irac method of case study analysis example

IRAC METHOD

WHY DO WE ADVOCATE THE IRAC METHOD?

The IRAC method in law is a great way to answer problem-style law questions.  What does IRAC stand for? It stands for four components: Issue, Rule, Analysis and Conclusion.   By using this IRAC method in law, you can break down any scenario into these components which will help make your legal analysis and answers more organized than if they were not structured like that!

WHAT IS THE IRAC METHOD?

The IRAC method in law is the heart of legal analysis. It allows you to think about any problem as an equation with two sides - one side representing your observance or breach of contract and another representing their respective remedies (such as damages).

The beauty in this system lies not only within its simplicity but also because it forces lawyers into thinking critically by identifying areas where they may have overlooked something important before moving on too quickly! If you want learn how IRAC works then keep reading.

WHO INVENTED THE IRAC METHOD?

IRAC is an acronym that stands for “initials of genre-relevant aspects.” Though many scholars reference IRAC in legal writing literature, there is no clear record as to its genesis and underlying principles.

The IRAC Method was a military training exercise that was created to teach new recruits how they could use their ability in problem solving when on battlefields. This idea came about during World War II where there were many problems with raw soldiers being drafted into combat without any form of instruction for what would happen next - this led them having little sense towards tactics which ultimately resulted failure at times even though some did surprisingly well given these circumstances.

IRAC helped kick start a revolution in law school course design. The early 1960s saw only one bar-review course available for students at Michigan's Wayne State University, taught by Professor Melvyn Nord whose lectures covered every topic but did not spend much time on essay writing because that was how things were done then--and still are!

When Professor Josephson started teaching legal research and writing in 1969, the course had two major differences from other bar-review courses: Professors who were seasoned law professors did all of their lectures and he emphasized relying on IRAC analysis for assessment and legal writing.

Josephson's Bar Review Centre became dominant in Michigan within a few years, and by 1973 they were enrolling 14k students across America. By 1980 Josephson had moved his company to Los Angeles where he took on the growing California bar-review market that was worth an estimated $4 million annually at its peak. IRAC has been used to help win World War II, make Mike Josephson a multi-millionaire and it can work for you.

HOW DO I USE THE IRAC METHOD?

How to find the issue in a law assignment.

Answering problem-based questions can be difficult, as they often rely on knowledge of the law rather than direct requirements. In these cases, it is essential to identify the core issue in order to correctly answer the question. This can be done by asking relevant legal rules and making sense of the scenario presented. With this approach, you will be able to pinpoint the key information needed to answer the question correctly.

When confronted with a legal issue, it is essential to consider the precise question you must answer in order to offer counsel to the parties concerned. This question will ultimately determine the outcome of the case.

For instance, if you are unsure about whether a contract is binding, you will need to consider whether there was a correct offer and an acceptance mirroring that offer. If not, then the contract may not be enforceable under our law. By thinking about the specific issue at hand, you can begin to research the relevant law and determine how it applies to the situation.

EXAMPLE OF ISSUE

Issue: when is a contract binding  what is an offer  what is acceptance is a contract binding when there was no offer.

Issue spotting is a critically important skill for law students. In order to provide sound legal advice, it is necessary to identify all of the relevant issues in a problem scenario. Unfortunately, many students have difficulty spotting issues, which can lead to them providing inaccurate or incomplete advice. Issue spotting can be tricky, but there are a few tips that can help.

First, it is important to use the IRAC method when analyzing a problem. This will ensure that you consider all of the relevant legal issues. Second, familiarize yourself with the types of issues that commonly arise in different areas of law. If you know what to look for, you will be more likely to spot an issue when it arises. Finally, bear in mind that the legal topic you are tackling can include many legal issues. In fact, usually there are around 3 to 5 legal issues in a standard problem scenario.

It is necessary for you to identify every single legal issue and provide a separate rule and analysis for each of them to reach the final advice that you will give to the persons mentioned in the scenario. By following this method, you can improve your issue spotting skills and become a better lawyer.

WHAT IS THE RULE?

In order to determine which specific law is applicable to the legal issue at hand, one must engage in a process of Rule identification. Rule identification involves some digging through study materials to find the right cases and/or statute sections which will help answer the legal question asked. The rule should be stated as a general principle, and not as a conclusion to the scenario being analyzed.

The Rule Identification step is a critical part of the IRAC method, as it allows us to move on to applying the law to the facts of our particular situation. Without correctly identifying the applicable rule, we run the risk of misapplying the law and coming to an incorrect conclusion. As a result, before continuing with the analysis, care must be made to make sure the right rule is found. After applying the rule, you may go to IRAC's third stage, analysis.

ARTICULATE RULES

Rule identification is important for a law student or professional for many reasons. It allows you to determine which legal rules are relevant to your problem scenario and to apply the rules correctly to find the right conclusion. Rule identification also demonstrates to the examiner that you understand how to make a distinction between the legal issue and the legal rule applicable to the scenario. This is a very important skill for any law student or professional.

You can use our law books to help you identify the relevant legal rules. Our law books give you the information you need while focusing and breaking down the information using IRAC. All of the information provided in our subject specific text books is divided into the IRAC information you will need.

HOW TO DO THE ANALYSIS

Analysis is the longest and most important section of an IRAC answer. Here, you will apply the rule to the specific facts in the problem scenario. You will need to rely on the facts to describe how the rule you are applying can result in a conclusion. It is essential that you talk about both sides of the case.

Analysis requires a great deal of critical thinking and could be compared to solving a puzzle. All of the pieces must fit together in order for the picture to be complete. Analysis is where you will demonstrate your understanding of the law and how it applies to the given facts. To be successful, you must use our law books which provide numerous examples and explanations to help with your analysis.

Analysis is key in IRAC writing - without it, you will not be able to properly apply the legal rule to the facts in the problem scenario and reach a conclusion. Our law books can help you with analysis, by breaking down the rule into its component parts and explaining how it applies to the facts of your problem scenario.

Once you have carried out your analysis, you should be able to reach a well-reasoned conclusion that is backed up by the rule and the facts. If you find that your conclusion is not supported by your analysis, then this means that you have not really used IRAC correctly and will need to go back and revise your work. Analysis is therefore essential in ensuring that you are using IRAC correctly and producing a well-reasoned piece of legal writing.

When analyzing the legal rules applicable to the scenario, you will likely have to call on the facts of specific cases which you identified. The best way to use those cases is to compare and contrast the facts in those cases with the facts in the problem scenario. Then, you should look at the decision in the case and figure out whether the court would be likely to make the same decision if they were faced with ruling on the facts included in the scenario.

The simple rule here is that if the facts of the scenario are similar enough to the facts of the case, then the judges would be likely to follow the decision in the case. However, it is important to remember that every case is unique and that courts may sometimes deviate from previous decisions. As such, it is always important to carefully analyze all of the facts and arguments before coming to a conclusion.

Another important note is your course conveyers are likely to test you on an area that is controversial so the analysis is also expecting you to clarify what the law says.

HOW TO COME TO THE CONCLUSION

The final step of using the IRAC method is writing a conclusion that explains the most probable outcome, which you will be able to identify after you have applied the rule to the issue and analyzed it. State the outcome of your analysis in a clear and concise manner.

For instance, "The contract between plaintiff and defendant is non-existent" is a good example of a very well-formulated conclusion. Do not forget that the outcome cannot be vague; it has to be transparent and clear. Use our law books which help you with a conclusion. The different sections will give you an excellent idea of how to formulate your own conclusion based on your specific legal problem.

Conclusion-writing is a skill that takes time and practice to perfect, but by using the resources available to you; you can write great conclusions for your IRACs. Using IRAC you should produce  the case study conclusion. The scenario does not provide enough information for a definite conclusion to be reached. It is deigned to inspire a debate. Never sit on the fence. Put yourself in the Judged position to predict what the outcome of a judgement would be.  

The application of the law in this case would depend on X, Y and Z. Therefore, you can use words such as “is more likely than not” when discussing the legal rules and applying them to the legal issues. Make sure to discuss those X, Y and Z factors when analyzing the legal rules and applying them to the legal issues. Our Q&A Series law books can help you reach a conclusion by providing information on the law and how it applies to different scenarios.

The scenario does not provide enough information for a definite conclusion to be reached; with more information about X, Y and Z we can give more accurate advice.

IRAC METHOD EXAMPLE

If you want to see a worked example of the IRAC Method, we have worked through a past Contract Law  exam question and a past Land Law problem question, to demonstrate how it works.

CRITICISMS OF THE IRAC METHOD

The IRAC method is a very popular method of legal reasoning, but it has its fair share of opponents. The fundamental justification offered by IRAC's proponents is that it aids in organizing legal analysis by simplifying legal reasoning to the application of a formula. IRAC may be a highly helpful technique since a well-organized legal analysis is simpler to understand and has fewer reasoning mistakes.

However, some people argue that IRAC can lead to oversimplification and that it encourages people to focus on the rules rather than the underlying principles of law. Ultimately, whether or not IRAC is a helpful tool depends on the individual user. Some people find it extremely useful, while others prefer to use other methods of legal reasoning.

It is sometimes argued that the IRAC technique encourages overwriting and oversimplifies the complexity of sound legal analysis. According to this perspective, a solid legal analysis should consist of a serious, well-researched essay that is presented in an approachable style. An open format is necessary to allow legal reasons to focus on effectively presenting their argument rather than strictly following a prescribed structure, which lessens this emphasis.  When writing law essays I have devised the Fact Law Sandwich. This method allows you you think about the structure and the presentation of advice easily . 

IRAC may be helpful when you have a short amount of time and need to come up with a clear and simple solution to an issue, but it's crucial to keep in mind that it's only one method of approaching legal analysis. There are many different ways to format your law notes, and each has its own advantages and disadvantages. It is up to the individual lawyer to decide which method works best for them.

IRAC is an analytical method used to dissect legal issues. IRAC stands for Issue, Rule, Analysis, and Conclusion. The IRAC method provides a framework for organizing your thoughts and Ideas when writing about a legal issue.

The issue is the legal question that is being asked. The Rule is the law that applies to the Issue. The Analysis is where you apply the rule to the facts of the case. The Conclusion is your answer to the Issue based on your Analysis. The application/analysis component of an IRAC method  is the most significant since it creates the solution to the problem at hand. In this section, you must think like a lawyer and argue both sides of the issue before coming to a decision. This section can be difficult if you are not familiar with legal concepts and reasoning.

However, there are many resources available to help you understand and apply the law. There are many law books available that can be helpful, especially if you are just starting to learn about law. In addition, there are books on IRAC and other legal reasoning methods that can provide guidance on how to approach legal issues. With some practice, you will be able to use IRAC to analyze legal issues and reach sound conclusions effectively.

The IRAC method is a great way to break down complex legal problems into manageable steps. By breaking the problem down into four logical stages, students can more easily follow the reasoning and reach a conclusion. The IRAC method is used in our law books and other books on law, making it a great tool for beginners. However, it is also useful for more experienced lawyers who need to refresh their skills. By using the IRAC method, lawyers can be sure that they have covered all the relevant issues and arrived at a sound conclusion.

OUR CORE SERIES LAW BOOKS

Law books can be very dry and boring, making them difficult to get through for anyone who is not particularly interested in the subject. However, the Core Series law books take a different approach, starting with a general principle before moving on to more specific information. This makes them much easier to understand for anyone who is new to the subject.

In addition, the books for law students are very well-organized, so you can quickly find the information you need. Law Notes providers are also a great resource for beginners, as they provide clear and concise explanations of the law. However, what sets the Core Series books apart from other law textbooks is that they are specifically designed to be used by students who are studying law courses. As a result, they are an essential resource for anyone who is planning on taking any law course exam.

The books for law students provide authority for the principle of a case will be a full citation. The books then present the facts of each of the cases. This is important for two reasons firstly, to familiarize the student with the case. The court has made its decision in this context. Second similar facts will be used to test your knowledge. Next, the books provide the Ratio decidendi, with this is the decision that decided the case. This is what law lecturers and professors want to see in your law answers, not just the facts. Lastly, the books talk to you about applying the case and explain how the case should be applied.

OUR Q&A LAW SERIES BOOKS

The Core text series is complemented by our Law Books Q&A Series . Once students have mastered the broad ideas and the legislation, our materials instruct them on how to arrange their responses. It presents students with questions and answers using the IRAC Method by encouraging them to use the basic concept, the ratio decidendi of each case, and demonstrating how to apply each case.

The majority of the questions addressed in these publications are regularly utilized by colleges for assigning tasks, coursework, and assessment questions. Our law textbooks are frequently referred to and recommended by professors as excellent resources for answering examination questions and are available in many university and college libraries. Our aim has always been to make available quality material at affordable prices, and we hope that these books will be found useful by students all over the world.

Our Q&A Series is a collection of instruction manuals that are designed to support you as you study and aid in test success. Each book in the Q&A Series is centred on a particular law degree curriculum. Each volume in the Q&A Series is a high-quality compilation of written test questions, together with their concise and understandable solutions. With features like case essays and issue question responses, we go down to the point and demonstrate what you need to know.

By showing you how to apply what you have learned to detailed problem-solving and essay-writing Question and Answer Series, we go even further. For each of the aforementioned fundamental law degree courses, we provide Q&A books. See the list below for the particular topics covered in each Q&A book. Alternately, see how they function by examining the examples.

Our Law Books focus on explaining the law in simple terms, while our Q&A Book focuses on giving you questions that mirror those asked in law school exams with full explanatory answers. Our Question and Answer Series is designed to give you the tools needed to confidently tackle any question that may come up in your exams. Get ahead of the competition by adding our law books to your arsenal today!

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Using the IRAC method in law school

Apply critical thinking to maximize your law school and bar exam scores.

1. Why use the IRAC method 2. Learn enough for exam success 3. Know what’s being tested 4. Skills to hone for legal writing 5. Read with intention 6. Think outline 7. Write with structure 8. Master the analysis

Why law students and lawyers alike use the IRAC method

In your law school classes, and eventually on the bar exam and as a practicing attorney, you will be presented with scenarios that are not cut and dry. It is your job to be able to decipher the rules of the law that apply and determine if the appropriate elements are present to resolve disputes.

The simple truth is merely memorizing the law is not enough to prepare you for cases, law school finals or passing the bar exam. Critical thinking is required. You have to actually learn and be able to apply the law when writing for exams.

While you definitely need to know a lot of rules to do well in law school and later in your legal career, it’s impossible to know all the rules of law. That’s why good legal reasoning and analysis (or the process of thinking like a lawyer) really come down to understanding the structure by which lawyers solve problems. This structure of problem-solving is known as the IRAC method — Issue, Rule, Analysis and Conclusion — and it’s what your professors and bar examiners will test you on.

The IRAC method is an efficient framework for organizing your answer to a legal essay question. But here’s the catch with using it for exam success: If you don’t know the specific rule(s) to apply to solve the problem at hand, it becomes difficult to follow IRAC.

So how do you learn enough for exam success?

For most people, rote memorization without application doesn’t last long. Learning or memorizing a ton of information without structure and without context creates a problematic environment in which to recall the rules you know and be able to apply them on exam day.

What’s important is to know enough law to figure out which facts are legally significant, and which aren’t. This requires learning three things: Rules, Elements and Stories. Start with studying the rule and the elements that make up the rule. Once you have the rule and elements down, apply a story or real scenario to the rule to solidify your knowledge and understanding.

Now you’re ready to write using the IRAC method.

Know what you’re being tested on

The idea of IRAC is that you go through an exam fact pattern, spot as many issues as you can, state the rules of law, apply the law to the facts and then arrive at a conclusion. In exam situations, this translates to:

• Issue: Your ability to figure out your client’s problem (or what problem your professor is asking you to solve).
• Rule: Your knowledge of a rule(s) that might help solve your client’s problem.
• Application (of law to facts): Your ability to determine which facts are relevant to solving the problem.
• Conclusion: How you think a court would solve the problem.

The majority of points on law school exams come from understanding or recognizing the facts and where they are derived from (steps 1 and 3). Can you figure out the problem (issue) and can you solve it by figuring out the law (which facts are actually applicable to that issue). This understanding, and showing it in a very organized manner, can be the difference between an “A” answer and anything else.

Although it’s not the only way to structure an essay answer, the IRAC method is an effective tool for organizing your thinking and your writing. It helps to ensure all the bases are covered as you learn how to respond to legal issues.

Key skills to hone for your legal writing

Your goal in mastering the use of the IRAC method is to answer essay questions in a way that demonstrates your competency to practice law in the future. This means performing a concise legal analysis for each of the small problems presented in the fact pattern. Legal writing success comes down to Reading, Thinking and Writing like a lawyer.

A good rule of thumb is to allocate a third of your time to the reading and thinking part of the learning process and two-thirds of your time writing your answer.

Read with intention

Start with the call of the question (what issue needs to be solved) prior to reading through the fact pattern. This will help you begin separating relevant from irrelevant facts. As you are reading through the question, you should always be asking yourself: Why is my professor telling me this? Is this relevant fact?

While reading through the fact pattern, make note of which facts are outcome determinative and mark or highlight them. These are the facts that will help you figure out the question — so they should go into your outline.

Think outline

Think about which rules apply to your facts and put them in an outline. Then, go back to the highlighted facts from your hypotheticals and add them to your outline. Your outline should be brief. Keep it to what rule you are going to use and what facts you are going to apply.

Important note: If you do not have facts to apply to every element of your rule, the rule shouldn’t be in your outline.

• Rule: Element 1 , Element 2 , Element 3

Write with structure

Follow the IRAC structure when you begin writing your answer unless your professor requires otherwise. Be sure to look back at the facts you didn’t use to confirm that they aren’t part of the rule. With an organized and well-thought-out approach, you will be left with plenty of time to write because you’ll know exactly where you are going with your answer (thanks to your outline). Every time you get a new rule or identify a new issue, just remember to start a new IRAC analysis.

Master the analysis to write better exam answers

You might be thinking to yourself, this all sounds good in theory but how does this system for approaching law school finals really work in practice? As you begin to write out your exam answer, we recommend you analyze each dispute or issue raised using the IRAC method as follows.

Issue Start by stating the question you plan to address in precise legal terms. Your answer should then cover all the main legal aspects of the issue in a neutral tone without being too general or oversimplified. Just remember to avoid using specific names of any parties involved or other proper nouns.

Rule Next, state the applicable law or laws. If several laws could be applicable in the case, be sure that the number of rules matches the number of issues you’ve stated. Be clear and concise when defining the relevant elements of the rule and term of art.

Application Then, apply the rules to the facts using supporting arguments. Be sure to spell out everything and include counterarguments whenever possible. This is a good place to use an Issue T to break down the problem into its component parts and as a way to remember to discuss which facts in the fact pattern either support or prevent application of the rule. Address each fact given and the logical inference to be drawn from it.

Conclusion Finally, it’s time to summarize the entirety of your findings using a clear-cut conclusion for each issue as well as the question asked. In close cases where a number of outcomes are possible, it is usually best to go with the most feasible and fair conclusion and state why it is your position. Discuss the merits of each outcome in your essay answer without considering yourself bound by the “general rule” or “majority view” (unless the question clearly calls for such). Ultimately, your conclusion should offer the expected legal ruling.

Congratulations, you’re learning to resolve disputes!

The great thing about grasping the IRAC method and the Read, Think, Write skills is that once you hone them, they will serve you well not only through the Multistate Bar Exam — no matter if the questions are multiple-choice or essay — but through your real-world practice as well. BARBRI takes those critical strategies to task in our proven, time-tested bar prep program. That’s why every single year, more students pass the bar exam with BARBRI than with all other courses. Combined.

Understand that law school finals and the bar exam are not tests of your ability to simply recite rules. Ultimately, they are given to test your ability to apply the rules to new factual situations. When you master this process, you begin to learn and recall the rules on your way to helping people resolve disputes. That’s what being a lawyer is all about.

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Example outline of an irac.

The IRAC is a four part writing method consisting of an Issue section, Rule Section, Application section, and Conclusion section. While this system may seem rigid, there is some room for flexibility which is sometimes needed in order to produce a readable answer. As for now, though, we will begin with a basic outline of an IRAC, below.

Issue:  State the legal issue(s) to be discussed.

Rule:  State the relevant statutes and case law.

Application:  Apply the relevant rules to the facts that created the issue.

Conclusion:  State the most likely conclusions using the logic of the application section. Don’t forget to include any alternative outcomes created by ambiguities in the relevant facts and rules.

Multiple-Issue IRAC

Most fact patterns that you will see throughout law school, and in life, will contain many different legal issues. While you could write multiple IRACs for multiple issues, the result will often be more readable and efficient (ie good for timed exams) if you combine intertwined issues into one mega-IRAC.

Note: You will see that I use the Issue section as an Umbrella section in the example below. I believe this helps the reader digest the subsequent information, but some disagree with me on that point and simply state the legal issues alone. 

Example Multiple-Issue IRAC

Under generic state law, Lucy is guilty of leaving the scene of an accident, but is likely justified in doing so due to the nature of the injury she sustained.

Under Public Act 9.98 “it is illegal for any involved party to leave the scene of a vehicular accident before police arrive”; Smith v. Smith held that “an involved party is defined as any person driving or riding in a vehicle involved in an accident”.

Public Act 9.99 states that “an involved party is justified in leaving an accident if seeking immediate & necessary medical treatment”. Another case, Jones v. Jones , states that “necessary medical treatment is any treatment that a reasonable person would deem necessary”.

Application:

Lucy was driving a car down a rural road and impacted another vehicle which was exiting a driveway. Lucy suffered a sprained wrist that developed severe swelling. A passerby drove Lucy to the nearest hospital before any police arrived on scene.

Because Lucy was driving a car that was involved in an accident, she is an “involved party” under under Smith v. Smith . Because she is an involved party and left the scene of the accident prior to police arriving, she meets the elements of PA9.98 and is likely guilty unless her actions are justified under PA9.99.

It is arguable that immediate medical treatment was not necessary for Lucy’s sprained wrist, thus she would not be justified in leaving the scene under PA9.99. Because Lucy’s wrist experienced severe swelling, she has a strong argument that she reasonably believed that her injuries were much worse than a sprain, and thus she was justified in leaving the scene under Jones v. Jones .

Conclusion:

Although Lucy meets all elements of PA9.98, leaving the scene of an accident, she will likely be deemed justified in leaving that scene due to the severe appearance of her injuries. If the court does not accept her argument, that she reasonably believed medical treatment was immediately necessary, she will be found guilty.

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How To Use The IRAC Method To Excel In Your Law Essays

Find out how to tackle problem questions in your law exams using the IRAC method.

When it comes to writing essays for Law as a university student, you’ve probably read a lot about the typical ‘intro-main-body-conclusion’ essays. However, when it comes to black letter law subjects , these require a different type of approach. Here is how to approach problem questions using the IRAC (Issue, Rule, Application, Conclusion) method.

What Is Black Letter Law?

Black letter law refers to areas of Law that consist mainly of technical rules, as opposed to areas of law that are defined more by a conceptual basis. Black letter law subjects include modules like tort law , criminal law , property law, etc. When it comes to examinations for these subjects they typically consist of problem questions and statement questions.

What Are Problem Questions?

In a problem question, you would probably be given a legal scenario and be tasked with explaining what the legal outcome would/should be. For example, there might be only one issue you are addressing or a series of legal issues in one given scenario.

In a statement question, you may be asked to analyse and/or give your opinions on judgments and legal concepts. For example, ‘Would you agree that xyz statute has incrementally progressed over the years?’ .

In an exam, you may have the choice to answer a number of questions picking how many you want to answer from the two types of questions. In this blog, I will be explaining how to approach problem questions.

What Is The IRAC Method?

The best way to approach problem statements as a beginner law student is the IRAC method: Issue, Rule, Application and Conclusion. This will allow you to give analytical answers that are clear and structured.

With an IRAC essay and problem questions in general, you do not have to write an introduction. You can go straight into answering the question – this is a key difference to statement questions.

For each of your points, you will start by stating the  legal issues  that arise in this scenario. 

When writing an issue statement, you can say something like, ‘The issue that first arises is if/whether…’. Then, you would complete the sentence by identifying and stating the legal conclusion that needs to be reached. For example, ‘The issue is whether the defendant is criminally liable for xyz’. 

After this, you would connect the issue statement to the relevant facts in the scenario. For example, ‘The defendant did xyz knowingly, therefore doing xyz to the claimant’. 

After writing your issue statement, you should identify and explain the rules that apply in this scenario and will ultimately define the/your legal conclusion. The  rule describes  which law or test applies to this issue.

So, this is where you would draw on your primary and secondary sources knowledge to support your analysis. It should be stated as a general principle for the scenario and not as a conclusion to the scenario being analysed – at least not just yet.

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Application

After stating the legal issues and relevant rules, now it is time to provide the main body of your analysis. In the application part of your answer, this is where you will explain how the legal principles you mentioned can be applied to your scenario, demonstrating your understanding of the law. 

In the application stage, you should constantly use key phrases from the legal principles mentioned. Do not worry about repeating your words – it is important to establish the connection.

You can also build the connection between the rules and your application by using connectives like ‘because’ and ‘since’. For example, ‘Here, the criminal can be considered independent of xyz because xyz…’ or ‘Since the defendant did xyz this breaks the causation chain of xyz’.

The key to application is not to simply regurgitate the rules but to successfully provide judgment based on the facts and rules.

When it comes to problem statements, there are two types of conclusions. The 1-2 sentences that conclude each issue explored and your final judgment.

In your brief  conclusion s, you can use one or two sentences to concisely state the outcome of the issue, based on the application of the rules to the facts of the case. For example, ‘Therefore, the defendant can be found criminally liable for xyz’.

In your final conclusion, you should first state your conclusion regarding each issue. Then, if applicable, you will provide your overall judgement. Like a normal essay, do not mention anything new that you have discussed (unless you perhaps forgot a point and are on a time crunch). Moreover, your conclusion should draw back to why you have come to this final judgment.

With answering these questions you should be assertive and plainly state your opinion. The journey to your judgment is the main part of your assessment, but it is your conclusion that brings your work together.

It is important to remember though that you will still get marks for your understanding and exploration of the law, so don’t feel discouraged if you don’t feel like you know the answer and answer to the best of your abilities. After all, the beauty of Law is subjectivity. 

In some cases, you may find that you can not come to a final judgement because the scenario needs more information. You may also find that your judgment is conditional on certain things. It is fine to state as so, and perhaps that is the answer. In general, however, if you can, you should come to a final decision.

Extra Points

After deciding that the IRAC method is the best to use and before even starting to write your response, you should spend time deeply analysing the problem. You should go through the statement and identify which parts will be relevant to each component of IRAC.

It is advisable to use something like different highlighters to identify each component. Make sure you can identify each part of IRAC in the statement before you actually start writing your response.

Key Takeaways

Before using the IRAC method you need to analyse if that is the most appropriate method for your exam/essay.

Find out more essay methods you can use here.

The goal is that as you start to become more experienced and knowledgeable as a Law student, you won’t answer your questions as rigidly and use a method that best works to your abilities. However, you can still get a great grade using the IRAC method to the letter and is advised by many legal academics.

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• Answering a legal problem - IRAC

Proper planning is vital to successfully answering a legal problem. Below are some hints and tools using a problem from Company Law.  When answering a legal problem, it is useful to apply the IRAC structure so that you address all areas required.

• IRAC structure

The IRAC method has four steps:

• Identify the issue
• Relevant law - Here you need to explain the law not just state it. This could be sections/s of the Corporations Act or case law
• Application to the facts - the law is applied to the facts of the problem

Use the following IRAC structure as a guide to answer case study questions.

• Issue: Define the legal relevant issue.
• Relevant law: Identify legal principles from cases and statutes. Explain the law, don't just state it.
• Apply to the facts: Develop legal arguments by applying the law to the facts.
• Conclusion: Arrive at a considered conclusion.

Note: Students gain the most marks by explaining the relevant law and then applying it to the facts.

Example question and answer

Bingo Ltd is a manufacturer of electrical goods. It entered into a contract with Melvin Ltd, a large discount retailer. Under this contract, Bingo Ltd was to supply its goods exclusively to Melvin Ltd. The directors of Melvin Ltd subsequently discover that a wholly-owned subsidiary of Bingo Ltd is selling identical electrical goods to competitors at cheaper prices. It appears that the subsidiary was incorporated to enable Bingo Ltd to avoid the effects of the contract with Melvin Ltd. Advise the directors.

(This a five-mark question)

Please note: This is a simple low mark answer (5 marks) to illustrate the use of IRAC only. Many Company Law problems will involve multiple issues. In these scenarios each issue would need to be addressed. For example: The first issue is... The second issue is whether...

1. Read the following question.

2. Now read the following text and try to identify the IRAC structure.  Check your understanding by clicking on the buttons to reveal the IRAC structure.

Read the following question, then identify which part of the IRAC structure best fits each text excerpt by selecting from the drop down menu.

• Writing case notes
• Writing a legal memo

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IRAC Method of Legal Writing

Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms

• An Introduction to Punctuation
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• B.A., English, State University of New York

IRAC is an  acronym for ' issue, rule (or relevant law ), application (or analysis ), and conclusion ' : a method used in composing certain legal documents and reports.

William H. Putman describes IRAC as "a structured approach to problem-solving . The IRAC format, when followed in the preparation of a legal memorandum , helps ensure the clear communication of the complex subject matter of legal issue analysis."

(Legal Research and Analysis Writing. 2010)

Pronunciation

Examples and observations of the irac method.

"IRAC is not a mechanical formula, but simply a common sense approach to analyzing a legal issue. Before a student can analyze a legal issue, of course, they have to know what the issue is. Thus, logically, step one in the IRAC methodology is to identify the issue (I). Step two is to state the relevant rule(s) of law that will apply in resolving the issue (R). Step three is to apply those rules to the facts of the question—that is, to 'analyze' the issue (A). Step four is to offer a conclusion as to the most likely result (C)."

(Andrew McClurg,  1L of a Ride: A Well-Traveled Professor's Roadmap to Success in the First Year of Law School, 2nd ed. West Academic Publishing, 2013)

Sample IRAC Paragraph

• "( I ) Whether a bailment for the mutual benefit of Rough & Touch and Howard existed. ( R ) A pawn is a form of bailment, made for the mutual benefit of bailee and bailor, arising when goods are delivered to another as a pawn for security to him on money borrowed by the bailor. Jacobs v. Grossman , 141 N.E. 714, 715 (III. App.Ct. 1923). In Jacobs , the court found that a bailment for mutual benefit did arise because the plaintiff pawned a ring as collateral for a $70 loan given to him by the defendant. Id. ( A ) In our problem, Howard pawned her ring as collateral to secure an $800 loan given to her by Rough & Tough. ( C ) Therefore, Howard and Rough & Tough probably created a bailment for mutual benefit." (Hope Viner Samborn and Andrea B. Yelin, Basic Legal Writing for Paralegals , 3rd ed. Aspen, 2010)
• "When faced with a fairly simple legal problem, all the IRAC elements may fit into a single paragraph. At other times you may want to divide the IRAC elements. For example, you might wish to set out the issue and the rule of law in one paragraph, the analysis for the plaintiff in a second paragraph, and the analysis for the defendant and your conclusion in a third paragraph, and the transitional phrase or sentence in the first sentence of yet a fourth paragraph." (Katherine A. Currier and Thomas E. Eimermann, Introduction to Paralegal Studies: A Critical Thinking Approach , 4th ed. Asen, 2010)

The Relationship Between IRAC and Court Opinions

"IRAC stands for the components of legal analysis: issue, rule, application, and conclusion. What is the relationship between IRAC (or its variations...) and a court opinion? Judges certainly provide legal analysis in their opinions. Do the judges follow IRAC? Yes, they do, although often in highly stylized formats. In almost every court opinion, judges:

- identify the legal issues to be resolved (the I of IRAC);

- interpret statutes and other rules (the R of IRAC);

- provide reasons why the rules do or do not apply to the facts (the A of IRAC); and

- conclude by answering the legal issues through holdings and a disposition (the C of IRAC).

Each issue in the opinion goes through this process. A judge may not use all of the language of IRAC, may use different versions of IRAC, and may discuss the components of IRAC in a different order. Yet IRAC is the heart of the opinion. It is what opinions do: they apply rules to facts to resolve legal issues." (William P. Statsky, Essentials of Paralegalism , 5th ed. Delmar, 2010)

Alternative Format: CREAC

"The IRAC formula... envisions a time-pressured exam answer...

"But what's rewarded in law-school exams tends not to be rewarded in real-life writing. So the coveted IRAC mantra ... will produce mediocre to worse results in memo-writing and brief-writing. Why? Because if you were to write a one-issue memo using the IRAC organization, you wouldn't reach the conclusion—the answer to the issue—until the end...

"Knowing this, some legal-writing professors recommend another strategy for writing you do after law school. They call it CREAC , which stands for conclusion-rule-elaboration-application (of the rule to the facts)-conclusion (restated). Although you'd probably be penalized for that organizational strategy on most law exams, it's actually superior to IRAC for other types of writing. But it, too, has a serious shortcoming: Because it doesn't really pose an issue, it presents a conclusion to an unknown problem."

 (Bryan A. Garner, Garner on Language and Writing . American Bar Association, 2009)

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• How to Write a Case Brief
• What Are Forensic Linguistics?
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Additional Resources

• Columbia Law School - Organizing a Legal Discussion
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• CUNY School of Law - IRAC and CRRACC

IRAC Method

Briefing Cases - The IRAC Method

When briefing a case, it is important to condense the information from the case opinion into a one-page case brief. This can be accomplished using the IRAC method:

Outline of Steps

Facts   - Write a brief synopsis of the case facts.

Procedural History -  Outline the history of the case. Which court authored the opinion? What was the decision? If the opinion was written by a higher court, did the lower court issue the decision following a court trial, jury trial, or motion for summary judgment? 

Issue -   Identify the issue(s) of the case. 

• Issues of liability
• Theories of recovery - a claim or cause of action
• Burden of proof to establish liability
• Defenses to liability
• Measure of recoverable damages
• Statute of limitations. 

Rule -   List the relevant rule(s) of law that the court identifies. Each case will give a discussion of the relevant laws. 

• These rules come from primary sources: Federal & State Constitutions; Statutes; Regulations; Case Law. 

Application -   This section discusses how the facts interplay with the relevant rule(s) of law. The deciding court typically spends time explaining how it applied each law to the facts to reach its final decision(s). 

Conclusion -  What was the final outcome? This discusses the result of the application/analysis of the law to the facts used to resolve the issue(s). The conclusion is known as the court's holding or decision.

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Learning to Work With IRAC

What is IRAC?

IRAC stands for the “Issue, Rule, Application, Conclusion” structure of legal analysis. An effective essay follows some form of the IRAC structure where it is organized around an “issue”, a “rule”, an “application”, and a “conclusion” for each and every issue and sub-issue identified as a legal problem.

While using IRAC doesn’t guarantee an “A” from the professor, it’s extremely useful in organizing an answer. And even though it’s not the only way to structure an answer, it helps to make sure that all the bases are covered. So until you achieve the level of mental and written fluency where you can weave together rule and fact in a seamless web and transition between thoughts without loss of either the substance or your reader, I strongly recommend that you rely on some form of IRAC to keep focused. While IRAC will never cover for a lack of knowledge nor substitute for a lack of analysis, you can use it as tool for organizing your thinking and your writing. Think of it as a supporting scaffold (or training wheels) to ensure that the necessary steps are followed. Once the process becomes instinctive, then the props can be discarded and you can weave together rule and fact. But until then, you have something you can rely on to guide you through the process.

How to IRAC

• Articulate the issue by formulating the legal question presented by the facts. To find the issue, ask yourself: “what is in controversy in these facts.” (Of course you need to know the law to find a legal question in the facts.)
• Use the “whether, when” structure to help you isolate and write an issue statement.

Some professors might not want to see this language – “the issue is whether.” You achieve the same result with other words – “Did” or “Can”, for example. Don’t get fixated on language. Follow your individual professor’s instruction and realize that either way, you achieve the same result: identification of the legal problem.

But you can always use the following language to guide your thought process.

Begin with,

“The issue is whether,”

identify and state the legal conclusion you want the court to reach,

Don committed a battery , (or an offer was made , or the court can assert personal jurisdiction )

then connect to the “relevant” facts ( the relevant facts being those facts which will determine the outcome),

when he pushed Pam even though he knew she was in no danger of being hit by the bicyclist (or when he said , “would you buy my watch for $500 in cash on next Tuesday?” or when the defendant conducted business in the forum state, had an office and a full-time staff, and paid state taxes.)

• definitions
• exceptions to the general rule
• limitations to the rule
• moving from the general to the specific
• defining each legal term of art

“Because” is the single most important word to use when writing the analysis. Using the word “because” forces you to make the connection between rule and fact. You’ll find that you can also make use of the words “as” and “since” — they serve the same function as “because.”

Examples of how “because” works to change recitation to application:

What not to write: In this case, while Pete the police officer was giving Dan a sobriety test, he noticed that Dan fit the description of an eyewitness to the robbery, giving the police officer probable cause to arrest Dan.

What you should write: In this case, Pete the police officer realized that Dan fit the description of the suspect, providing probable cause for arrest, because Dan was extremely tall at 6'4", was wearing a green and tan sweater with purple patches and pointy-toed alligator cowboy boots, fitting the description provided by the eyewitness to the robbery.

What not to write: ABC Inc. engaged Dr. Jones to develop a drug that reduced hair loss. Dr. Jones worked in his own laboratory, hired and fired his own assistants and set their working hours as well as his own. He meets with the President of ABC every Friday morning to discuss progress on the project and at this time, Dr. Jones submits his timesheet for payment. The President pays Dr. Jones weekly.

What you should write: Here, Dr. Jones can be considered an independent consultant for ABC Inc. because he completes all the research and development work in his own laboratory, in a separate facility from that of ABC, where he has direct control over the employees because he hired his own assistants, setting their work hours. He also exercises direct control over his own work because he sets his own work hours and only meets with ABC once a week. Further, since he only meets with the President of ABC on a weekly basis to discuss progress on development of the hair loss product, the President does not supervise Dr. Jones on a daily basis as to the work which goes on in the laboratory.

• Conclusion: Is something not clear to you? If the court’s reasoning seems off, question it. If you see a conflict or a result that doesn’t comport with the reasoning, note it. It is likely to show up in class discussion. State your conclusion with respect to each issue. There is no right or wrong answer. There is only logical analysis based on the rule and the facts which lead to a reasonable conclusion.

Note: Repeat the process for each issue you identify — each issue forms the basis for a separate IRAC analysis.

Case Study Research Method in Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. Typically, data is gathered from various sources using several methods (e.g., observations & interviews).

The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e., the patient’s personal history). In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual.

The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual’s past (i.e., retrospective), as well as to significant events that are currently occurring in his or her everyday life.

The case study is not a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies.

Freud (1909a, 1909b) conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist, therapist, or psychiatrist, i.e., someone with a professional qualification.

There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (i.e., abnormal) behavior or atypical development.

 Famous Case Studies

• Anna O – One of the most famous case studies, documenting psychoanalyst Josef Breuer’s treatment of “Anna O” (real name Bertha Pappenheim) for hysteria in the late 1800s using early psychoanalytic theory.
• Little Hans – A child psychoanalysis case study published by Sigmund Freud in 1909 analyzing his five-year-old patient Herbert Graf’s house phobia as related to the Oedipus complex.
• Bruce/Brenda – Gender identity case of the boy (Bruce) whose botched circumcision led psychologist John Money to advise gender reassignment and raise him as a girl (Brenda) in the 1960s.
• Genie Wiley – Linguistics/psychological development case of the victim of extreme isolation abuse who was studied in 1970s California for effects of early language deprivation on acquiring speech later in life.
• Phineas Gage – One of the most famous neuropsychology case studies analyzes personality changes in railroad worker Phineas Gage after an 1848 brain injury involving a tamping iron piercing his skull.

Clinical Case Studies

• Studying the effectiveness of psychotherapy approaches with an individual patient
• Assessing and treating mental illnesses like depression, anxiety disorders, PTSD
• Neuropsychological cases investigating brain injuries or disorders

Child Psychology Case Studies

• Studying psychological development from birth through adolescence
• Cases of learning disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, ADHD
• Effects of trauma, abuse, deprivation on development

Types of Case Studies

• Explanatory case studies : Used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles. Helpful for doing qualitative analysis to explain presumed causal links.
• Exploratory case studies : Used to explore situations where an intervention being evaluated has no clear set of outcomes. It helps define questions and hypotheses for future research.
• Descriptive case studies : Describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred. It is helpful for illustrating certain topics within an evaluation.
• Multiple-case studies : Used to explore differences between cases and replicate findings across cases. Helpful for comparing and contrasting specific cases.
• Intrinsic : Used to gain a better understanding of a particular case. Helpful for capturing the complexity of a single case.
• Collective : Used to explore a general phenomenon using multiple case studies. Helpful for jointly studying a group of cases in order to inquire into the phenomenon.

Where Do You Find Data for a Case Study?

There are several places to find data for a case study. The key is to gather data from multiple sources to get a complete picture of the case and corroborate facts or findings through triangulation of evidence. Most of this information is likely qualitative (i.e., verbal description rather than measurement), but the psychologist might also collect numerical data.

1. Primary sources

• Interviews – Interviewing key people related to the case to get their perspectives and insights. The interview is an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person’s friends, parents, employer, workmates, and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself.
• Observations – Observing behaviors, interactions, processes, etc., related to the case as they unfold in real-time.
• Documents & Records – Reviewing private documents, diaries, public records, correspondence, meeting minutes, etc., relevant to the case.

2. Secondary sources

• News/Media – News coverage of events related to the case study.
• Academic articles – Journal articles, dissertations etc. that discuss the case.
• Government reports – Official data and records related to the case context.
• Books/films – Books, documentaries or films discussing the case.

3. Archival records

Searching historical archives, museum collections and databases to find relevant documents, visual/audio records related to the case history and context.

Public archives like newspapers, organizational records, photographic collections could all include potentially relevant pieces of information to shed light on attitudes, cultural perspectives, common practices and historical contexts related to psychology.

4. Organizational records

Organizational records offer the advantage of often having large datasets collected over time that can reveal or confirm psychological insights.

Of course, privacy and ethical concerns regarding confidential data must be navigated carefully.

However, with proper protocols, organizational records can provide invaluable context and empirical depth to qualitative case studies exploring the intersection of psychology and organizations.

• Organizational/industrial psychology research : Organizational records like employee surveys, turnover/retention data, policies, incident reports etc. may provide insight into topics like job satisfaction, workplace culture and dynamics, leadership issues, employee behaviors etc.
• Clinical psychology : Therapists/hospitals may grant access to anonymized medical records to study aspects like assessments, diagnoses, treatment plans etc. This could shed light on clinical practices.
• School psychology : Studies could utilize anonymized student records like test scores, grades, disciplinary issues, and counseling referrals to study child development, learning barriers, effectiveness of support programs, and more.

How do I Write a Case Study in Psychology?

Follow specified case study guidelines provided by a journal or your psychology tutor. General components of clinical case studies include: background, symptoms, assessments, diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes. Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always clarify which information is the factual description and which is an inference or the researcher’s opinion.

1. Introduction

• Provide background on the case context and why it is of interest, presenting background information like demographics, relevant history, and presenting problem.
• Compare briefly to similar published cases if applicable. Clearly state the focus/importance of the case.

2. Case Presentation

• Describe the presenting problem in detail, including symptoms, duration,and impact on daily life.
• Include client demographics like age and gender, information about social relationships, and mental health history.
• Describe all physical, emotional, and/or sensory symptoms reported by the client.
• Use patient quotes to describe the initial complaint verbatim. Follow with full-sentence summaries of relevant history details gathered, including key components that led to a working diagnosis.
• Summarize clinical exam results, namely orthopedic/neurological tests, imaging, lab tests, etc. Note actual results rather than subjective conclusions. Provide images if clearly reproducible/anonymized.
• Clearly state the working diagnosis or clinical impression before transitioning to management.

3. Management and Outcome

• Indicate the total duration of care and number of treatments given over what timeframe. Use specific names/descriptions for any therapies/interventions applied.
• Present the results of the intervention,including any quantitative or qualitative data collected.
• For outcomes, utilize visual analog scales for pain, medication usage logs, etc., if possible. Include patient self-reports of improvement/worsening of symptoms. Note the reason for discharge/end of care.

4. Discussion

• Analyze the case, exploring contributing factors, limitations of the study, and connections to existing research.
• Analyze the effectiveness of the intervention,considering factors like participant adherence, limitations of the study, and potential alternative explanations for the results.
• Identify any questions raised in the case analysis and relate insights to established theories and current research if applicable. Avoid definitive claims about physiological explanations.
• Offer clinical implications, and suggest future research directions.

5. Additional Items

• Thank specific assistants for writing support only. No patient acknowledgments.
• References should directly support any key claims or quotes included.
• Use tables/figures/images only if substantially informative. Include permissions and legends/explanatory notes.
• Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
• Provides insight for further research.
• Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.

Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach, case studies often shed light on aspects of human thinking and behavior that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways.

Research that only looks into the measurable aspects of human behavior is not likely to give us insights into the subjective dimension of experience, which is important to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.

Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person’s life are related to each other.

The method is, therefore, important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e., humanistic psychologists ).

Limitations

• Lacking scientific rigor and providing little basis for generalization of results to the wider population.
• Researchers’ own subjective feelings may influence the case study (researcher bias).
• Difficult to replicate.
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources.

Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group, we can never be sure if the case study investigated is representative of the wider body of “similar” instances. This means the conclusions drawn from a particular case may not be transferable to other settings.

Because case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e., descriptive) data , a lot depends on the psychologist’s interpretation of the information she has acquired.

This means that there is a lot of scope for Anna O , and it could be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means.

For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies in which the information was sometimes distorted to fit particular behavioral theories (e.g., Little Hans ).

This is also true of Money’s interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against his theory.

Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895).  Studies on hysteria . Standard Edition 2: London.

Curtiss, S. (1981). Genie: The case of a modern wild child .

Diamond, M., & Sigmundson, K. (1997). Sex Reassignment at Birth: Long-term Review and Clinical Implications. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine , 151(3), 298-304

Freud, S. (1909a). Analysis of a phobia of a five year old boy. In The Pelican Freud Library (1977), Vol 8, Case Histories 1, pages 169-306

Freud, S. (1909b). Bemerkungen über einen Fall von Zwangsneurose (Der “Rattenmann”). Jb. psychoanal. psychopathol. Forsch ., I, p. 357-421; GW, VII, p. 379-463; Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis, SE , 10: 151-318.

Harlow J. M. (1848). Passage of an iron rod through the head.  Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 39 , 389–393.

Harlow, J. M. (1868).  Recovery from the Passage of an Iron Bar through the Head .  Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society. 2  (3), 327-347.

Money, J., & Ehrhardt, A. A. (1972).  Man & Woman, Boy & Girl : The Differentiation and Dimorphism of Gender Identity from Conception to Maturity. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Money, J., & Tucker, P. (1975). Sexual signatures: On being a man or a woman.

Further Information

• Case Study Approach
• Case Study Method
• Enhancing the Quality of Case Studies in Health Services Research
• “We do things together” A case study of “couplehood” in dementia
• Using mixed methods for evaluating an integrative approach to cancer care: a case study

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