective and directed research.
• Chronological order is most commonly used in expository writing. It is useful for explaining the history of your subject, for telling a story, or for explaining a process.
• Order of importance is most appropriate in a persuasion paper as well as for essays in which you rank things, people, or events by their significance.
• Spatial order describes things as they are arranged in space and is best for helping readers visualize something as you want them to see it; it creates a dominant impression.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Understanding Text Structure: A Comprehensive Guide with 8 Examples

understanding text structure

Text structures are the architectural framework of written communication, shaping how information is organized and presented.

In this comprehensive guide, we will explore the fundamentals of text structures, answering crucial questions:

Text structures are the organizational blueprints that authors employ to arrange their ideas systematically. They are the underlying structure that gives coherence and order to written content.

Understanding and using text structures is vital for effective communication. They transform chaotic content into a comprehensible narrative, making it accessible and engaging for readers.

1. Chronological Text Structure

Chronological text structure arranges information in sequential order, following a timeline. It is like telling a story from start to finish, ensuring that events or ideas unfold in the order they occurred.

First, historical accounts, biographies, and step-by-step guides often use chronological structure. These texts take readers on a journey through time, making it easy to track developments.

Choose this structure when you want to emphasize a clear progression of events or when you need to guide readers through a process in a logical, time-based sequence.

It’s a powerful tool for storytelling and explaining sequences of actions or historical events.

2. Compare and Contrast Text Structure

The compare and contrast text structure involves examining the similarities and differences between two or more subjects, ideas, or concepts.

It is a method of highlighting commonalities and distinctions, providing readers with a comprehensive understanding of the topics being compared.

Texts that compare and contrast often include essays, research papers, and product reviews. They present information side-by-side, allowing readers to discern relationships and disparities easily.

This structure is valuable when systematically analyzing multiple subjects or ideas, fostering a deeper understanding. It’s commonly used in academic, analytical, or evaluative contexts to facilitate informed comparisons.

3. Cause and Effect Text Structure

Cause and effect text structure elucidates the relationship between actions (causes) and their outcomes (effects). It unveils the underlying reasons behind events, helping readers grasp the connections and consequences.

Scientific research papers, historical analyses, and articles on social issues frequently employ this structure. It dissects the causal factors leading to particular outcomes or phenomena.

Choose this structure when you must elucidate the reasons behind specific events, explore the consequences of actions, or examine the ripple effects of decisions.

It is a valuable tool for comprehending and explaining the intricate web of causation in various contexts.

4. Problem-Solution Text Structure

The problem-solution text structure is a framework that identifies a specific problem or issue and then offers viable solutions or strategies to address it.

It presents a clear path from recognizing an obstacle to resolving it effectively.

Problem-solving essays, policy proposals, and self-help guides frequently utilize this structure. They pinpoint challenges and provide actionable solutions, offering readers practical guidance.

This structure is ideal for tackling real-world issues, proposing solutions, or guiding readers in resolving problems.

It is applicable in persuasive and informative writing, addressing diverse topics, from societal dilemmas to personal challenges.

5. Descriptive Text Structure

Descriptive text structure immerses readers in rich, vivid details, painting a clear and evocative picture of a subject, scene, or concept. It appeals to the senses and emotions, making content come alive.

Travelogues, creative narratives, and product reviews frequently employ this structure. They use descriptive language to provide readers with sensory experiences, fostering a deep understanding or appreciation.

Choose this structure to create a sensory and emotional connection with your audience, evoke vivid imagery, or convey a profound sense of place or experience. It’s particularly effective in storytelling, travel writing, and descriptive essays.

6. Sequential Text Structure

Sequential text structure, or chronological or procedural structure, arranges information in a step-by-step order, guiding readers through a series of actions or events logically. It’s akin to providing a roadmap for understanding processes.

Recipes, instructional manuals, and how-to guides often utilize this structure. They break down complex tasks or procedures into manageable, ordered steps, facilitating easy comprehension.

Choose this structure when explaining processes, procedures, or events in a systematic, time-based sequence. It’s invaluable for instructional content, technical documentation, and any context where clear, ordered guidance is essential.

7. Spatial Text Structure

Spatial text structure organizes information based on physical or spatial relationships, providing readers with a clear understanding of how elements are positioned or interconnected in space.

It leverages descriptive language to create mental images of a location or layout.

Travel guides, architectural blueprints, and geographical descriptions frequently employ this structure.

They use spatial cues to convey a sense of place, guiding readers through spaces or landscapes.

Choose this structure to emphasize the physical arrangement or layout of elements within a given space.

It effectively conveys spatial relationships, describes settings, and provides detailed, location-based information.

8. Compare and Contrast (Extended)

Extended compare and contrast delves deeper into the intricate nuances of two or more subjects, analyzing their similarities and differences exhaustively.

It requires a meticulous examination, often uncovering subtleties that standard comparisons might overlook.

Academic research papers, in-depth analyses of complex topics, and comprehensive product evaluations are indispensable for extended compare and contrast. It scrutinizes multifaceted aspects and intricate relationships between subjects.

To excel in extended comparison, employ robust research, consider multiple dimensions, and offer insightful insights. Diving into finer details and exploring various angles will yield a thorough comparative analysis.

How to Use Text Structures in Different Writing Styles

In fiction, authors use text structures to shape narratives through chronological storytelling, flashbacks, or descriptive passages.

These structures help create suspense, reveal character motivations, and engage readers emotionally.

Non-fiction relies on text structures to present factual information logically. Cause and effect, problem-solution, and compare and contrast structures are shared. They enhance clarity and reader comprehension, making complex topics accessible.

Academic writing often uses text structures to present research findings, arguments, and analyses. It demands a clear, organized approach, with structures like deductive reasoning or the scientific method ensuring rigor.

In business and technical writing, clarity is paramount. Sequential structures help explain processes, while descriptive designs can simplify complex concepts. These structures enhance communication in professional contexts, ensuring precision and understanding.

Tips for Mastering Text Structures

Mastering text structures is a valuable skill for writers across various genres. It enhances communication, readability, and the overall impact of your writing.

Here are six essential tips to help you become proficient in using text structures effectively:

Planning Your Writing with Text Structures in Mind

Begin your writing process by considering your content’s most suitable text structure.

Determine whether chronological, cause and effect, problem-solution, or another structure best aligns with your goals. A clear plan at the outset sets the stage for a well-organized piece.

Revision and Editing Techniques

Effective revision and editing are crucial for refining text structures. After completing your initial draft, review it with a critical eye.

Ensure that the chosen structure is consistently applied and smooth transitions between sections.

Eliminate redundancies and fine-tune your writing for clarity and coherence.

Common Pitfalls to Avoid

Be aware of common pitfalls associated with text structures. These may include veering off-topic, overusing a single structure, or neglecting to provide adequate context or support.

Stay vigilant to maintain a balanced and well-structured piece.

Engage Text Structure Exercises

Practice makes perfect. Engage in text structure exercises to hone your skills. Write short pieces using different structures to become comfortable with their nuances.

Experimentation will help you develop a strong sense of when to use each structure effectively.

Analyze Texts for Their Structures

Analyze texts across various genres to identify their underlying structures.

Please pay attention to how authors employ these structures to convey their messages. This analytical approach will deepen your understanding and enable you to adapt similar techniques to your writing.

Develop Your Text Structuring Skills

Text structuring is a skill that improves with time and effort. Seek feedback from peers or writing professionals to gain insights into your strengths and areas for improvement.

Attend writing workshops or courses focusing on text structures to refine your abilities further.

Real-World Examples

Study published works by renowned authors to observe how they employ text structures.

For instance, analyze how Charles Dickens uses descriptive structures in his novels to evoke vivid imagery or how scientific researchers employ cause-and-effect structures to present their findings precisely.

Read news articles critically, identifying the text structures used to convey information.

Observe how journalists employ chronological structures for reporting events, problem-solution structures when discussing societal issues, or compare and contrast structures when analyzing trends or policies.

Explore case studies that showcase the effective use of text structures in various contexts.

Investigate how businesses utilize problem-solving structures in marketing campaigns or how educators employ sequential structures for instructional materials.

These real-world examples offer valuable insights into the practical application of text structures.

In this comprehensive guide, we’ve embarked on a journey through the intricate world of text structures.

We explored the fundamental structures like chronological, cause and effect, problem-solution, and compare and contrast, each serving as a powerful tool in shaping written content.

Additionally, we ventured into extended comparisons and spatial and sequential structures and delved into using text structures across various writing styles.

Armed with these insights, writers can now confidently navigate the terrain of communication, crafting engaging, organized, and impactful content that captivates readers and conveys messages effectively.

Josh Jasen or JJ as we fondly call him, is a senior academic editor at Grade Bees in charge of the writing department. When not managing complex essays and academic writing tasks, Josh is busy advising students on how to pass assignments. In his spare time, he loves playing football or walking with his dog around the park.

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What Are the Five Text Structures? Text Structure Explained

Did you know that understanding the text structure can provide you with some valuable insights? It’s true! Let’s dive deeper and explore this fascinating concept. Well start by answering the most obvious question. 

What is text structure?

Text structure refers to the organizational pattern or framework writers use to structure and present information in a written work. It involves how the content is organized, the relationships between ideas, and the overall flow of information within a text.

Different types of text structures serve various purposes, and writers choose a specific structure based on the nature of their content and the message they want to convey. Common text structures include description, sequence or chronological order, compare and contrast, cause and effect, and problem and solution. Understanding text structure is crucial for readers as it helps them comprehend information more effectively and aids in extracting meaning from written material. Additionally, writers use text structure to communicate their ideas clearly and logically.

How do you Determine text structure?

1. Identify Signal Words:

Look for words and phrases that signal the structure being used. For example, words like “first,” “next,” “then,” and “finally” indicate a sequence structure, while “however,” “on the other hand,” and “similarly” suggest a compare and contrast structure.

2. Examine the Organization:

Consider the overall organization of the text. Is the information presented in chronological order, a cause-and-effect relationship, a problem-solution format, or another pattern? This can give you insights into the text structure.

3. Recognize Patterns of Thought:

Pay attention to how ideas are connected. Are the ideas grouped together based on similarities and differences, or are they presented in a step-by-step manner? Understanding these patterns can reveal the text structure.

4. Check for Descriptive Language:

If the text includes rich sensory details, vivid imagery, and descriptive language, it may indicate a descriptive text structure. Look for elements that appeal to the senses and create a mental image.

5. Consider the Purpose:

Think about why the author is writing. Are they explaining a process, telling a story, presenting information for analysis, or proposing solutions to a problem? The purpose can often guide you to the text structure.

6. Look for Subheadings or Formatting:

Subheadings, bullet points, or numbered lists can provide clues about the organization of information. These structural elements often reflect the main ideas and their relationships.

7. Consider Text Features:

Graphics, charts, and illustrations can offer additional information about the text structure. For instance, a timeline may indicate a sequence structure, while a comparison chart may suggest a compare and contrast structure.

By combining these strategies, readers can gain a better understanding of the text structure, which enhances comprehension and allows for more effective engagement with the written material.

The Five Text Structures Defined:

Description Text Structure:

Definition :

Description text structure involves vividly portraying the characteristics, features, or qualities of a person, place, object, or event. Writers use detailed and sensory language to create a clear and vivid image in the reader’s mind.

Common Features:

Standard features of description text structure include rich sensory details, figurative language, and a focus on creating a specific atmosphere or mood. Writers often use adjectives, adverbs, and descriptive language to convey the sensory experience associated with the subject.

In a description text, an author might paint a picture of a bustling city street, describing the sights, sounds, and smells in intricate detail. Another example could involve vividly depicting the appearance and behavior of a central character in a story, allowing readers to form a clear mental image.

How to Identify:

To identify description text structure, look for passages that focus on providing sensory details, painting a picture, or creating a specific mood. Signal words such as “vibrant,” “serene,” “aromatic,” and descriptive adjectives like “crimson,” “fragrant,” and “towering” are often indicators. Additionally, a lack of chronological order or clear cause-and-effect relationships in the writing may suggest a description structure.

Understanding these elements helps readers appreciate the vivid imagery and emotions conveyed through descriptive text, making it easier to identify and engage with this specific text structure.

Sequence and Order Text Structure:

A sequence and order text structure organizes information in a step-by-step manner, presenting events or ideas in a chronological order. The goal is to guide the reader through a process, a series of events, or the progression of time in a clear and logical sequence.

Common features of sequence text structure include the use of time-related words and phrases such as:

Additionally, there is a clear progression of events or steps, allowing the reader to follow the order of occurrences easily.

In a sequence text, an author might provide a step-by-step guide on how to bake a cake, outlining each stage of the process. Another example is narrating historical events in the order they occurred, providing a chronological account of a period or an individual’s life.

To identify sequence text structure, look for clear indicators of chronological order. Signal words like “before,” “after,” “during,” and the use of numerical or time-related words (e.g., “first,” “second,” “next”) are key clues. The writing should present a logical progression, with each step or event building upon the previous one. Additionally, the absence of strong cause-and-effect relationships or comparison language often points to a sequence structure.

Compare and Contrast Text Structure:

Compare and contrast text structure highlights the similarities and differences between two or more subjects. The goal is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the characteristics of each subject by examining their shared qualities and distinctions.

Common features of compare and contrast text structure include the use of comparative language such as

• on the other hand
• in contrast

The writing often presents a balanced exploration of both similarities and differences, offering a nuanced perspective on the subjects.

In a compare and contrast text, an author might analyze the similarities and differences between two historical figures, highlighting their contributions and contrasting their approaches. Another example is comparing and contrasting two literary works, exploring themes, styles, and characterizations.

To identify compare and contrast text structure, look for language that signals a comparison, such as words indicating similarity or difference. Phrases like “both,” “similar to,” “unlike,” and “but” are key indicators. The text should present a balanced exploration of the subjects, examining shared attributes and distinctions. The organizational structure often involves alternating or separate paragraphs for each subject, emphasizing a point-by-point analysis.

Cause and Effect Text Structure:

Cause and effect text structure explores the relationship between actions and their consequences. The writing aims to explain why events occur (the causes) and the outcomes or impacts that result from those events (the effects).

Common features of cause and effect text structure include the use of causal language such as 

• as a result 

The text often presents a clear cause-and-effect relationship, linking events logically to demonstrate the impact of one upon the other.

In a cause and effect text, an author might analyze the reasons behind a historical event, detailing the factors that led to its occurrence and discussing the resulting effects. Another example is exploring the consequences of environmental pollution and linking human activities to ecological impacts.

To identify cause and effect text structure, look for language that indicates causation. Words and phrases like “cause,” “effect,” “leads to,” and “results in” are key signals. The writing should present a clear connection between actions and their outcomes, demonstrating a logical progression from one event to the next. Additionally, the absence of chronological order or explicit comparison language often points to a cause and effect structure.

Problem and Solution Text Structure:

Problem and solution text structure addresses a specific issue or challenge and presents viable solutions. The writing begins by outlining a problem, discussing its implications, and then proposing or exploring potential resolutions.

Common features of problem and solution text structure include the identification of a clear problem, a discussion of its effects or consequences, and the presentation of one or more practical solutions. The writing often employs language such as 

• recommendation

In a problem and solution text, an author might analyze the challenges of urban congestion, discussing the negative impacts on traffic flow and air quality before suggesting potential solutions like public transportation improvements or urban planning changes. Another example could involve addressing the issue of deforestation by proposing sustainable logging practices and reforestation efforts.

To identify problem and solution text structure, look for language that signifies a problem and its potential resolution. Words and phrases like “issue,” “problem,” “solution,” “solve,” and “recommendation” are indicators. The text should present a clear problem statement, followed by discussions of the consequences and viable solutions. Additionally, the writing often incorporates a call to action or implementation of the proposed solutions.

Examples of the Five Text Structures: 

Description structure example:.

The ancient castle stood proudly atop the rugged cliff, its weathered stone walls whispering tales of a bygone era. The imposing structure, adorned with ivy clinging to its surface, seemed frozen in time. Turrets reached towards the sky, and a drawbridge, now permanently fixed, hinted at centuries of history. The courtyard, surrounded by moss-covered cobblestones, echoed with the footsteps of knights long gone. Each archway and crevice told a story, creating a tangible sense of the past that enveloped visitors in a timeless embrace.

Sequence and Order Structure Example:

To bake a perfect chocolate cake, one must follow a precise sequence of steps. Begin by preheating the oven to 350°F and greasing the cake pans. In a mixing bowl, combine flour, cocoa powder, baking powder, and salt. In a separate bowl, beat together butter, sugar, and eggs until creamy. Gradually add the dry ingredients to the wet mixture, alternating with milk. Once the batter is smooth, pour it into the prepared pans and bake for 30-35 minutes. Allow the cakes to cool before frosting with a decadent chocolate ganache. Following this sequence ensures a delectable chocolate cake that delights the senses.

Compare and Contrast Structure Example:

Contrasting the bustling city life with the tranquility of rural landscapes reveals stark differences in lifestyle. In urban areas, the streets hum with activity, skyscrapers pierce the sky, and the constant buzz of traffic becomes the soundtrack of everyday life. Conversely, rural settings offer a serene escape, where the symphony of nature takes center stage. Rolling hills, open fields, and the absence of city clamor provide a stark contrast to the frenetic energy of metropolitan living. Both environments have their allure, catering to different preferences and priorities.

Cause and Effect Structure Example:

The prolonged exposure to sunlight without adequate protection can lead to sunburn. When the skin is exposed to ultraviolet (UV) rays for an extended period, it triggers an inflammatory response. This, in turn, causes redness, pain, and swelling – the classic symptoms of sunburn. The immediate effects are discomfort and skin peeling, but long-term consequences may include an increased risk of skin cancer. Applying sunscreen before sun exposure acts as a preventative measure, mitigating the harmful effects of UV rays and reducing the likelihood of sunburn and its associated risks.

Problem and Solution Structure Example:

The escalating issue of plastic pollution demands urgent attention and viable solutions. With millions of tons of plastic waste entering oceans annually, marine life faces unprecedented threats. To address this problem, widespread adoption of recycling programs and the development of biodegradable alternatives are essential. Governments and industries must collaborate to enforce stringent regulations on single-use plastics. Additionally, raising public awareness about responsible consumption and waste disposal is crucial. Implementing these solutions can pave the way towards a cleaner, more sustainable future

Wrapping up: 

Understanding the what are the five text structures in a expository texts can help you comprehend texts better and communicate more effectively. Text structure refers to how information is presented in a piece of writing, including the relationships between ideas and the overall flow of the text. Recognizing and identifying these structures, such as descriptions, sequences, comparisons, cause and effect, and problem and solution, can help you understand the text more clearly. 

By using strategies such as recognizing signal words, examining the organization, and considering the purpose of the text, you can unlock its meaning and engage more effectively with the content. Additionally, exploring the five specific text structures through examples can deepen your comprehension and help you apply the concepts in different contexts.

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• Scriptwriting

What is Text Structure — Definition, Examples & Types Explained

• What is Syntax
• What is Passive Voice
• What is Active Voice
• Active vs. Passive Voice
• What is Text Structure
• What is Sentence Structure
• Simple Sentence Structure
• Compound Sentence Structure
• Compound-Complex Sentence Structure
• Complex Sentence Structure

L anguage is the basis of communication. Within communication, specifically written language, writers may have different purposes with their work.  As a reader, it’s beneficial to understand a writer’s goal, and as a writer, it’s important to understand how to use language to work for your own goal. Therefore, understanding text structure is vital for both readers and writers. What is text structure, and why are the types of structures that exist? Let’s dive into it.

What is Text Structure in Writing?

First, let’s define text structure.

There are five primary text structures that exist. Before diving into them, let’s take a look at the general text structure definition.

TEXT STRUCTURE DEFINITION

What is text structure in literature.

Text structure is the way in which a writer organizes language and information within text to serve a specific purpose. Depending on the goal of the writer, text can be structured in various ways to best communicate information to a reader clearly and effectively. The structure of a text’s beginning, middle, and end is directly influenced by the intention and purpose of the writer.  

Types of Text Structure:

Description, cause and effect, compare and contrast, problem and solution, what are all the text structures , types of text structure.

As we mentioned in the text structure definition there are various purposes writers have when writing. Text structure depends entirely on the purpose of a writer. There are five types of text structure that exist for this reason. Here’s a video breakdown of the five types of text structure.

 The 5 Types of Text Structure

To recap, there are 5 types of text structure:

• Description 
• Cause and Effect 
• Compare and Contrast
• Problem and Solution   Let’s take a deep dive into a list of text structures and analyze text structure examples of each. 

Description Text Structure Meaning

Description is a text structure that is designed to create a vivid, detailed description of something. This is achieved by using descriptive language to describe traits, features, and characteristics of the subject. Here's an example:

“Two distinct desert ecosystems, the Mojave and the Colorado, come together in Joshua Tree National Park. A fascinating variety of plants and animals make their homes in a land sculpted by strong winds and occasional torrents of rain. Dark night skies, a rich cultural history, and surreal geologic features add to the wonder of this vast wilderness in southern California”

- National Parks Service

What Does Text Structure Mean

There are two ways that sequence text structure can be used: to communicate a chronological sequence of events or steps in a procedure. 

Sequence text structure for the purpose of chronological events is a common structure used in historical literature or non-fictional literature. Sequence structure for procedural information is common in educational literature from cooking instructions to scientific methods. 

Example 1: “World War I, also known as the Great War, began in 1914 after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. His murder catapulted into a war across Europe that lasted until 1918.” - World War I ( history.com )

Example 2: “Pulse flour, sugar, and salt in a food processor to combine. Add butter and process until the largest pieces of butter are pea-size. Transfer to a large bowl.” BA’s Best Apple Pie ( bonappetit.com )

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TEXT STRUCTURE MEANING

Cause and effect text structure is primarily used to communicate the causal relationship between an event, action, or idea and what follows. The text is designed to make the causality and correlation between the two clear to the reader. This is also a common structure in both educational and historical literature. For example:

“After inflating, the universe slowed down its expansion rate but continued to grow, as it does still. It also cooled significantly, allowing for the formation of matter — first neutrinos, electrons, quarks, and photons, followed by protons and neutrons.” - How Did the Big Bang Happen? ( astronomy.com )

Text Structure Meaning

Oftentimes, writers need to analyze the similarities and differences between two subjects. A compare and contrast text structure allows them to do just that. These comparisons are typically between people, places, events, ideas, or concepts. 

“Beethoven has a much more fiery personality. Whereas Mozart’s music is clean and precise, Beethoven employs many surprises in his music. Many times he will build up the music as if it’s leading to something only to suddenly get soft – his trademark use of subito piano.”

— Mozart vs. Beethoven ( livingpianos.com )

What is Text Structure Used For?

Lastly, the problem and solution text structure is designed to present a problem and transition into a proposed solution for said problem. The structure is designed to both create reasonable cases for why the problem exists and/or is important and why the proposed solution can be effective.

This text design is common in political literature and speech as well as business and technology. Here's an example:

“Transportation is the second leading source of greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. (burning a single gallon of gasoline produces 20 pounds of CO2). But it doesn't have to be that way. One way to dramatically curtail transportation fuel needs is to move closer to work, use mass transit, or switch to walking, cycling or some other mode of transport that does not require anything other than human energy. There is also the option of working from home and telecommuting several days a week.” — 10 Solutions for Climate Change ( scientificamerican.com )

Text structure is valuable for both readers and writers to understand. It allows readers to know the intention of the writer they are reading from the beginning of a text. Writers can utilize structure to support the purpose of their work. Hopefully this article has given you insight on the value of text structure and how it can be used. 

• What is Syntax →
• Active vs Passive Voice →
• What is Sentence Structure →

What are Literary Devices?

Text structure is a great way to design your writing with a purpose in mind. Literary devices are also valuable tools that help writers achieve the goal of their work. In the next article, we break down a full tool kit of literary devices that you have at your disposal as a writer. 

Up Next: Literary Devices →

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Many types of writing follow some version of the basic shape described above. This shape is most obvious in the form of the traditional five-paragraph essay: a model for college writing in which the writer argues his or her viewpoint (thesis) on a topic and uses three reasons or subtopics to support that position. In the five-paragraph model, as illustrated below, the introductory paragraph mentions the three main points or subtopics, and each body paragraph begins with a topic sentence dealing with one of those main points.

SAMPLE ESSAY USING THE FIVE-PARAGRAPH MODEL

Remember, this is a very simplistic model. It presents a basic idea of essay organization and may certainly be helpful in learning to structure an argument, but it should not be followed religiously as an ideal form.

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Writing Process Basics: Essay Structure and Organization

Introduction, learning objectives.

• identify appropriate rhetorical pattern for the topic and the task
• identify components of an effective thesis statement
• identify components of an effective logical argument
• identify components of an effective paragraph
• identify components of an effective essay body
• identify components of an effective introduction
• identify components of an effective conclusion

Structure refers to the function a particular piece of your essay serves in the essay.  Elements like introductions, body paragraphs, and conclusions are structural components of an essay. It’s similar to the structure of a house: certain spaces are designated as a bedroom, a bathroom, a kitchen, and so forth.

As we know, houses appear in many different shapes and sizes, even though they contain all of these similar features.  You might say that the structure of a house can be organized in many different ways.  In writing, organization is where your unique approach as an author comes into play.  In what particular order are body paragraphs placed? Why?

In short, structure is the what , and organization is the why .

As a writer, you’ll identify what pieces are necessary for your essay to include.  Then you’ll determine what order those pieces will appear in, and how they connect together.

How to Write a Thesis Statement

Whether you are writing a short essay or a doctoral dissertation, your thesis statement will arguably be the most difficult sentence to formulate. An effective thesis statement states the purpose of the paper and, therefore, functions to control, assert and structure your entire  argument . Without a sound thesis, your argument may sound weak, lacking in direction, and  uninteresting to the reader.

Start with a question — then make the answer your thesis

Regardless of how complicated the subject is, almost any thesis can be constructed by answering a question.

• Thesis: “Computers allow fourth graders an early advantage in technological and scientific education.”
• Thesis: “The river comes to symbolize both division and progress, as it separates our characters and country while still providing the best chance for Huck and Jim to get to know one another.”
• Thesis: “Through careful sociological study, we’ve found that people naturally assume that “morally righteous” people look down on them as “inferior,” causing anger and conflict where there generally is none.”

Tailor your thesis to the type of paper you’re writing

N ot all essays persuade, and not all essays teach. The goals of your paper will help you find the best thesis.

• Ex. “This dynamic between different generations sparks much of the play’s tension, as age becomes a motive for the violence and unrest that rocks King Lear.”
• Ex. “The explosion of 1800’s philosophies like Positivism, Marxism, and Darwinism undermined and refuted Christianity to instead focus on the real, tangible world.”
• Ex. “Without the steady hand and specific decisions of Barack Obama, America would never have recovered from the hole it entered in the early 2000’s.”

Ensure your thesis is provable

Good Theses Examples:

• “By owning up to the impossible contradictions, embracing them and questioning them, Blake forges his own faith, and is stronger for it. Ultimately, the only way for his poems to have faith is to temporarily lose it.”
• “According to its well-documented beliefs and philosophies, an existential society with no notion of either past or future cannot help but become stagnant.”
• “By reading “Ode to a Nightingale” through a modern deconstructionist lens, we can see how Keats viewed poetry as shifting and subjective, not some rigid form.”

Bad Theses Examples:

• “The wrong people won the American Revolution.” While striking and unique, who is “right” and who is “wrong” is exceptionally hard to prove, and very subjective.
• “The theory of genetic inheritance is the binding theory of every human interaction.” Too complicated and overzealous. The scope of “every human interaction” is just too big
• “Paul Harding’s novel Tinkers is ultimately a cry for help from a clearly depressed author.” Unless you interviewed Harding extensively, or had a lot of real-life sources, you have no way of proving what is fact and what is fiction.”

Get the sound right

Example thesis statements with good statement language include:

• “Because of William the Conqueror’s campaign into England, that nation developed the strength and culture it would need to eventually build the British Empire.”
• “Hemingway significantly changed literature by normalizing simplistic writing and frank tone.”

Know where to place a thesis statement

Because of the role thesis statements play, they appear at the beginning of the paper, usually at the end of the first paragraph or somewhere in the introduction. Although most people look for the thesis at the end of the first paragraph, its location can depend on a number of factors such as how lengthy of an introduction you need before you can introduce your thesis or the length of your paper.

Limit a thesis statement to one or two sentences in length

Thesis statements are clear and to the point, which helps the reader identify the topic and direction of the paper, as well as your position towards the subject.

Text Structures

A text structure is the framework of a text’s beginning, middle, and end. Different narrative and expository genres have different purposes and different audiences, and so they require different text structures. Beginnings and endings help link the text into a coherent whole.

BEGINNINGS: HOOKING YOUR READER

WHAT’S IN THE MIDDLE?

The organization of the middle of a piece of writing depends on the genre. Researchers have identified five basic organizational structures: sequence ,  description , cause and effect , compare and contrast , and problem and solution .

Sequence uses time, numerical, or spatial order as the organizing structure. Some narrative genres that use a chronological sequence structure are personal narrative genres (memoir, autobiographical incident, autobiography), imaginative story genres (fairytales, folktales, fantasy, science fiction), and realistic fiction genres. Narrative story structures include an initiating event, complicating actions that build to a high point, and a resolution. Many narratives also include the protagonist’s goals and obstacles that must be overcome to achieve those goals.

Description is used to describe the characteristic features and events of a specific subject (”My Cat”) or a general category (”Cats”). Descriptive reports may be arranged according to categories of related attributes, moving from general categories of features to specific attributes.

Cause and Effect structure is used to show causal relationships between events. Essays demonstrate cause and effect by giving reasons to support relationships, using the word “because.” Signal words for cause and effect structures also include if/then statements, “as a result,” and “therefore.”

Comparison and Contrast structure is used to explain how two or more objects, events, or positions in an argument are similar or different. Graphic organizers such as venn diagrams, compare/contrast organizers, and tables can be used to compare features across different categories. Words used to signal comparison and contrast organizational structures include “same,” “alike,” “in contrast,” “similarities,” “differences,” and “on the other hand.”

Problem and Solution requires writers to state a problem and come up with a solution. Although problem/solution structures are typically found in informational writing, realistic fiction also often uses a problem/solution structure.

ENDINGS: BEYOND “HAPPILY EVER AFTER”

Anyone who has watched a great movie for ninety minutes only to have it limp to the finish with weak ending knows that strong endings are just as critical to effective writing as strong beginnings. And anyone who has watched the director’s cut of a movie with all the alternate endings knows that even great directors have trouble coming up with satisfying endings for their movies. Just like directors, writers have to decide how to wrap up the action in their stories, resolving the conflict and tying up loose ends in a way that will leave their audience satisfied. 

Components of an Effective Paragraph

Every paragraph in the body of an essay consists of three main parts: a topic sentence, some supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence.  Transition words and phrases provide links between individual paragraphs, and so are important to consider, as well.

Of these elements, the topic sentences are the most important to building a strong essay, and deserve the most attention.

Topic Sentences

A clear topic sentence  in each paragraph will assist with essay organization. Consider writing topic sentences early in the process, while you’re working on an outline.  You can return later to fill in the rest of the paragraph.  Having these single sentences figured out early makes the rest of the essay much easier to write! 

Devote each body paragraph of an essay to discussing only the point of its topic sentence. If something is interesting to you, but not directly related to the topic sentence, save it for elsewhere in the essay (or hang on to it for a future writing task!). This will help keep your essay focused and effective.

Ensure that your topic sentence is directly related to your main argument or thesis.

Make sure that your topic sentence offers a “preview” of your paragraph’s discussion. Many beginning writers forget to use the first sentence this way, and end up with sentences that don’t give a clear direction for the paragraph.

For example, compare these two first sentences:

Thomas Jefferson was born in 1743. Thomas Jefferson, who was born in 1743, became one of the most important people in America by the end of the 18th century.

• The first sentence doesn’t give a good direction for the paragraph. It states a fact but leaves the reader clueless about the fact’s relevance. The second sentence contextualizes the fact and lets the reader know what the rest of the paragraph will discuss.

Supporting & Concluding Sentences

This video walks through all three components of an effective paragraph, giving good examples of what supporting statements and concluding sentences might look like.

Transitions

You spend so much time thinking about the ideas of an academic essay that the way these ideas connect makes perfect sense to you.  Keep in mind, though, that readers of your essay aren’t nearly as familiar with the subject as you are, and will need your guidance.

Transitional phrases , usually found at the beginning of body paragraphs, will allow your reader to follow your train of thought.  Phrases like “likewise” or “in contrast” are key indicators as to what relationship different paragraphs have to one another. 

• Transitions help underline your essay’s overall organizational logic. For example, beginning a paragraph with something like “Despite the many points in its favor, Mystic Pizza also has several elements that keep it from being the best pizza in town” allows your reader to understand how this paragraph connects to what has come before.
• Transitions can also be used inside paragraphs. They can help connect the ideas within a paragraph smoothly so your reader can follow them.
• If you’re having a lot of trouble connecting your paragraphs, your organization may be off. Experiment with different paragraph order, to see if that helps. 

The Toulmin Model

The following video introduces the components of a particular type of persuasive writing, The Toulmin Model. It can be useful to think about claims and evidence in your writing, and what unstated assumptions ( warrants ) might be influencing you.

This image shows how conclusions are reached, using the Toulmin model of arguments.

In essays using the Toulmin model, warrants aren’t usually stated explicitly in writing.  They are often shared beliefs between a reader and the writer, however.

Consider what assumptions you make about your chosen subject, that your reader likely also agrees with.  What assumptions do you have that your readers may not share?

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Home » Literacy Lines » Patterns of Organization

Patterns of Organization

Expository text typically incorporates five common patterns of organization, and transition words and phrases often signal the use of these patterns in text. These patterns are sometimes referred to as text structures . They are more commonly found in informational and opinion types of writing, but may also be used in narratives. The topic web graphic organizer below identifies the five patterns with a brief description below each. They are presented left to right from simplest pattern to most difficult.

Beyond grade 4 and into high school, much of the text that students read will incorporate multiple patterns of organization within the same text, possibly within the same paragraph. A news article, for example, might begin with a description of an event, then chronicle the sequence of details related to the event, and then end with an explanation of the effect that was caused by the event. When introducing a pattern of organization to students in these grades, try to find text samples that clearly show how the pattern is used in isolation. Then have them emulate the use of the pattern in their own writing. As students become more familiar with the differences among the patterns, they can then be shown model text that mixes the patterns.

Transitions

Transition words and phrases, also called linking words , are useful for connecting sentences, paragraphs, or sections of text. They also provide “clues” while reading about the pattern of organization used in the text, and can similarly be used by the student when writing to signal a pattern of organization. The Common Core State Standards include writing standards across grades 1 through 12 that require students to use transitions.

Keys to Literacy provides free access to two transition lists, one for primary grades and one for grades 4-12, as shown below. Click here for the primary list. Click here for the 4-12 list.

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I need a great book to teach “patterns of organization” to middle schoolers. I need practice sheets, as well.

Debra, We have chapters that focus on text structure (including patterns of organization and associated transition words) in our Keys to Content Writing book and Key Comprehension Routine book. They can be accessed at the Keys to Literacy store: https://keystoliteracy.com/store/

Thank you so much for creating this site. I found it helpful in preparing my kids for the English II EOC. As I was browsing, I noticed that the link for organizational pattern task cards is a broken link. Again, thanks so much. I just attended a session on Keys to Literacy. Anything specific to the NC English II EOC would be great to suggest.

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4th grade reading & vocabulary

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4.2.2: Internal Text Structures

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Internal Text Structures

When you are reading informational text, you will notice that authors use many different text structures or organizational patterns to organize their information. The following chart lists signal words, definitions, and examples of some of the most common text structures you will encounter when reading informational text:

External Text Structures or Features

A text may contain multiple external text structures, such as:

Underlined words

Headings and Subheadings

Illustrations (graphics, images, maps, diagrams, etc.)

Italics/Bold Text

Definitions (within text, usually in parentheses, or in the footer or margin of a page)

External text structures can help you read and understand informational (or expository) text. The following chart lists some commonly used text structures, their format and their purpose:

To help you understand how internal and external text structures are used together, the following chart lists informational (or expository) writing assignments and the internal text structure and external text structure/feature that could be used when completing them:

Using Graphic Organizers:

Cluster/map/web  – creative writings, just to come up with ideas for your essay Flowchart   – chronological essays Venn Diagram  – comparing and contrasting (what goes in the center?) Listing  – coming up with ideas

Outline  – coming up with ideas and organizing your essay by paragraph

Unit 6: Argumentative Essay Writing

39 Patterns of Organization for Argumentative Essays

There are three typical ways to construct the body of an argumentation essay. Each type meets the expectations for an argumentative essay. The motivation for choosing any particular type, however, is different.

1 “You First ”

This essay is called “You First” because the writer starts with the other side’s arguments and ends with their own arguments. The body begins with a paragraph that outlines the main counterargument. At the end of this paragraph, there needs to be an acknowledgement of the full or partial validity of the opposing viewpoints. After that paragraph, you can begin your arguments for your perspective.

2 “Me First ”

This essay is called “Me First” because the writer starts with their own arguments and ends with the other side’s arguments. The paragraph that outlines the main counterargument comes at the end of the discussion of your arguments. This paragraph is formed and developed exactly the same as the 1st body paragraph in a “You First.” The only difference is that the counterargument/refutation paragraph in “Me First” occurs after one’s own arguments

3 “Point-by-Point ”

In a Point-by-Point essay, each body paragraph lists a single counterargument. After describing this opposing argument, there needs to be a transition before starting the detailed refutation of the counterargument. In the Point-by-Point essay, your refutation serves as your argument of each point you want to make. In other words, you deal with each counterargument separately, whereas “You First” and “Me First” essays group all the counterarguments together and develop one’s own arguments separately.

For this course you are recommended to use the “you first” or “me first” patterns.

Which pattern should I use?

In order to answer this question, you need to answer some questions:

• What are the strongest counterarguments? (It might be helpful to spend some time with a person or people who believe the opposite of you so that you can hear why they believe what they do.)
• What do your readers generally believe about this topic? How strongly do they believe that? (You might need to ask a sample of people what they think about your topic.)

There are three basic scenarios that typically arise:

• Your readers are against your position.
• Your readers are for your position.
• Your readers have not made up their mind yet.

*Which pattern of organization does the writer use in the model essay?

• Introduction
• (Argument 3)
• Counterargument
• Refutation (=Argument 3 or 4)

Point by Point Pattern

• Refutation (= Argument 1)
• Refutation (= Argument 2)
• Refutation (= Argument 3)

You First Pattern

• (Argument 4)

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Common Core State Standards Related to Text Structure

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.R.5 – Analyze the structure of texts, including how specific sentences, paragraphs, and larger portions of the text (e.g., a section, chapter, scene, or stanza) relate to each other and the whole.

ELA Standards: Informational Texts

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.4.5 – Describe the overall structure (e.g., chronology, comparison, cause/effect, problem/solution) of events, ideas, concepts, or information in a text or part of a text. CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.5.5 – Compare and contrast the overall structure (e.g., chronology, comparison, cause/effect, problem/solution) of events, ideas, concepts, or information in two or more texts. CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.6.5 – Analyze how a particular sentence, paragraph, chapter, or section fits into the overall structure of a text and contributes to the development of the ideas. CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.7.5 – Analyze the structure an author uses to organize a text, including how the major sections contribute to the whole and to the development of the ideas. CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.8.5 – Analyze in detail the structure of a specific paragraph in a text, including the role of particular sentences in developing and refining a key concept. CCSS.ELA-Literacy.RI.11-12.5 – Analyze and evaluate the effectiveness of the structure an author uses in his or her exposition or argument, including whether the structure makes points clear, convincing, and engaging.

146 Comments

Vilma arely.

very interesting and helpful. My students will appreciate this notes and the activities. Sometimes we just focus to teach them grammar and structures or to speak but we leave aside the aspects of puntuation which is very important.

This websites incredible, thanks so much!

This is very useful. Thank you. In your experience, what age should students be expected to study Text Structure?

In my experience, students begin learning text structure around kindergarten with concepts like “problem and solution” in relation to stories. Text structure is a skill that follows students from the lowest to the highest levels. Eventually, we hope that they can apply text structures to their own writings.

Tite Habarugira

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Moises Souza

Hi there, That’s a great website and superb job! Thanks a lot for providing all this.

I just would like to confirm the answers of the quiz about text structure. Some answers don’t really match. Am I doing something wrong?

Why question 6 is chronological? it seems clearly a case of cause/effect.

Thanks for your attention!

Thank you for reporting this error. The key has been updated.

skyler davis

Germaine aggingiton.

This website is beautiful

This is so helpful to my reading homework thanks so much!

Kritarsh Kumar Negi XVIII

The dodo bird never roamed in america, I think you might be referring to the passenger pigeon

You are right. Thank you.

the dodo bird lived in the madagascar and near the indian ocean NOT IN AMERICA

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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Organizing Your Argument

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

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Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

How can I effectively present my argument?

In order for your argument to be persuasive, it must use an organizational structure that the audience perceives as both logical and easy to parse. Three argumentative methods —the  Toulmin Method , Classical Method , and Rogerian Method — give guidance for how to organize the points in an argument.

Note that these are only three of the most popular models for organizing an argument. Alternatives exist. Be sure to consult your instructor and/or defer to your assignment’s directions if you’re unsure which to use (if any).

Toulmin Method

The  Toulmin Method  is a formula that allows writers to build a sturdy logical foundation for their arguments. First proposed by author Stephen Toulmin in  The Uses of Argument (1958), the Toulmin Method emphasizes building a thorough support structure for each of an argument's key claims.

The basic format for the Toulmin Method  is as follows:

Claim:  In this section, you explain your overall thesis on the subject. In other words, you make your main argument.

Data (Grounds):  You should use evidence to support the claim. In other words, provide the reader with facts that prove your argument is strong.

Warrant (Bridge):  In this section, you explain why or how your data supports the claim. As a result, the underlying assumption that you build your argument on is grounded in reason.

Backing (Foundation):  Here, you provide any additional logic or reasoning that may be necessary to support the warrant.

Counterclaim:  You should anticipate a counterclaim that negates the main points in your argument. Don't avoid arguments that oppose your own. Instead, become familiar with the opposing perspective.   If you respond to counterclaims, you appear unbiased (and, therefore, you earn the respect of your readers). You may even want to include several counterclaims to show that you have thoroughly researched the topic.

Rebuttal:  In this section, you incorporate your own evidence that disagrees with the counterclaim. It is essential to include a thorough warrant or bridge to strengthen your essay’s argument. If you present data to your audience without explaining how it supports your thesis, your readers may not make a connection between the two, or they may draw different conclusions.

Example of the Toulmin Method:

Claim:  Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution.

Data1:  Driving a private car is a typical citizen's most air-polluting activity.

Warrant 1:  Due to the fact that cars are the largest source of private (as opposed to industrial) air pollution, switching to hybrid cars should have an impact on fighting pollution.

Data 2:  Each vehicle produced is going to stay on the road for roughly 12 to 15 years.

Warrant 2:  Cars generally have a long lifespan, meaning that the decision to switch to a hybrid car will make a long-term impact on pollution levels.

Data 3:  Hybrid cars combine a gasoline engine with a battery-powered electric motor.

Warrant 3:  The combination of these technologies produces less pollution.

Counterclaim:  Instead of focusing on cars, which still encourages an inefficient culture of driving even as it cuts down on pollution, the nation should focus on building and encouraging the use of mass transit systems.

Rebuttal:  While mass transit is an idea that should be encouraged, it is not feasible in many rural and suburban areas, or for people who must commute to work. Thus, hybrid cars are a better solution for much of the nation's population.

Rogerian Method

The Rogerian Method  (named for, but not developed by, influential American psychotherapist Carl R. Rogers) is a popular method for controversial issues. This strategy seeks to find a common ground between parties by making the audience understand perspectives that stretch beyond (or even run counter to) the writer’s position. Moreso than other methods, it places an emphasis on reiterating an opponent's argument to his or her satisfaction. The persuasive power of the Rogerian Method lies in its ability to define the terms of the argument in such a way that:

• your position seems like a reasonable compromise.
• you seem compassionate and empathetic.

The basic format of the Rogerian Method  is as follows:

Introduction:  Introduce the issue to the audience, striving to remain as objective as possible.

Opposing View : Explain the other side’s position in an unbiased way. When you discuss the counterargument without judgement, the opposing side can see how you do not directly dismiss perspectives which conflict with your stance.

Statement of Validity (Understanding):  This section discusses how you acknowledge how the other side’s points can be valid under certain circumstances. You identify how and why their perspective makes sense in a specific context, but still present your own argument.

Statement of Your Position:  By this point, you have demonstrated that you understand the other side’s viewpoint. In this section, you explain your own stance.

Statement of Contexts : Explore scenarios in which your position has merit. When you explain how your argument is most appropriate for certain contexts, the reader can recognize that you acknowledge the multiple ways to view the complex issue.

Statement of Benefits:  You should conclude by explaining to the opposing side why they would benefit from accepting your position. By explaining the advantages of your argument, you close on a positive note without completely dismissing the other side’s perspective.

Example of the Rogerian Method:

Introduction:  The issue of whether children should wear school uniforms is subject to some debate.

Opposing View:  Some parents think that requiring children to wear uniforms is best.

Statement of Validity (Understanding):  Those parents who support uniforms argue that, when all students wear the same uniform, the students can develop a unified sense of school pride and inclusiveness.

Statement of Your Position : Students should not be required to wear school uniforms. Mandatory uniforms would forbid choices that allow students to be creative and express themselves through clothing.

Statement of Contexts:  However, even if uniforms might hypothetically promote inclusivity, in most real-life contexts, administrators can use uniform policies to enforce conformity. Students should have the option to explore their identity through clothing without the fear of being ostracized.

Statement of Benefits:  Though both sides seek to promote students' best interests, students should not be required to wear school uniforms. By giving students freedom over their choice, students can explore their self-identity by choosing how to present themselves to their peers.

Classical Method

The Classical Method of structuring an argument is another common way to organize your points. Originally devised by the Greek philosopher Aristotle (and then later developed by Roman thinkers like Cicero and Quintilian), classical arguments tend to focus on issues of definition and the careful application of evidence. Thus, the underlying assumption of classical argumentation is that, when all parties understand the issue perfectly, the correct course of action will be clear.

The basic format of the Classical Method  is as follows:

Introduction (Exordium): Introduce the issue and explain its significance. You should also establish your credibility and the topic’s legitimacy.

Statement of Background (Narratio): Present vital contextual or historical information to the audience to further their understanding of the issue. By doing so, you provide the reader with a working knowledge about the topic independent of your own stance.

Proposition (Propositio): After you provide the reader with contextual knowledge, you are ready to state your claims which relate to the information you have provided previously. This section outlines your major points for the reader.

Proof (Confirmatio): You should explain your reasons and evidence to the reader. Be sure to thoroughly justify your reasons. In this section, if necessary, you can provide supplementary evidence and subpoints.

Refutation (Refuatio): In this section, you address anticipated counterarguments that disagree with your thesis. Though you acknowledge the other side’s perspective, it is important to prove why your stance is more logical.  

Conclusion (Peroratio): You should summarize your main points. The conclusion also caters to the reader’s emotions and values. The use of pathos here makes the reader more inclined to consider your argument.  

Example of the Classical Method:  

Introduction (Exordium): Millions of workers are paid a set hourly wage nationwide. The federal minimum wage is standardized to protect workers from being paid too little. Research points to many viewpoints on how much to pay these workers. Some families cannot afford to support their households on the current wages provided for performing a minimum wage job .

Statement of Background (Narratio): Currently, millions of American workers struggle to make ends meet on a minimum wage. This puts a strain on workers’ personal and professional lives. Some work multiple jobs to provide for their families.

Proposition (Propositio): The current federal minimum wage should be increased to better accommodate millions of overworked Americans. By raising the minimum wage, workers can spend more time cultivating their livelihoods.

Proof (Confirmatio): According to the United States Department of Labor, 80.4 million Americans work for an hourly wage, but nearly 1.3 million receive wages less than the federal minimum. The pay raise will alleviate the stress of these workers. Their lives would benefit from this raise because it affects multiple areas of their lives.

Refutation (Refuatio): There is some evidence that raising the federal wage might increase the cost of living. However, other evidence contradicts this or suggests that the increase would not be great. Additionally,   worries about a cost of living increase must be balanced with the benefits of providing necessary funds to millions of hardworking Americans.

Conclusion (Peroratio): If the federal minimum wage was raised, many workers could alleviate some of their financial burdens. As a result, their emotional wellbeing would improve overall. Though some argue that the cost of living could increase, the benefits outweigh the potential drawbacks.

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Patterns of Text Organization

This article discussed related studies on patterns of text organization, patterns for presenting information, writing styles, and text structures.

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Arab World English Journal (AWEJ) , Joseph Mallia

Non-native English-speaking students at, or about to enter British Universities and other Western universities where the language of instruction is English may experience challenges with academic writing, often one of the most important means of assessing students. Pre-sessional and in-sessional English academic writingcourses have been developed to aid students, and traditionally covered a range of topics. This paper discusses essential 'pre-writing' tasks. It then outlines some of the essential elements of academic writing; these often focus on paragraph structure, basic components of an essay, and different functional types of essays. Other features covered by this paper include aspects of language such as level of formality, cohesive devices, caution and hedging, supplying evidence, and avoiding plagiarism, amongst others. This paper also emphasizes the growing importance of collaborative learning, critical thinking and autonomous leaning which may be insufficiently familiar to students from non-Western learning environments where traditionally factual recall is given the greatest importance. Inductive and deductive approaches to paragraph organization, and also essay development have also been introduced. These approaches may also contrast with the rhetorical features familiar to non-native students from various cultures around the world and require special attention. Contemporary pre-sessional courses are also becoming more specialized, targeting English suitable for specific sets of disciplines at the undergraduate at postgraduate level. For example, courses focusing in STEM subjects (science technology, engineering and mathematics) are replacing more 'generic' academic English courses. Introduction to academic writing and style Non-native English-speaking students at, or about to enter British Universities and other Western universities where the language of instruction is English may experiencelinguistic challenges. They may also encounter a series of broader academic expectations that may differ to some,or a greater extent than the models experienced in the home country.Pre-sessional and in-sessional course courses are aimed to help non-native students understand and improve language and academic skills needed for success in a tertiary level education scenario.

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When producing an argumentative text, the writer adopts a definite position and advances arguments in support of it. The textual arrangement of these two cardinal components of argumentation varies across cultures, causing difficulties in learning to write persuasively in foreign languages. The present paper investigates the text organization of a sample of English argumentative essays written by a group of Arabic-speaking learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). The analysis aims at delineating the factors leading them to project texts non-conforming to English argumentative discourse conventions. The findings reveal that multiple factors underlie learners' textual preferences. En produisant un texte argumentatif, l'auteur adopte une position définie et avance des arguments à l'appui de celui-ci. L'arrangement textuel de ces deux composants cardinaux de l'argumentation varie selon les cultures, provoquant des difficultés dans l'apprentissage de l'écriture persuasive en langues étrangères. Le présent travail examine l'organisation de texte d'un échantillon d'essais argumentatifs anglais écrits par un groupe d'apprenants arabophones d'anglais langue étrangère. L'analyse vise à tracer les facteurs qui les amènent à projeter des textes non-conformes aux conventions de discours argumentatif anglaises. Les résultats révèlent que des facteurs multiples sont à la base des préférences textuelles des apprenants.

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ENGLISH: Contrastive rhetorical analysis as a way of understanding different ways through writers from various cultural backgrounds which shape their discourse was officially initiated by the works of Kaplan (1966). This study tries to use the methodology to investigate the selected news reporting Syrian conflict on CNN and Al-Jazeera reported on May 2014. This study utilizes a descriptive qualitative method which is focused on comprehensively describing about rhetorical pattern and the writer’s strategies in convincing the readers.There two phases in analyzing data. First is identifying cohesive and coherence in determining rhetorical patterns. Second is figuring out the reader convincement strategies based on three rhetorical appeals that are appeal to logic, appeal to credibility and appeal to emotion. Findings show that there exist preferred rhetorical pattern in each news websites. Two rhetorical patterns found are English and Semitic. Another finding shows that both news websi...

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Contrastive rhetoric has helped us understand how members of a cultural group develop a rhetorical pattern. However, since it overly relies upon the traditional culture in the explanation of different rhetorical patterns in different cultures, it seems to fail to draw a comprehensive picture of how rhetorical patterns are determined in each culture. So this study assumes that the explanation of Korean rhetorical pattern by Kaplan and other contrastive rhetoric proponents does not provides us with correct information on contemporary Korean rhetoric. In this vein, this study investigated English expository writings of 27 Korean college students to explore whether Kaplan and other contrastive rhetoric proponents’ claims on Korean rhetoric is legitimate. It discovered that, on the contrary to their claims, most of the subjects showed deductive approach to the theme. However, their deductive approach did not lead to the production of the Western rhetorical pattern. The possible reasons f...

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A widespread assumption in the contrastive rhetoric field is the linearity/circularity dichotomy which suggests that Chinese writing is characterized by indirection. This study examines to what extent Chinese university students’ writing differs from that of American students. A total of 200 expository essays (50 by American university students in English, 50 by Chinese students in Chinese, and 100 by beginning and advanced English learners in English) were analyzed. Results indicate that Chinese students, like their U.S. counterparts, also prefer directness in text and paragraph organization, but generally U.S. students tend to be significantly more direct than Chinese students. An examination of modern Chinese writing manuals found that Chinese rhetoricians also encourage directness in structuring expository essays. These findings point to a need for greater awareness of the similarities between writing in “contrasting” languages.

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