argumentative essay about digital art

Art for our sake: artists cannot be replaced by machines – study

There has been an explosion of interest in ‘creative AI’, but does this mean that artists will be replaced by machines? No, definitely not, says Anne Ploin , Oxford Internet Institute researcher and one of the team behind today’s report on the potential impact of machine learning (ML) on creative work. 

The report, ‘ AI and the Arts: How Machine Learning is Changing Artistic Work ’ , was co-authored with OII researchers Professor Rebecca Eynon and Dr Isis Hjorth as well as Professor Michael A. Osborne from Oxford’s Department of Engineering .

Their study took place in 2019, a high point for AI in art. It was also a time of high interest around the role of AI (Artificial Intelligence) in the future of work, and particularly around the idea that automation could transform non-manual professions, with a previous study by Professor Michael A. Osborne and Dr Carl Benedict Frey predicting that some 30% of jobs could, technically, be replaced in an AI revolution by 2030.

Human agency in the creative process is never going away. Parts of the creative process can be automated in interesting ways using AI...but the creative decision-making which results in artworks cannot be replicated by current AI technology

Mx Ploin says it was clear from their research that machine learning was becoming a tool for artists – but will not replace artists. She maintains, ‘The main message is that human agency in the creative process is never going away. Parts of the creative process can be automated in interesting ways using AI (generating many versions of an image, for example), but the creative decision-making which results in artworks cannot be replicated by current AI technology.’

She adds, ‘Artistic creativity is about making choices [what material to use, what to draw/paint/create, what message to carry across to an audience] and develops in the context in which an artist works. Art can be a response to a political context, to an artist’s background, to the world we inhabit. This cannot be replicated using machine learning, which is just a data-driven tool. You cannot – for now – transfer life experience into data.’

She adds, ‘AI models can extrapolate in unexpected ways, draw attention to an entirely unrecognised factor in a certain style of painting [from having been trained on hundreds of artworks]. But machine learning models aren’t autonomous.

Artistic creativity is about making choices ...and develops in the context in which an artist works...the world we inhabit. This cannot be replicated using machine learning, which is just a data-driven tool

‘They aren’t going to create new artistic movements on their own – those are PR stories. The real changes that we’re seeing are around the new skills that artists develop to ‘hack’ technical tools, such as machine learning, to make art on their own terms, and around the importance of curation in an increasingly data-driven world.’

The research paper uses a case study of the use of current machine learning techniques in artistic work, and investigates the scope of AI-enhanced creativity and whether human/algorithm synergies may help unlock human creative potential. In doing so, the report breaks down the uncertainty surrounding the application of AI in the creative arts into three key questions.

• How does using generative algorithms alter the creative processes and embodied experiences of artists?
• How do artists sense and reflect upon the relationship between human and machine creative intelligence?
• What is the nature of human/algorithmic creative complementarity?

According to Mx Ploin, ‘We interviewed 14 experts who work in the creative arts, including media and fine artists whose work centred around generative ML techniques. We also talked to curators and researchers in this field. This allowed us to develop fuller understanding of the implications of AI – ranging from automation to complementarity – in a domain at the heart of human experience: creativity.’

They found a range of responses to the use of machine learning and AI. New activities required by using ML models involved both continuity with previous creative processes and rupture from past practices. There were major changes around the generative process, the evolving ways ML outputs were conceptualised, and artists’ embodied experiences of their practice.

And, says the researcher, there were similarities between the use of machine learning and previous periods in art history, such as the code-based and computer arts of the 1960s and 1970s. But the use of ML models was a “step change” from past tools, according to many artists.

While the machine learning models could help produce ‘surprising variations of existing images’, practitioners felt the artist remained irreplaceable...in making artworks

But, she maintains, while the machine learning models could help produce ‘surprising variations of existing images’, practitioners felt the artist remained irreplaceable in terms of giving images artistic context and intention – that is, in making artworks.

Ultimately, most agreed that despite the increased affordances of ML technologies, the relationship between artists and their media remained essentially unchanged, as artists ultimately work to address human – rather than technical – questions.

Don’t let it put you off going to art school. We need more artists

The report concludes that human/ML complementarity in the arts is a rich and ongoing process, with contemporary artists continuously exploring and expanding technological capabilities to make artworks . Although ML-based processes raise challenges around skills, a common language, resources, and inclusion, what is clear is that the future of ML arts will belong to those with both technical and artistic skills. There is more to come.

But, says Mx Ploin, ‘Don’t let it put you off going to art school. We need more artists.’

Further information

AI and the Arts: How Machine Learning is Changing Artistic Work . Ploin, A., Eynon, R., Hjorth I. & Osborne, M.A. (2022). Report from the Creative Algorithmic Intelligence Research Project. Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford, UK. Download the full report .

This report accounts for the findings of the 'Creative Algorithmic Intelligence: Capabilities and Complementarity' project, which ran between 2019 and 2021 as a collaboration between the University of Oxford's Department of Engineering and Oxford Internet Institute.

The report also showcases a range of artworks from contemporary artists who use AI as part of their practice and who participated in our study: Robbie Barrat , Nicolas Boillot , Sofia Crespo , Jake Elwes , Lauren Lee McCarthy , Sarah Meyohas , Anna Ridler , Helena Sarin , and David Young.

DISCOVER MORE

• Support Oxford's research
• Partner with Oxford on research
• Study at Oxford
• Research jobs at Oxford

You can view all news or browse by category

Digital Vs. Traditional Art: Is One Better Than the Other?

Can you identify what all of these careers have in common: Social Media Manager, Lyft Driver, Podcast Producer, Mobile App Developer, Virtual Assistant, 3-D Printer Technician, and Content Marketer? They are all related to technology, but 15 years ago many of these jobs didn’t exist .

We are currently teaching and preparing our students for future careers that don’t yet exist. A study conducted by the Institute for the Future (IFTF) and Dell Technologies concludes that 85% of the jobs that will exist in 2030 haven’t even been created yet. All of these careers will exist because of the ever-changing nature of technology. It’s something that isn’t going away, which is why more schools are infusing digital arts curriculum.

According to the 2019 State of Art Education Survey , 52.2% of art teachers want to learn more about teaching digital art effectively. However, only 21.9% of art teachers feel comfortable teaching a digital arts curriculum.

The want and need to teach digital medium is there, but is it truly important to teach? Will digital art take the place of traditional artmaking?

The Importance of Digital Arts Education

Some view technology as a threat to originality and as seeking to replace traditional artmaking. This idea can certainly be worrisome for art teachers. However, studies suggest the use of digital tools in art education increases artistic development and creativity. In a digital age, art teachers feel the need now more than ever to advocate for their programs. A digital arts curriculum can serve as a powerful advocacy tool.

Here are some of the benefits of teaching digital art in your classroom:

1. Increased Access

Not every student has a set of watercolors or acrylic paint set at home, but many students have access to some type of digital device like an iPad or smartphone. Sure, devices might not be cheap initially, but in comparison to all the consumable tubes of oil paint an artist might buy in a year, the one-time technology purchase makes sense. Yes, technology breaks and needs replacing, but so do paintbrushes and canvases.

2. Convenience

Carrying around the necessary art materials to create as you’d like isn’t always convenient. It’s not always realistic to carry around a set up for plein air painting or to fill up a water cup for watercolor. It can be a hassle. Creating with a digital medium is relatively hassle-free. You can carry your device with you almost everywhere, and it’s always ready when you are ready to create.

3. Instant Sharability

Because digital art creation is already stored on a digital device, it is easier for artists to share their work in it’s highest form. Work can be shared digitally on websites and through social media instantly. Sure, a photograph of a painting doesn’t usually do the physical features of the painting justice, but it can communicate the overall idea.

4. Increased Productivity

Creating digitally saves time. If you make a mistake on a digital drawing or painting, you can simply press the undo button to start over. In a digital creation, you can erase without a trace, change colors easily, and position and resize objects in seconds. You are not limited by the physical features of the material world.

Why Traditional Art Matters

Digital art requires no less skill than traditional artmaking, but it does require a different mode of thinking. Yes, a digital device will have the ability to make a stroke look and layer like watercolor or give the texture of drawing with charcoal. However, when one learns traditional art techniques, they gain a deeper understanding of the materials and what they can do.

Here are some of the benefits of traditional artmaking methods:

1. Hands-on Experiences

Learning to manipulate a paintbrush to create different paint strokes or using carving tools to create a sculpture provides a physical, tactile experience. Through this experience, you gain a broader view of how materials can be used. The physical creation is good for hand-eye coordination as well as motor skills. Mixing yellow and blue paint to create green is an experience one cannot get the same way by digitally mixing colors.

2. Unique Pieces

Because of the handmade nature of traditional artworks, they aren’t easily reproduced. Each creation is truly a one-of-a-kind piece, unlike a digital creation that can be reproduced and shared instantly. Because of this, traditional art pieces typically have more value than digital art pieces.

3. Increased Versatility

Digital is only one medium while traditional art methods allow you to create with different media. Creating an image with graphite compared to pigmented paint will yield different results and experiences. The outcome of digital art creation typically produces one look of a clean finished product, whereas using different art materials does not.

4. Forced Problem-Solving

Unlike the undo button on a digital device, mistakes can’t always be easily erased. This restriction forces an artist to problem-solve their solution to physically fix their error. Better yet, it encourages an artist to no longer make those mistakes and ultimately improves their skills.

How to Start Infusing Digital Art into your Curriculum

There is no magic to digital tools. The magic comes from how we teach our students to foster their creativity. Generations before us have been using new technologies in different forms. Using chalk on chalkboards and pencils on paper were once novel ideas. Taking a boring worksheet and putting it on an iPad doesn’t make it exciting; it’s still going to be boring.

Exceptional learning can happen with or without advanced technologies, but when it’s done right, it can increase experiences. If you’re not ready to fully immerse yourself in the world of technology, look for ways you can ease in. Instead of replacing traditional artmaking methods completely, look for ways you can enhance them. Assess the concepts that aren’t going well in your classroom; could taking a digital approach improve the process? For example, teaching one-point perspective drawing can be a chore, but learning it digitally might make the process easier while learning the same concepts. Creativity will be the skill of the future. What can we do to help our students gain creative insight within our teaching?

If you’re not sure how to start infusing digital art into your curriculum check out these resources.

• Digital Photography Basics PRO Learning Pack
• Discovering Photoshop Basics PRO Learning Pack
• Digital Animation PRO Learning Pack
• 3-D Printing Basics PRO Learning Pack
• iPads in the Art Room AOEU Course
• 10 Digital Art Projects That Will Spark Student Creativity
• Everyone Can Create Curriculum by Apple
• The Digital Art Teacher
• Digital Art for Beginners by Udemy

Technology isn’t going anywhere, and it will continue to evolve at an ever-changing speed. There’s no doubt that both traditional and digital art creation are essential. As educators, we need to find ways to use them together to create the best learning opportunities we can for our students.

What’s holding you back from teaching digital art?

Why do you feel teaching both digital and traditional artmaking is essential?

Magazine articles and podcasts are opinions of professional education contributors and do not necessarily represent the position of the Art of Education University (AOEU) or its academic offerings. Contributors use terms in the way they are most often talked about in the scope of their educational experiences.

Abby Schukei

Abby Schukei, a middle school art educator and AOEU’s Social Media Manager, is a former AOEU Writer. She focuses on creating meaningful experiences for her students through technology integration, innovation, and creativity.

How to Use Neurographic Art to Encourage a Calm and Focused Mind

Art Room All-Stars: 12 Superlatives to Lighten Up Your End-of-Year Mood

10 One-Day Photography Activities to Keep Students “Focused” Until the End of the Year

Go Big Before Going Home: Finish the Year with a Collaborative Paper Mache Sculpture

Essay Sample about Digital Art

Art is a form of creativity that has been around since the creation of the earth. It has many different mediums or forms, a lot of history, and millions of creators worldwide. But one of the things that we’ll talk about is a new medium, digital art. Digital art is a new medium that has become popular in the past two decades as the digital age has been ushered in. Some people think that it isn’t “real art”, but today I’ll show why digital art is real art.

Digital art has pros in many ways. For example, when drawing on paper, the paper gets worn and torn as mistakes get erased and fixed . With markers and permanent materials, they are unable to be erased. With digital art, it is possible to erase all mistakes, and even use the undo button, which’ll erase the last line that was drawn. Digital art makes it easier to share and keep personal drawings accessible. It also is much cleaner than traditional art, which might have faint lines of pencil or accidental lines from a pen. 

With any new medium, it takes years to refine digital art skills. Picking the right program to use, exploring it, and getting used to the mechanics, takes a lot of time. One of the most used arguments is that there isn’t technically an ‘original’ piece, as it can be printed out infinitely, copied, and shared. That is true, but one of the other points is that heart and soul isn’t present as it is in traditional art. This is not true, digital artists put hours and days into some pieces, which is self explanatory. Another example would be when digital artists' drawings get stolen, which oftentimes they fight for the person who stole it to take it down.

Digital art is not only just drawing, which is only a subsection of digital art. It is composed of music, video games, e-books, and movies. Music can be recorded by microphones, and put into an editing software, which is then posted to spotify or Youtube, that is one example of digital art in other forms. People who make the argument that digital art is not ‘real art’, will also listen to music that was produced with digital software, read e-books, or play video games. Technically, they wouldn’t actually be listening to ‘real’ music, reading ‘real’ books, or playing ‘real’ video games, because music, books, video games are forms of art.

In closing, digital art is real art. There are many digital and traditional artists out there. It shouldn’t matter what medium that is used, what should matter is the connection between creations. Art is an important way of connecting with people, and it shouldn’t be plagued with arguments and trivial debates. I rest my case.

Related Samples

• Lunch atop a Skyscraper by Charles C. Ebbets Analysis
• Analysis of Vanessa Bell's Paintings
• Utilizing Art to Remedy The Soul: An Article Analysis of The Healing Canvas
• Essay Sample about The Benin Bronzes
• Garrowby Hill by David Hockney Painting Analysis
• Visual Analysis Essay of The Last Supper
• Essay on Pop Art History
• How Did Michelangelo Influence The Renaissance
• Bruno Munari Essay Example
• Essay Example on Graffiti: Is It Art or Vandalism?

Didn't find the perfect sample?

You can order a custom paper by our expert writers

• Table of Contents
• Random Entry
• Chronological
• Editorial Information
• About the SEP
• Editorial Board
• How to Cite the SEP
• Special Characters
• Advanced Tools
• Support the SEP
• PDFs for SEP Friends
• Make a Donation
• SEPIA for Libraries
• Entry Contents

Bibliography

Academic tools.

• Friends PDF Preview
• Author and Citation Info
• Back to Top

The Philosophy of Digital Art

The philosophy of digital art is the philosophical study of art that crucially relies on computer processing in its production or presentation. There are many kinds of digital art, including digital cinema and video, digital photography and painting, electronic music, literary works generated by so-called “chatbots”, NFT art, net art, and video games. For the full range of digital art kinds, the aim is to identify their essential features, ground their proper appreciation, and situate our understanding of them in relation to pre-existing debates in aesthetics. This first-order inquiry cannot proceed without acknowledgment of the enormous interdisciplinary and popular interest in digital media. Claims are frequently made about fundamental shifts in the way we classify, evaluate, and engage with art now that computers seem to be involved in every kind of cultural production. The so-called “digital condition” (Kittler 1999) is characterized by a loss of trust in the image, a new way of experiencing the world as indeterminate and fragmentary, and a breakdown of traditional boundaries between artist and audience, artwork and artistic process. If we are looking for evidence of the digital condition, we need to understand its conceptual structure. Here’s where the philosopher comes in.

Although technology-based art is viewed as the “final avant-garde of the twentieth-century” (Rush 2005), and digital art has been part of the mainstream art world since the late 1990s (Paul 2008), the philosophy of digital art is still an emerging subfield. Three seminal monographs, one on videogames (Tavinor 2009), one on digital cinema (Gaut 2010), and one on computer art (Lopes 2010), have been invaluable in laying the groundwork concerning philosophical questions about art and computer technology. Since these publications, further philosophical attention has been given to the digital arts, including the first published volume to focus on the aesthetics of videogames (see Robson & Tavinor, eds., 2018). It can be challenging for philosophers to keep up with the rapid rate at which digital technology develops. But a number of recent articles on Artificial Intelligence (AI) in the arts show that philosophers are well aware of and ready to meet this challenge (Atencia-Linares and Artiga 2022; Millière 2022; Moruzzi 2022; Roberts and Krueger 2022). The body of philosophical work on AI art will no doubt continue to grow, as will bodies of work on virtual reality in art and Internet art. With this growth, we can expect to to learn a great deal more about the extent and character of the digital cultural revolution.

1.1 The Digital Art World

1.2 the analog-digital distinction, 1.3 digital art: production, 1.4 digital art: presentation, 2. digital images, 3. appreciating artworks in digital media, 4.1 defining interactive works, 4.2 display variability, 4.3 interactivity and creativity, 5. locative art, other internet resources, related entries, 1. what is digital art.

In its broadest extant sense, “digital art” refers to art that relies on computer-based digital encoding, or on the electronic storage and processing of information in different formats—text, numbers, images, sounds—in a common binary code. The ways in which art-making can incorporate computer-based digital encoding are extremely diverse. A digital photograph may be the product of a manipulated sample of visual information captured with a digital camera from a “live” scene or captured with a scanner from a traditional celluloid photograph. Music can be recorded and then manipulated digitally or created digitally with specialized computer software. And a film is now the product of an extremely complex sequence of choices between analog and digital processes at the stages of image and sound capture or composition, image and sound editing, color correction or sound mastering, special effects production, and display or projection.

The complexity of the digital cinema workflow draws attention to a further difference concerning whether reliance on the digital is restricted to the way an artwork is made or extends to the display of the work. A work may be made on a computer—say, a musical work composed with Sibelius or a play written in Microsoft Word—and yet meant for apprehension in a non-digital format—say, performance on traditional musical instruments or enactment on stage. Similarly, a film could be captured and edited digitally before being printed on traditional 35mm photochemical film for projection in theaters. By contrast, works that are purely digital include a film made and projected digitally—for example, Dune (2021), a piece of music composed and played back electronically—for example, the electroacoustic works of Gottfried Michael Koenig (see Other Internet Resources ), and a work of ASCII art—an image made up from the 95 printable characters defined by the ASCII standard of 1963 and displayed on a computer monitor.

An example of ASCII art:

More recent kinds of purely digital art include Instagram art and Chatbot fiction. An example of the former is Land of Arca (2023), which is made up of narrative images created by AI and then curated by the Instagram account’s owner, IRK. An example of the latter is any of the myriad science fiction short stories with which several literary magazines were recently deluged.

Each of the examples above incorporates a computational process, to some degree, in the presentation of the work. In many ways, works belonging to digital media stand in stark contrast to those made by completely analog means.

The classical account of the analog-digital distinction is found in Nelson Goodman’s Languages of Art (1976). In fact Goodman’s account remains practically the only general account of the distinction. While David Lewis (1971) raises a series of objections to Goodman, Lewis’ alternative account applies only to the representation of numbers. And while John Haugeland (1981) returns to the general distinction, he effectively qualifies and re-frames Goodman’s account in order to overcome Lewis’s and other potential objections. A few philosophers interested in clarifying the concepts employed by cognitive scientists have recognized the need for a general account of the analog-digital distinction (e.g., Dretske 1981; Blachowicz 1997; Katz 2008; Maley 2011). But in this context, as well, Goodman’s account is the essential point of reference. In some ways, this is surprising or at least striking: As Haugeland points out, the digital is a “mundane engineering notion” (1981: 217). Yet the philosophical context in which the notion receives its fullest analysis is that of aesthetics. As is well-known, Goodman’s interests in this context center on the role of musical notation in fixing the identity of musical works. But a musical notation is also a standard example of a digital system.

On Goodman’s broad, structuralist way of thinking, representational systems in general consist of sets of possible physical objects that count as token representations. Objects are grouped under syntactic and semantic types, and interesting differences between kinds of representational system track differences in the way syntactic and semantic types relate to one another. Digital systems are distinguished by being differentiated as opposed to dense . The condition of syntactic differentiation is met when the differences between classes of token representations are limited such that it is possible for users of the system always to tell that a token belongs to at most one class. The condition of semantic differentiation is met when the extension of each type, or the class of referents corresponding to a class of token representations, differs in limited ways from the extension of any other type; so that users of the system can always tell that a referent belongs to at most one extension. Goodman provides the following example of a simple digital computer, a system that meets the conditions of both syntactic and semantic differentiation: Say we have an instrument reporting on the number of dimes dropped into a toy bank with a capacity for holding 50 dimes, where the count is reported by an Arabic numeral on a small display (Goodman 1976: 159). In this system, the syntactic types are just the numbers 0–50, which have as their instances the discrete displays, at different times, of the corresponding Arabic numerals. Both the conditions of syntactic and semantic differentiation are met because the relevant differences between instances of different numbers are both highly circumscribed and conspicuous. This means that users of the system can be expected to be able to read the display, or determine which number is instantiated on the display (syntactic differentiation) and which numerical value, or how many coins, is thereby being indicated (semantic differentiation).

Analog representation fails to be differentiated because it is dense. With an ordering of types such that between any two types, there is a third, it is impossible to determine instantiation of at most one type. Not every case involving a failure of finite differentiation is a case of density but, in practice, most are. With a traditional thermometer, for example, heights of mercury that differ to any degree count as distinct syntactic types and the kinds of things that can differ semantically. Similarly, for pictures distinguished according to regions of color, for any two pictures, no matter how closely similar, one can always find a third more similar to each of them than they are to each other. Density is a feature of any system that measures continuously varying values. That is, as long as the system in question is designed so that any difference in magnitude indicates a difference in type.

Returning to the digital, some commentators have questioned whether Goodman’s condition of (syntactic and semantic) finite differentiation is sufficient to distinguish the kind of representation in question (Haugeland 1981; Lewis 1971). John Haugeland, for example, argues that there can be differentiated schemes without the “copyability” feature that defines the practical significance of digital systems. Haugeland’s solution is to require the practical and not just the theoretical possibility of a system’s users determining type membership. In fact, however, Goodman himself would likely accept this modification. In a later work, Goodman explicitly states that finite differentiation must make it possible to determine type membership “by means available and appropriate to the given user of the given scheme” (Goodman and Elgin 1988: 125).

Whether or not a work of digital art is a work of representational art, and even with the most abstract works of digital art, there are layers of representation involved in the complex processes of their production and presentation. Most of these layers, and arguably the most important ones, are digital. Where there are analog systems involved, digital translation makes possible the realization of the values of the final work. This is perhaps best seen with paradigmatic cases of digital art. Consider the following two relatively early works:

• Craig Kalpakjian, Corridor , 1995. Computer-generated animation on laser video disc, in the collection of the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art. The video leads us slowly down an empty office hallway that is slightly curved and evenly lit, with pale, blank walls and opaque glass windows.
• Cory Arcangel and Paul B. Davis, Landscape Study #4 , 2002. Installation. A “reverse-engineered” video game that aims to transpose our everyday surroundings onto a video game platform. The work “plays” on a Nintendo gaming system and displays a continuously scrolling landscape with the blocky, minimalist graphics of the Mario Bros. game.

The first of these works involves digital moving imagery that is entirely generated by a computer program. At the same time, the video looks like it was or could have been recorded in an actual office setting. The particular significance of the work depends on the viewer being aware of its digital composition while at the same time being struck by its photorealistic familiarity. According to the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (SF MoMA),

Kalpakjian thus reveals the complete artificiality of the built environments we inhabit, and their aesthetic distance from more humanistic forms. (SF MoMA n.d.)

The second work involves imagery that was initially captured digitally. Arcangel & Davis began by taking 360-degree photographs of Buffalo, New York. They scanned and modified the photographs on their computer so that the images could be coded according to the graphics capabilities of the Nintendo gaming system, and in order to give the images the distinctive look and feel of the Mario Bros. game. Arcangel & Davis then programmed the landscape imagery to scroll continuously across a TV screen, as in the Mario Bros. game. Finally, Arcangel & Davis melted the chips in a Super Mario cartridge, replacing them with their self-manufactured chips so that their landscape “game” could be run on any Nintendo system. As well as all the ways in which Arcangel & Davis’s work relies on both the technology and aesthetics of videogames, there are clearly ways in which it deliberately removes or blocks certain key features or capacities of videogames, perhaps most notably their robust interactivity. Playing a videogame essentially involves the prescribed creation of new display instances of a work. But we do not “play” Landscape Study #4 , and its imagery is fixed by the artist. The kind of interactivity typical of videogames can also be found in artworks made without computers (see Lopes 2010: 49). But this type of interactivity is most closely associated with digital art because complex interactivity is so much easier to achieve with the use of computers. This suggests a high degree of self-consciousness in Arcangel & Davis’s decision to block the interactivity of their reverse-engineered videogame. From the perspective of the philosophy of digital art, such a decision highlights the need for further discussion of the link between the nature of the digital and the nature of interactivity.

What is it about the ways in which the works by Arcangel & Davis, and by Kalpakjian, are produced that makes them digital in an appreciatively relevant sense? Computer imaging depends on the inherent programmability and automation of digital computers. Digital image capture depends on sampling and subsequently on the near-instantaneous processes of discrete coding. None of this would be possible without a series of linked systems each with finitely differentiated settings.

At the most basic level, the myriad transistors in a computer are essentially tiny digital schemes, each with two types: the “on” and “off” settings of the transistor-capacitor switch. The settings are discrete and distinguishable, as are their compliance classes, of 1s and 0s. The ubiquity of binary code in computer processing is a consequence of the fact that a digital computer is essentially a vast collection of on-off switches. A particular sequence of 1s and 0s realized at a particular time in virtue of the requisite arrangement of transistors is a binary instance of a particular number, interchangeable with all other instances of the same number and not interchangeable with any instances of different numbers. The difference between instances of one number and instances of other numbers is strictly limited to the difference in the ordering of 1s and 0s. In other words, Goodman’s condition of finite differentiation is clearly met. In turn, the numbers can refer to other values, including the light-intensity values of an image. A computation simply involves the generation of output strings of binary digits from input strings, in accordance with a general rule that depends on the properties of the strings (Piccinini 2008). The modern (digital) computer encodes both input data and assembly languages as sequences of binary digits, or bits, and allows for the internal storage of instructions. This makes the computer essentially programmable in the sense that it can be modified to compute new functions simply by being fed an appropriate arrangement of bits.

A program is a list of instructions, and instructions are strings of digits. The modern digital computer has components that serve to copy and store programs inside the machine, and to supply instructions to the computer’s processing units for implementation in the appropriate order. The outputs of a system can be dependent on specific inputs often in tandem with the conditional if-then statements. This is what is involved in a computer executing conditional branching instructions such that it can monitor and respond to its own intermediate computational states and even modify instructions based on its own processes. Such modifications are dictated by an algorithm—the program’s set of rules and operations. It is the digital computer’s capacity for branching, due to its digital programmability, that allows for the kinds of higher-level automation involved in the use of imaging applications and sequential image-generation. Our artists, Kalpakjian, and Arcangel & Davis, do not have to enter the strings of digits for every basic operation of the computer that underlies the complex operations involved in describing and manipulating images. If they did have to do this, they would never finish making their artworks. Rather, artists can rely on open-source code, libraries, or commercial software that automatically and instantaneously supplies the lines of code required for the execution of their artistic decisions.

The imaging software with which Kalpakjian works allows him to generate architectural interiors in rich detail. Arcangel & Davis do not require as much from their imaging software given that they are manipulating previously captured and scanned images. The process of scanning the photographs, just like the process involved in digital photography, involves sampling and quantization of a visual source; assigning an integer, from a finite range, to the average light-intensity measured across each small area of source-space corresponding to a cell in a grid. This process involves averaging and rounding up values, and it involves measurement, or sampling, of light intensities at (spatially and temporally) discrete intervals. Some, indeed many, of the differences in light intensity across the source image or scene (and at different times, in the case of moving imagery) are thereby dropped by the process of digital image-capture. Among some media theorists, this fact has led to deep suspicion of the digitally recorded image, prompting the feeling that the digital image is always a poor substitute for the analog. Current digital technologies for image-capture and display have such high rates of sampling frequency and resolution that the values dropped in quantization are well below the threshold of human perception. At the same time, Arcangel & Davis’s Landscape Study #4 reminds us that digital artists may choose to exploit visible pixellation for particular artistic ends.

A digitally recorded image need not appear any less richly detailed or varied in color than an analog image. All the same, in the terms of D. N. Rodowick, whereas the analog photograph is an “isomorphic transcription” of its subject, a digital photograph is a “data-output”, with a symbolically-mediated link to its subject (Rodowick 2007: 117–8). This ontological divide—described by William J. Mitchell as a “sudden and decisive rupture” in the history of photography (1994: 59), is then assumed to have aesthetic implications: Rodowick insists that the “discontinuities” in digital information “produce perceptual or aesthetic effects”. Despite this insistence, however, Rodowick goes on to acknowledge that, with enough resolution, “a digital photograph can simulate the look of a continuously produced analogical image”. This concession would seem to work against any attempt to identify the aesthetic effects of pixellation, even if “the pixel grid remains in the logical structure of the image” (Rodowick 2007: 119). But if we are to interpret Rodowick charitably, he could be implying that ontology at least partly determines appropriate appreciation; even if a digital photograph can look just like an analog photograph, its (known) digital status affects which of its perceptible features are aesthetically relevant and how we appropriately engage with them.

The media theorists’ worry about the impoverished digital image primarily refers to the production of digital images with its reliance on sampling and quantization. But there are also analogous worries about the digital presentation of images, worries about deep structural changes to analog images once they are displayed digitally—for example, on a liquid crystal display (LCD) screen or when projected digitally on a flat surface. Of course one could simply be interested in investigating these structural changes without being particularly worried about them. This shall be our approach.

The traditional method of film reel projection has been a remarkably stable and entrenched technology, remaining largely unchanged for over a century. But digital projection has almost taken over, particularly in conjunction with the networked distribution of films. Although films’ audiences may not be able to see the difference on screen between analog and digital projection, their expectations are changing—for example, about what can go wrong in the presentation of a film. A deeper assumption that has not changed, one that is almost universal among film scholars, is that films fundamentally depend on an illusion. Cinema is the art of moving images and thus its very existence depends on our being tricked into seeing a rapid succession of static images as a persistent moving image. In the philosophy of film, there is a small debate about the status of cinematic motion—whether it really is an illusion as commonly assumed. An analysis of digital projection technology reveals new complexities in this debate but ultimately provides additional reasons to stick with the popular illusionist view.

Traditional and digital projection methods could not seem more different: the former involves running a flexible film strip through a mechanical projector; the latter involves a complex array of micromirrors on semiconductor chips, which, in combination with a prism and a lamp, generate projectable images from binary code. Nevertheless, both are methods for generating the impression of a continuously illuminated, persistent moving image from a sequence of static images. Compared with traditional projection, however, digital projection includes an extra step, whereby the images in the static sequence are generated from flashes of light. In order to generate each image in the digital projector, a light beam from a high-powered lamp is separated by a prism into its color components of red, blue, and green. Each color beam then hits a different Digital Micromirror Device (DMD), which is a semiconductor chip covered with more than a million tiny, hinged mirrors. Based on the information encoded in the video signal, the DMDs selectively turn over some of the tiny mirrors to reflect the colored lights. Most of the tiny mirrors are flipped thousands of times a second in order to create the gradations of light and dark making up a monochromatic, pixellated image—a mirror that is flipped on a greater proportion of the time will reflect more light and so will form a brighter pixel than a mirror that is not flipped on for so long. Each DMD reflects a monochromatic image back to the prism, which then recombines the colors to form the projected, full-color image. This image—if it were held for long enough on the screen—would be perceived as static. In order then to produce the impression of motion in the projected, full-color image, the underlying memory array of the DMDs has to update rapidly so that all the micromirrors are released simultaneously and allowed to move into a new “address state”, providing new patterns of light modulation for successive images.

The two-stage process of digital projection, by which the moving image is created from a succession of static images that are themselves created by motion, draws attention to the metaphysical complexity of the question of how movies move. In particular, one is unlikely to determine the status of the impression of motion that makes possible the art of cinema unless one can determine the status of the imagery that is seen to move. Given that motion involves an object occupying contiguous spatial locations in successive moments of time, a moving object must be re-identifiable over time. A moving image in a film, arising as it does out of the rapid display of a succession of still images, is not obviously a persistent object that can be seen to move. Then again, perhaps it is enough that ordinary viewers identify an image—say of a moving train— as the same image, for the moving image to persist (Currie 1996). Alternatively, the moving image could be thought to persist as a second-order physical entity constituted by a sequence of flashing lights (Ponech 2006).

The second proposal immediately runs into trouble with digital projection. If the traditionally projected moving image exists as a series of flashes of light, in digital projection, other “intermediate” objects must be granted existence—for example, the stable point of light consisting of the rate of flashes, and gaps between them, of a single micromirror on the DMD. At the same time, the moving image itself must be stripped of its existence since it does not consist of flashes of light. This is due to the fact that, in digital projection, there are no gaps between frames and so no underlying, imperceptible alternation of light and dark. This leaves the realist in the awkward position of claiming that the moving image goes in and out of existence with the switch between analog and digital projection technologies.

The first proposal, on which cinematic motion is a secondary quality, threatens to destroy the distinction between the apparent and the illusory. It suggests a way of reinterpreting any case of perceptual illusion as a case involving the ascription of secondary qualities. That is, unless it can be shown that there are independent means of checking that we are mistaken about genuine illusions. But even if this can be shown, a problem remains: While there may not be an independent check for the motion of an image, there is likewise no independent check for a genuine illusion of color. Given the contrived conditions of film viewing, there is more reason to think of cinematic motion as akin to an illusory, than to a genuine, experience of color. With the introduction of digital projection, the conditions are arguably even more contrived. For it is not just movement in the image but the image itself that is constituted by rapid flashes of light. And the technology involved is far less accessible than that of a traditional mechanical projector in the sense that one cannot, just by looking at the projection device, see (roughly) how it works. In this way, an analysis of digital movie projection serves to reinforce the traditional assumption that cinema is an art of illusion. In addition, however, the analysis suggests that the illusion at the heart of cinema is particularly impenetrable—akin to an illusion of color, and thus an illusion of a mere appearance that cannot be checked (Thomson-Jones 2013).

With digital movie projection, we begin to see the importance of understanding the technology of display for understanding the nature of digital art. Another way we see its importance is in relation to images displayed on LCD screens. According to Goodman, images are essentially analog. Nevertheless, there seems to be a way for engineers to circumvent the essential analogicity of pictorial schemes by using digital technologies for encoded subphenomenal discrimination. Arguably, finite differentiation can be imposed on the scheme of all possible images displayed on high-resolution LCD screens. As we shall see, this has far-reaching implications for the ways in which we think about and properly appreciate image-based art.

Both in his earlier and in his later work in aesthetics, Goodman commits to “a special relation” between the analog and the pictorial, one that is seen when we compare “the presystematic notions of description and picture in a given culture”. Given two schemes, S and S′ , where S consists of all descriptions or predicates in a language such as English, and S′ consists of all pictures, if we were told only of the structures of S and S′ , we could distinguish the pictorial scheme by its being analog (Goodman and Elgin 1988: 130). The special relation remains, Goodman claims, despite the possibility of a digital sub-scheme made up of black and white grid patterns all of which happen to be pictures. In such a scheme, the differences between patterned types that matter for the scheme’s being digital do not include all of the differences that matter for distinguishing pictorial types. Pictures are distinguished by color, shape, and size, which vary continuously; any variation in color, shape, or size potentially results in a different picture. When we impose limits on the differences that matter for distinguishing one grid pattern in the scheme from another, we are not interpreting the grid patterns as pictures; if we were to do so, we would have to treat them as members of a syntactically dense, or analog, scheme.

Goodman’s insight about grid patterns and pictures suggests an immediate difficulty for explaining the digital status of images displayed on LCD screens: Clearly it will not be sufficient to point out that such images are pixellated, and therefore made up of small identical building blocks that impose a lower limit on the differences between display-instances. Remember that pictures are defined by color, shape, and size, which vary continuously. This means there is going to be vagueness at the limits of types – even though the physical pixels of an LCD screen are such that there are gaps between the possible shapes, sizes, and colors that the screen can instantiate; and, there are a finite number of shapes, sizes, and colors that the screen can instantiate. Any means of discretely carving up the property spaces of color, shape, and size has to involve grouping into types what are in fact (subphenomenally) distinct shapes, sizes, and colors, some of which may differ less from adjacent properties grouped into other types. This makes it impossible always to determine unique class membership; hence, finite differentiation fails.

Pixellation alone, no matter the resolution, cannot account for images displayed on LCD screens belonging to a digital scheme; digital images qua images thus remain stubbornly analog. But perhaps a closer analysis of digital imaging technology can show that finite differentiation is met after all. Current technologies for sampling and instantiating light intensities group objective colors well below the level of phenomenal discrimination. For example, in the standard “Truecolor” system, a display pixel has three 8-bit subpixels, each of which emits a different visible wavelength with an intensity from a range of 256 values, yielding over 16 million objective colors. Such a large number of available colors gives the impression of a color continuum when, in fact, digital sampling technology has been used to carve up the objective color space into a disjoint series of wavelength intensities. On the one hand, from the fact that display pixels can be lit at intensities between and indiscriminable from adjacent discriminable intensities, it seems to follow that finite differentiation fails. On the other hand, precisely because digital technology involves microtechnology and metrology for subphenomenal discrimination between colors, the light intensity groupings that are expressed numerically as red-blue-green triplets (in, say, the Truecolor system) can be narrower than the objective color types that contribute to the resultant image scheme. The key is keeping the variations in the essentially analog properties of color, shape, and size small enough so that they cannot accumulate to the point of making a difference to image perception (Zeimbekis 2012). The types in the scheme of digital images are technologically segmented, transitive groupings of the same color-, shape-, and size-experiences. The carving out of a transitive sub-set of magnitudes has to occur relative to the needs of the users of the system. In the case of digital color, the types are classes of light intensities sufficient to cause the same color experience for normal human perceivers. The replicability of digital images is made possible by the gap between the discriminatory limits of the human visual system and the discriminatory limits of digital sampling technology.

Digital images can be replicated insofar as they are digital and thus finitely differentiated. They are finitely differentiated because they rely on subphenomenal sampling and display technology. In practical terms, replication depends on the use of binary code, even though this is not in fact what makes images qua images digital. Of course binary code representations are themselves part of a digital scheme. But the role of binary code in image-instantiation is just one of consistent preservation; preservation for long enough to permit reproduction. Despite the inherent replicability of digital images, it does not appear to follow automatically that artworks involving these images are multiples.

The SF MoMA is in possession of the original of Kalpakjian’s work, Corridor ; they control access to the video imagery. At present, the work is not available to be viewed: it cannot be viewed on-line as part of a digital archive or collection, nor is it currently on view in the physical space of the museum. The image sequence comprising the work could be multiply instantiated and widely distributed, but in fact it is not, nor is it meant to be. Similarly with Arcangel & Davis’s work, Landscape Study #4 : This work is described as an installation, meant to be exhibited in a physical gallery alongside an arrangement of printed stills, with a television connected to a Nintendo Entertainment System. Again, the image sequence displayed on the television could be multiply instantiated and widely distributed, but it is not, nor is it meant to be. Clips and copies of the landscape imagery are available on-line, but these do not instantiate parts of the work itself. By contrast, works of net art are instantiated whenever they are accessed by someone on-line.

There are many kinds of net art, including various forms of experimental on-line literature, conceptual browser art, and works drawing on software and computer gaming conventions. Extensive on-line collections of visual and audiovisual net art are rigorously curated and at the same time immediately accessible to ordinary Internet users. When it comes to the conventions of access and presentation, the contrast is striking between works of net art and works like those by Kalpakjian, and Arcangel & Davis. Perhaps a digital artwork comprising multiply instantiable images need not itself be multiply instantiable. At this point, the philosophy of digital art joins an ongoing debate about the ontology of art.

On the question of whether artworks are all the same kind of thing or many different kinds of things, ontological pluralism is often taken to be implied by the primary role of the artist in “sanctioning” features of their work (Irvin 2005, 2008; Thomasson 2010). A sanction can consist simply in, say, the painting of a canvas by a self-professed artist and the subsequent display of the work in a gallery. The artist has sanctioned those features of the work that make it a traditional painting. But what was once largely implicit is now often explicit: many contemporary works of art are defined by a set of instructions for their presentation (e.g., aspect ratio, resolution). We can find plenty of examples of non-digital works that are defined by a set of instructions, such as Felix Gonzalez-Torres’ Untitled (Portrait of Ross in L.A.) (1991). This work is given to a gallery to display by way of nothing more than a set of instructions for constructing and maintaining a pile of candies. Whether non-digital or digital, the instructions determine what is part of the work and what is not, and whether the work is singular or multiply instantiable. As a result, the instructions guide appropriate interpretation of the work. On this view, ontology precedes interpretation: we cannot properly and fully appreciate a work, for the work that it is, without a prior determination of what it comprises. This is a matter of contention, however. On another way of thinking, artworks just are objects of interpretation, and there is no artwork whose boundaries can be identified before we begin interpretation (Davies 2004).

The issue of the relation between ontology and interpretation is a complex and difficult one, but progress can be made on the issue through an examination of digital art practices. This is particularly in light of the high degree of self-consciousness with which many digital artists and digital art curators specify the features of digital art works. It is a common practice, for example, when archiving net art, to have artists fill out a questionnaire in order to specify which features of a work are crucial for its preservation—whether features of appearance, timing and motion, interactivity potentials and methods, linking to other sites, or hardware and software. When a work of net art is individuated by its imagery, say, the artist has chosen to make the inherent replicability of digital imagery part of the work. That this is a choice is suggested by the existence of singular works of digital visual art, like the examples discussed above. The question of whether the works by Kalpakjian, and Arcangel & Davis can function allographically requires further investigation (see D’Cruz and Magnus 2014). But if they can so function, the artist’s presentation instructions have a primary role to play in fixing, not just the art form (installation, movie, conceptual work, etc.) but the basic structure of the work – for example, in determining whether the work is singular and thus identical with a certain kind of physical display or multiple with no original display. Where interactive digital works are concerned, individuation is determined by a set of algorithms. An algorithmic account of interactive digital art suggests that, although the code is important for adequate instantiation of the work, it is the algorithm that specifies the crucial features of the work (Lopes 2010; Tavinor 2011; Moser 2018). Since the code is, ontologically speaking, less relevant than the algorithm, this account makes allowances for the variability that may be found in the code when an instance of a program is run on different kinds of devices.

Reflection on the kinds and significance of choices available to an artist contributes to a full appreciation of the artist’s work. For any artwork, appreciation begins with recognition of its status as a work , the product of artistic activity of some kind, and thus something to be appreciated as the achievement of an artist or group of artists. Most commonly, this achievement is understood in terms of the aesthetically significant effects achieved by an artist with certain kinds of tools and materials and in light of certain appreciative conventions. In other words, the achievement is always relative to an artistic medium. Returning to the case of an artist choosing what to do about the inherent replicability of digital imagery, another way of thinking about this choice is in terms of the artist recognizing the limits and capacities of their chosen medium. Images conveyed digitally are always replicable and so when an artist aims to convey artistic content through digital imagery, they either have to accept the inevitable multiplicity of their works or resist the tendency of the medium and somehow specify the work’s singularity in presentation. At a more fine-grained level, our appreciation of particular effects—of color and composition, expression, narrative structure, and so on—depends on the effects themselves but also on background acknowledgment of their degree of difficulty or innovation in the relevant medium. The production of digital art relies on the computer automation of many of the tasks, both manual and cognitive, traditionally involved in making art. The effects achieved by computer automation cannot be assessed in the same way as those achieved by traditional “hands-on” artistic methods. The terms of our appreciation, therefore, need to be adjusted in the digital age. This is certainly compatible with the continued relevance of medium-based appreciation, as long as we can make sense of digital media as artistic media (Binkley 1998). But there is a strong tendency in film and media studies to assume that the medium has absolutely no role to play in the appreciation of digital art.

Summing up this view, it supposedly follows from the fact that modern (digital) computers encode every kind of information in the same way—i.e., as a sequence of binary digits—that a digital artwork is no longer defined by its mode of presentation, whether in images, moving images, sound patterns, or text. A work’s display is rendered merely contingent by the fact that it is generated from a common code. By adding a particular instruction to the code sequence specifying a work, imagery associated with that work could be instantaneously converted into sounds or text, or just into different imagery. This possibility alone supposedly renders meaningless all talk of an artwork being in a particular medium and being properly appreciated in terms of that medium (Kittler 1999; Doane 2007).

Given the considerable effects of digital technology on artistic production, it is perhaps understandable that some commentators are inclined toward a radical overhauling of art theoretical concepts. But their arguments in support of such an overhaul are, at best, incomplete. We see this once we cite some important continuities between ways of making and thinking about art in the analog age and in the digital age. It has always been the case, for example, that “any medium can be translated into any other” (Kittler 1999: 1): Without using a computer, someone could manually devise a set of rules (an algorithm) for the translation of image values, say, into sounds or text. Moreover, a common storage and transmission means for (moving) imagery and sound is not unique to digital technology: As Doron Galili points out (2011), electronic image transmission going back to the late nineteenth century—in other words, precursors of the TV—relies on the conversion of both images and sound into electronic pulses.

Apart from these important continuities, the media theorist’s inference from translatability to medium-free art simply does not hold. That we could set about “translating” the imagery of Seven Samurai into a symphony does not mean that the original artwork lacks a medium; it is a film, after all, and as such, it has to be in the medium of moving images. The symphonic translation of Seven Samurai is not the same work as the 1954 film by Akira Kurosawa. This reminds us that, in deciding whether there is a digital medium, we must not reduce the medium to the artist’s materials, for it also matters how the artist uses those materials. Nor must we limit the constitutive materials of a medium to physical materials. The case of literature shows that neither the materials of an art form, nor their modes of manipulation, need be physical. The medium of literature is neither paper and ink nor abstract lexical symbols, but letters and words used in certain ways. There are, of course, many different ways of physically storing and transmitting literary works, including by the printed page, in audio recordings, and by memory (human or computer). But from the fact that David Copperfield can be preserved in many different formats, it does not follow that this novel is any less decisively a novel and, as such, in the medium of literature.

Just as with a literary work, the preservation and transmission of digital works in different formats depends on the use of a common code, but a binary numeric code rather than a lexical one. As we have seen, words and their literary uses constitute the medium of literature. In the same way, binary code, along with the information it implements, and its artistic uses constitute the medium of digital art. This allows for the possibility that the digital medium contains various sub-media, or “nested” media (Gaut 2010). For instance, within the medium of digital art, the medium of digital visual art comprises artistic uses of computer code specifically to create images. In technical terms, such uses can be referred to as (artistic) “bitmapping”, given that a computer ultimately stores all images (2D and 3D vector) as bitmaps, which are code sequences specifying the integers assigned to light intensity measurements in a pixel grid. The medium of bitmapping is thus distinguished by a kind of digital technology, but the kind used to produce just those items belonging to the traditional medium of images.

Once the notion of digital media is revealed to be no more confused or mysterious than the familiar notion of literary media, its irreducible role in appreciation becomes apparent. To take just one example, proper appreciation of films in the digital age depends on recognizing that digital filmmaking tools do not just make traditional filmmaking easier; they also present new creative possibilities and challenges. Given the maturity and mass-art status of the cinematic art form, it is easy to take for granted the medium of moving imagery; we may think we know exactly what its limits are, and we may even think we have seen everything that can be done with it. The digital medium is different, however, and digital cinema is in both the medium of moving imagery and the digital medium.

At first glance, it might seem odd to speak of “challenges” or “limits” in relation to digital processes, which allow for instantaneous and endless modification with increasingly user-friendly applications and devices. The high degree of automation in the process of capturing an image with a digital video camera, along with increasingly high image resolution and memory capacity, could make it seem as though digital images are too easily achieved to be interesting. Then there are the practically endless possibilities for “correcting” the captured image with applications like Photoshop. When we take a photo or video on our smartphones, an AI program automatically optimizes focus, contrast, and detail. Digital sound recording is likewise increasingly automated, increasingly fine-grained, and reliant on ever-larger computer memory capacities. Modifying and mastering recorded sound with digital editing software allows for an unlimited testing of options. In digital film editing, sequence changes are instantaneous and entirely reversible—quite unlike when the editing process involved the physical cutting and splicing of a film (image or sound) strip. Digital tools thus allow filmmakers to focus (almost) purely on the look and sound of the movie without having to worry about the technical difficulty or finality of implementation.

Rather than dismissing all digital works as too easily achieved to be interesting, medium-based appreciation requires that we consider the digital on its own terms. This means we must allow for the possibility that certain kinds of increased technical efficiency can bring new creative risks. For example, even though committing to certain editorial decisions does not entail irreversible alterations to a filmstrip, arriving at those decisions involves sifting through and eliminating far more options, a process which can easily become overwhelming and therefore more error-ridden. When we properly appreciate a digital film, part of what we need to appreciate is the significance of any scene or sequence looking just the way it does when it could have, so easily, looked many other ways. Similarly, when we properly appreciate an interactive digital installation or videogame, we are, in part, appreciating certain representations, functions, and capabilities of the input-output system, made possible by digital media. This is undeniably a form of medium-based appreciation and the medium to which we appeal is digital. It is only when we think of a digital film as in a digital medium that we can appreciate it as a particular response to the creative problem, introduced by coding, of finalizing selections from a vast array of equally and instantly available options.

The case of digital cinema is perhaps a useful starting point for work in the philosophy of digital art. Digital cinema is a multi-media art form, after all, involving 2D and 3D moving images as well as sound. It also has the potential for robust interactivity, whereby audiences select story events or otherwise modify a film screening in prescribed ways (Gaut 2010: 224–43). Many of the digital tools developed by the film and video game industries are now available more widely to artists interested in making other forms of digital art, including net art, digital sound installations, and virtual reality art (Grau 2003; Chalmers 2017; Tavinor 2019). In terms of how the use of these tools affects proper appreciation, there are important continuities between the filmmaking context and the wider digital art world. In addition, the philosophy of film is a well-established subfield in aesthetics, one that engages with both film theory and cognitive science in order to explicate the nature of film as a mass art (Thomson-Jones 2014, Other Internet Resources). For many of the standard topics in the philosophy of film, interesting and important questions arise when we extend the discussion from analog to digital cinema. There is a question, for example, about the kinds and significance of realism that can be achieved with traditional celluloid film as compared with manipulated digital imagery (Gaut 2010: 60–97). The philosophy of film can provide some of the initial terms of analysis for artworks in a broad range of digital media. At the same time, it is important to approach each of the digital arts on their own terms under the assumption that the digital is an artistically significant category.

4. Interactivity

More and more, contemporary artists are taking advantage of the dynamic and responsive capabilities of digital media to make art interactive. The experimental online literature, conceptual browser art, and videogames mentioned above all require user interactivity, but they do so to varying degrees. Therefore, if interactivity plays a distinctive role in the digital arts, there are good reasons to analyse the nature of these works more deeply.

Not all digital works are interactive, and not all interactive works are digital. However, since computers are inherently interactive, much of the early philosophical literature on interactivity arose from the emergence of computer art (also see Smuts 2009; Lopes 2001; Saltz 1997). The distinctive character of interactive digital art is best considered in tandem with the work’s ontology.

Before analyzing interactivity any further, first, consider the following description of the digital installation “Universe of Water Particles on a Rock where People Gather” (henceforth, “Rock where People Gather”) by TeamLab:

“Rock where People Gather” is reproduced in a virtual three-dimensional space. Water is simulated to fall onto the rock, and the flow of the water draws the shape of the waterfall. The water is represented by a continuum of numerous water particles and the interaction between the particles is then calculated. Lines are drawn in relation to the behavior of the water particles. The lines are then “flattened” using what TeamLab considers to be “ultrasubjective” space. When a person stands on the rock or touches the waterfall, they too become like a rock that changes the flow of water. The flow of water continues to transform in real time due to the interaction of people. Previous visual states can never be replicated, and will never reoccur (TeamLab 2018).

“Rock where People Gather” illustrates that interactive works permit us to appreciate both the work and the properties brought about by the interactions. To define these characteristics of interactive art, Dominic Lopes states, “A work of art is interactive just in case it prescribes that the actions of its users help generate its display” (Lopes 2010:36, original emphasis). The display is anything that is instanced in a work, or the perceptual properties that come about via interactivity. Users help generate these features making interactive works distinctive. However, at this point, one could imagine reading the chapters of, let us say, a digitized copy of The Brothers Karamazov in random order, thereby changing what properties get instanced from the original work. Does this example qualify as interactive art in the Lopesian sense? Although some stories, such as choose-your-own-adventure books, allow readers to shuffle the narrative arc, most traditional stories do not; if the randomized Karamazov example is interactive, it is only so in the weakest sense of the term because users are not prescribed to change the properties as described. Another way to think about these differences returns us to a work’s structure. Readers who decide to roguishly randomize a story merely change how they access a work’s structure simply because the medium does not prohibit it, whereas readers of choose-your-own-adventure books and other interactive works can change the work’s structure in a prescribed manner (Lopes 2001:68).

That users are responsible for generating certain features of an interactive work means that their displays, unlike those of non-interactive works, can occur in a couple of different ways (Lopes 2010: 37-38). The less standard of the two occurs when the displays of an interactive work are generated in a succession of states over a period of time, but where none of the displays can be revisited. One such example is Telegarden , a temporary work of computer art that users accessed from a networked computer. The work was comprised of a table with an attached mechanical arm that dispensed water and food for the plants via the users’ inputs. As one may imagine, the garden took shape in a variety of ways over the span of its exhibition, but each state of the garden, or its succession of display states, could not be repeated. Although not common, videogames can also exhibit this kind of display variability. Consider the experimental game, Cube . For a limited time, players could explore a large cube and its nested smaller cubes while racing to be the first to reach the center. As with Telegarden , players generated different properties of the game displays by interacting with it, but once a new display was generated, the previous ones were gone.

The more standard of the two variable structures for interactive works are displays that can be repeated, such as most net art and videogames that can be accessed many times, from multiple locations, to generate different displays. Although repeatable works are more common (at least with videogames if not museum-housed works), more needs to be said about the changing properties of these works and how the repeatability trait distinguishes interactive digital works from non-interactive digital images.

If the display properties of digital images can vary from instance to instance due to even slightly different settings on different devices (e.g., brightness, resolution, intensity), then the aesthetic and structural differences of many works could be misconstrued as interactive. Since the example just given is not an interactive work of art, it is worth looking more closely at what is going on with non-interactive repeatable works versus interactive repeatable ones. Consider traditional performance works such as works of theater and music. Each performance might differ to a slight degree due to different performers and other varying conditions of the environment, and these may certainly affect our aesthetic experiences each time. However, those changes, in principle, do not reshape the structure of the performed play or song. In the same way, the subtle changes made with a digitally displayed image do not change the structure of the image-based work. Compare those slight artistic or aesthetic variations to the display variability of interactive works. For example, many videogames permit players to choose which route to take, quests to accept, characters to kill or save, personalities to adopt, and the like. These sorts of in-game player choices are not merely generating features such as varying the brightness or resolution, nor are they as straightforwardly interactive as a game of chess that ends in a win or a loss. Rather, the degree of variability permits multiple endings. Again for comparison, while traditional tragedies will always end on a tragic note, some highly variable works can end either on a tragic note or on one that is not at all tragic.

To articulate the above more clearly, Dominic Preston says,

for any given artwork, each possible set of structural and aesthetic properties F is a display type of that artwork. (Preston 2014: 271, original emphasis).

From the above, we can briefly infer the following scenarios: works like digital photographs are ontologically similar to plays and music because they consist of one prescribed display type. While the display type might permit multiple displays (duplicates, performances, instances, etc.) consisting of subtle variances between the particular tokens, there is still a single correct display that should be maintained or achieved. Works that instance a succession of states such as Telegarden and Cube consist of multiple potential display types where only one display type is instantiated at any given time. Now, compare such works with those like videogames that present us with the strong degrees of display variability mentioned earlier. Because some repeatable works can end drastically differently from one “playthrough” to the next, there is no singular, correct display. Instead, these sorts of works consist of both multiple display types and multiple displays, which means users will generate one of the possible display types (and their displays) each time they repeat the work.

According to Katherine Thomson-Jones (2021), there is a problem with Preston’s claim that interactive artworks — at least ones that are digital — have multiple display types, as well as multiple displays. This is because the digital is inherently replicable and replicability requires a transmissible display — a single display type that can have multiple, interchangeable instances. This seems to introduce a problem of incompatibility: How can we have an image whose instances still count as instances of the same image-based work when those instances, in virtue of users’ actions, look very different from one another? There are various ways one might overcome this problem — for example, by distinguishing between the display of an image and the display of an artwork that incorporates the image in question. Preston’s distinction between display and display type can continue to play a role here. While the concept of interactivity with high variability is mostly applicable to videogames, one can imagine interactive digital installations, net art, and table-top roleplaying games to which it also applies.

It is important to reiterate that the strong interactivity just described is not restricted to the digital. Whilst interactivity is a standard feature of many contemporary digital works, and the responsiveness of such works is remarkable, non-digital appreciative categories can also exploit a similar degree of display variability. For example, literature, theater, and tabletop role-playing games can be strongly interactive in ways similar to many digital artworks. What is unique about all such works are the ways in which things like immersion, agency, identity, and fiction, to list a few features, are impacted by interactivity, due to the user’s role in the work (for more, see Robinson & Tavinor 2018; Patridge 2017; Meskin & Robson 2016).

A noteworthy point about the concepts presented above is that they are all conceived with the norms of traditional art and art practices in mind, meaning, works of art that are predominantly object-based. However, as described, interactive digital works can be said to have a “behavior” based on prescribed interactions. While traditional artworks typically emphasize a work that is complete prior to audience engagement, interactive works emphasize the moment-to-moment unfolding of the works by way of audience engagement. One recent approach to the ontology of art suggests that interactive works (among other kinds) are better conceived on a process-based, rather than on an object-based, model (Nguyen 2020). A key difference between the two models is that the former focuses on the user’s actions and experiences or “inward aesthetics”, while the latter focuses on the “outward” aesthetic features of the self-contained object (Nguyen 2020: 25). While a process-based account prioritizes the internalizability of a user’s actions, it does not completely give up the idea of an artistic object. Rather, it renders the object’s significance secondary insofar as any appreciation for a work’s objecthood is in service to the activities it permits (Nguyen 2020: 20).

Just as the case of digital art can enrich our understanding of interactivity, so it can enrich our understanding of artistic creativity and creative attribution. This is in part because the issues of interactivity and creativity are closely related. In making a work that is strongly interactive, an artist cedes to the user a certain amount of control in determining the look, sound, or structure of the work’s display(s). This raises a question about the user’s opportunities to be creative — to engage in creative interactions with a work — and how these opportunities can be supported or constrained by the artist’s design. In order to answer this question, we need to unpack the notion of creative control. In addition, we need to consider how creativity can be attributed to multiple agents involved at different stages of a work’s production. As it turns out, the case of AI art is particularly useful when considering the conditions of creativity and creative collaboration.

There is already a robust debate about the nature of creativity as it occurs in many different areas of human activity (see, e.g., Gaut & Kieran, eds., 2018; Paul & Kaufman, eds., 2014) There is a case to be made, however, that this debate can be enriched by drawing on work in the philosophy of AI. In everyday life, sophisticated AI systems are now being used for all kinds of purposes: We rely on these systems when we use Internet search engines, play strategic videogames, accept purchasing recommendations from online retailers, and check for viruses on our computers. In addition, we can use AI to generate new images and text, some of which can be incorporated into works of art. One can type a series of prompts into a chatbot like ChatGPT in order to generate a new screenplay in a certain genre. Similarly, one can assemble a set of images on which to train an “artbot” like MidJourney in order to generate paintings, drawings, or what look like photographs. It is common to attribute creative agency to the person who purposively initiates, and then monitors, the program used to generate the images or text that make up a work of AI art. A question remains, however, as to whether this should be the sole creative attribution when AI is involved. Some artists describe the AI system with which they work as a creative “partner”, and not just a sophisticated artistic tool. This is particularly the case with recent artworks that rely on “Deep Learning” (DL) to generate images or text in a remarkably independent way. Both chatbots and artbots rely on deep learning to categorize huge datasets (images or text) according to previously undetected patterns. To do this, a DL system must give itself new instructions — ones that depart from the initial instructions of the program — for the kind of image or text segment, and for the particular image or text segment, to be produced.

Among AI artists, the ones who write their own DL programs are the most likely to describe AI as a creative partner rather than just a creative tool. This seems particularly fitting when there is a synchronous collaboration between the artist and their DL system. For example, the works of Sougwen Chun are the result of Chun drawing alongside and in response to the actions of a mechanical drawing arm that is controlled by Chun’s custom-made program, D.O.U.G. (short for “Drawing Operations Unity Generation X ”). Chun and D.O.U.G. take turns adding to a single drawing. During this process, it is harder than one might think to say what makes the difference such that Chun is a creative agent, engaged in a creative drawing process, and D.O.U.G. is not. This is the case even though it is Chun alone who comes up with the idea for the work and initiates the drawing program.

As Margaret Boden has argued (2014), when philosophers deny the possibility of a computer ever being creative, they tend to underestimate the capacities of computers to produce items that are genuinely new as well as valuable in some domain. Still, many creativity theorists argue that novelty and value are insufficient for creativity; a third condition is needed, one concerning the manner of production. In order for something novel and valuable to count as creative, it must have been produced in a way that is agent-driven. The agency condition can be filled out, or broken down, in a variety of ways. At its core, however, the notion of agency is generally assumed to be opposed to the notion of having been ‘programmed’, or simply instructed, to perform certain tasks in a “mechanical”, or blind, fashion. Thus, the most basic objection to the possibility of creative computers is that they can only do what they are programmed to do, according to the intentions of a human agent. This objection needs clarification, however, since no set of rules completely determines the actions involved in following that set of rules. Since the advent of DL and other kinds of generative algorithm, it is possible for a computer program to change itself, to detect independent phenomena other than the ones that it was designed to detect, and to mimic spontaneity through randomness. Is this an instance of creative rule-following? If it is, we might expand our notion of creative collaboration. Perhaps creative collaboration is found, not just between human beings, but also between human beings and machines. In so far as the machines in question support strong interactivity, a work of digital art might involve three-part collaborations between human artists, human users, and AI.

Digital media can also be used for the purpose of connecting physical locations to virtual ones by using locative media. The phrase “locative art” is traced to Karlis Kalnins who applied the phrase to experimental projects coming from Locative Media Lab, a collective of international researchers and practitioners working with locative media. (Galloway & Ward 2005 ). Since the term “locative” is connected to location, site-specificity plays a significant role in our appreciation of locative works. Unlike with non-digital cases, however, site-specificity in locative art is both physical and virtual. The general concept is this: locative-specific media connect physical spaces with virtual ones, the perceptual features of which are generated from a digital device by human interactions. We often experience locative media in our ordinary and daily lives through navigation systems like Google Maps or Waze, and also creatively through augmented reality apps like Pokemon Go, AR graffiti (an app that allows users to visualize what their graffiti will look like in situ ), architectural simulators, and more. These are location-based works, often called locative projects or locative art, that use locative media. While locative technology has been around for decades, it is a relatively new subcategory to be recognized within the arts. Even so, locative art is more broadly acknowledged in the fields of technology, games, and sociology.

To understand the many ways locative media might be used for artistic practice, consider the following three examples.

• What Was There (2010–2023) was a website that allows users to type in the coordinates of their current location (via their digital device) to see how certain geographical locations look throughout history. By typing a specific address into the application, the user experiences the physical location in front of them and represented images and facts of that location as they appeared in the past, from the same vantage point. Data on the site relies on regular citizens to upload historic images and connect them to specific locations, making them accessible to others; the greater the participation the richer the experience when navigating a particular place. Not only can guests gain a deeper connection to their specific localized places, but such applications motivate people to explore and appreciate locations outside of their normal destinations.
• The Transborder Immigrant Tool has been used in a number of artworks and exhibitions.

The Transborder Immigrant Tool, devised by Electronic Disturbance Theater 2.0/b.a.n.g. lab, was a mobile phone application intended to guide individuals who were making their way to the United States through the deserts of the U.S./Mexico borderlands to water. The application delivered poetry to its users in an effort to assist in their emotional and mental well-being while offering information about survival during the dangerous journey. The creators of The Transborder Immigrant Tool considered it to be a performance intervention that included the app itself, its API, public reactions, and an ensuing government investigation. By the time TBT was ready for distribution in 2011, the border crossing had become more dangerous, presenting the risk that carrying a TBT phone might put users in danger. While the project was never distributed to its intended users, it still succeeded in confounding systems of political control, creating a call to action that resonated internationally, and using poetry to “dissolve” the US-Mexico border (Electronic Disturbance Theater 2.0 et al 2007).

• KlingKlangKlong is played with smartphones that translate the players’ locations into sound. This is achieved in a straightforward manner: By moving through the physical space, the players simultaneously move on the surface of a virtual sequencer. One dimension (usually the latitude of the player) corresponds to pitch, the other dimension (longitude) is mapped to the time-position on the sequencer. The interface allows a manual switch to other audio parameters, although this feature is experimental. Each device receives the location and state changes of the currently active players almost instantly. The devices are connected by a central server, which also sets the boundaries of the playing field and manages the virtual players.

KlingKlangKlong serves as an experimental arrangement to explore the idea of playful (social) systems, a construction where human and virtual subsystems play with each other. In addition to the human participants, it therefore deploys a number of virtual players (»Virtuals«). Humans and Virtuals meet each other in mixed reality, a concept that was realized in early locative games. The commonly created soundtrack is the primary medium of communication between the players. Musical structures may temporarily arise through synchronized movements or be destroyed by any player’s intervention (Straeubig & Quack 2016).

In each of these examples, users synchronize geographical locations with virtual ones, granting mobility for users while also further challenging the paradigm of museum-driven works and art appreciation. The interactivity described in section 4 factors significantly into each of these projects, but also of importance are the social, economic, environmental, and political implications that factor in the design, development, and use of such works. Most of these projects are intended to bring about positive change, one way or another, by using locative media and by borrowing certain gaming mechanics for the purpose of engagement and interactivity. In fact, much of what is written about locative art is from fields within digital media studies on the media’s ‘playable’ qualities (avoiding the idea that artists are trying to merely gamify public spaces).

On the playable nature of locative art, Miguel Sicart says,

the data produced and used in smart cities should not necessarily be presented as a utility for citizens. It should be presented as a prop for play, as games but also as the source for toys and playgrounds. Data-rich cities can become playable cities, and, by becoming such, they can become more human, more inclusive spaces (Ackermann: 2016, 27).

Once again, the process-oriented and performative nature of locative works is central to appreciating the spaces they create. In connection with the playability of locative media, locative projects are also modifiable and typically intended to be hackable by the public in the communities where they are displayed. While the terms “hacker” and “hacking” may carry negative connotations, in its original conception, the practice of hacking was meant to improve upon existing computer programs, acknowledging the achievements of both the original creator and subsequent revisionists (Levy:1984). It is in this vein that locative projects are usually intended to change and improve over time given how users “play” with the data and inputs. In other words, local communities can play with these projects and even modify them, making locative works as relevant and reflective of the community as possible.

The above suggests that locative projects often have broader goals than mere entertainment. Although often intended to motivate play and playful attitudes, which, as indicated in the examples above can occur to varying degrees, the goal-oriented nature of locative works often makes the kind of play involved a “serious” kind. Serious play occurs when the enjoyment and pleasure that come from play do not just comprise entertainment but also serve some meritorious, real-world goal. A work can be said to support serious play even when users are not aware of the social or political goals of the work.

The customizable nature of locative media lends itself well to the altruistic aims of many locative artists. However, inclusivity, climate protection, social change, and any other desired effect of locative projects requires a given community to have sufficient funds for, access to, and user-knowledge about digital locative technology. This concern can also be understood, not just in terms of community requirements, but also in terms of technological requirements, for successful locative art. One way of putting it is as follows:

For any technological device to be “aware” of its context—physical or otherwise—it has to be able to locate, classify, collect, store, and use “relevant” information, as well as to identify and discard or ignore “irrelevant” information (Galloway & Ward 2005).

There are numerous political and economic factors affecting access to local and global spaces. With locative art, these factors are concerning for both ethical and artistic reasons.

• Ackermann, Judith, Andreas Rauscher, Andreas and Daniel Stein, 2016, Introduction: Playin’ the city. Artistic and Scientific Approaches to Playful Urban Arts . Navigationen-Zeitschrift für Medien-und Kulturwissenschaften, 16(1), pp.7-23.
• Atencia-Linares, Paloma and Marc Artiga, 2022, “Deepfakes, shallow graves: On the epistemic robustness of photography and videos in the era of deepfakes”, Synthese , 200, article 518.
• Binkley, Timothy, 1998, “Digital Media”, in Encyclopedia of Aesthetics , M. Kelly (ed.), New York: Oxford University Press.
• Blachowicz, James, 1997, “Analog Representation Beyond Mental Imagery”, Journal of Philosophy , 94(2): 55–84.
• Boden, Margaret A., 2010, Creativity and Art: Three Roads to Surprise , Oxford: Oxford University.
• Chalmers, David, 2017, “The Virtual and the Real”, Disputatio , 9(46): 309–352.
• Currie, Gregory, 1996, “Film, Reality, and Illusion”, in Post Theory: Reconstructing Film Studies , D. Bordwell and N. Carroll (eds.), Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, pp. 325–44.
• Davies, David, 2004, Art as Performance , Malden, MA: Blackwell.
• D’Cruz, Jason and P.D. Magnus, 2014, “Are Digital Images Allographic?” Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism , 72(4): 417–27.
• Doane, Mary Ann, 2007, “Indexicality: Trace and Sign”, differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies , 18(1): 1–6.
• Dretske, Fred I., 1981, “Sensation and Perception”, in Knowledge and the Flow of Information , Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Electronic Disturbance Theater 2.0/b.a.n.g. lab, 2007-ongoing, “Transborder Immigrant Tool”, in Net Art Anthology [available online ].
• Galili, Doron, 2011, “The Post Medium Condition, circa 1895”, presented at the Second International Colloquium of the Permanent Seminar on the History of Film Theory: The Impact of Technological Innovations on the Theory and Historiography of Cinema, Montréal.
• Galloway, Anne and Matt Ward, 2005, “Locative Media as Socialising and Spatialising Practices: Learning from Archaeology”, Leonardo Electronic Almanac .
• Gaut, Berys, 2009, “Digital Cinema”, in The Routledge Companion to Philosophy and Film , P. Livingston and C. Plantinga (eds.), New York: Routledge, pp. 75–85.
• –––, 2010, A Philosophy of Cinematic Art , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Gaut, Berys and Matthew Kieran (eds.), 2018, Creativity and Philosophy , New York: Oxford University Press.
• Goodman, Nelson, 1976, Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols , Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Co.
• Goodman, Nelson and Catherine Z. Elgin, 1988, Reconceptions in Philosophy , London: Routledge.
• Grau, Oliver, 2003, Virtual Art: From Illusion to Immersion , Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Haugeland, John, 1981, “Analog and Analog”, Philosophical Topics , 12: 213–26.
• Heim, Michael, 1998, “Virtual Reality”, in Encyclopedia of Aesthetics , M. Kelly (ed.), New York: Oxford University Press.
• Irvin, Sherri, 2005, “The Artist’s Sanction in Contemporary Art”, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism , 63(4): 315–26.
• –––, 2008, “The Ontological Diversity of Visual Artworks”, in New Waves in Aesthetics , K. Stock, and K. Thomson-Jones (eds.), Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 1–19.
• Kania, Andrew, 2018, “Why Gamers Are Not Performers”, The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism , 76(2): 187–99.
• Katz, Matthew, 2008, “Analog and Digital Representation”, Minds and Machines , 18: 403–08.
• Kittler, Friedrich, 1999, Gramophone, Film, Typewriter , Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
• Levy, Stephen, 1984, Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution (Volume 14). Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday.
• Lewis, David, 1971, “Analog and Digital”, Noûs , 5(3): 321–27.
• Lopes, Dominic McIver, 2001, “The Ontology of Interactive Art”, Journal of Aesthetic Education , 35(4): 65–81.
• –––, 2010, A Philosophy of Computer Art , London/New York: Routledge.
• Maley, Corey J., 2011, “Analog and Digital, Continuous and Discrete”, Philosophical Studies , 155(1): 117–31.
• Millière, Raphaël, 2022, “Deep learning and Synthetic Media”, Synthese 200, article 231.
• Moruzzi, Caterina, 2022, “Creative Agents: Rethinking Agency and Creativity in Human and Artificial Systems”, Journal of Aesthetics and Phenomenology, 9(2): 245–68.
• Moser, Shelby, 2018, “Videogame Ontology, Constitutive Rules, and Algorithms”, in The Aesthetics of Videogames , London: Routledge, pp. 42–59.
• Mitchell, William J., 1994, The Reconfigured Eye: Visual Truth in the Post-Photographic Era , Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Nguyen, C. Thi, 2020, “The Arts of Action. ” Philosopher’s Imprint , 20(14): 1–27.
• Patridge, Stephanie, 2017, “Video Games and Imaginative Identification”, The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism , 75(2): 181–84.
• Paul, Christiane, 2008, Digital Art , 2nd edition, London/New York: Thames & Hudson.
• Paul, Elliot Samuel and Scott Barry Kaufman (eds.), 2017, The Philosophy of Creativity: New Essays , New York: Oxford University Press.
• Piccinini, Gualtiero, 2008, “Computers”, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly , 89: 32–73.
• Ponech, Trevor, 2006, “External Realism about Cinematic Motion”, British Journal of Aesthetics , 46(4): 349–68.
• Preston, Dominic, 2014, “Some Ontology of Interactive Art”, Philosophy and Technology , 27(2): 267–78.
• Roberts, T. and Joel Krueger, 2022, “Musical agency and collaboration in the digital age” in Collaborative Embodied Performance: Ecologies of Skill , K. Bicknell and J. Sutton (eds.), New York: Bloomsbury: 125–40.
• Robson, Jonathan and Aaron Meskin, 2016, “Video Games as Self-Involving Interactive Fictions”, The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism , 74(2): 165–77.
• Robson, Jonathan and Grant Tavinor (eds.), 2018, The Aesthetics of Videogames , London: Routledge.
• Rodowick, D.N., 2007, The Virtual Life of Film , Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Rush, Michael, 2005, New Media in Art , London: Thames & Hudson.
• Saltz, David S., 1997, “The Art of Interaction: Interactivity, Performativity, and Computers”, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism , 55(2): 117–27.
• San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (SF MoMA), n.d., “Craig Kalpakjian: Corridor (1995)—About the Artwork” [Museum Exhibit Label]. San Francisco, CA [ available online ].
• Smuts, Aaron, 2009, “What is Interactivity?”, Journal of Aesthetic Education , 43(4): 53–73.
• Straeubig, Michael and Sebastian Quack, 2016, “Playful Locative Ensembles in the Urban Soundscapes ”, Navigationen-Zeitschrift für Medien-und Kulturwissenschaften 16(1): 85–100.
• Tavinor, Grant, 2009, The Art of Videogames , Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
• –––, 2019, “On Virtual Transparency”. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism , 77(2): 145–156.
• TeamLab, 2008, “Universe of Water Particles on a Rock where People Gather” [website description], Tokyo: Japan. [ available online ].
• Thomasson, Amie L., 2010, “Ontological Innovation in Art”, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism , 68(2): 119–30.
• Thomson-Jones, Katherine, 2013, “Sensing Motion in Movies”, in Psychocinematics: Exploring Cognition at the Movies , A.P. Shimamura (ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 115–32.
• Thomson-Jones, Katherine, 2021, Image in the Making: Digital Innovation and the Visual Arts , New York: Oxford University Press.
• Wilken, Rowan, 2019, Cultural Economies of Locative Media . Oxford University Press.
• Zeimbekis, John, 2012, “Digital Pictures, Sampling, and Vagueness: The Ontology of Digital Pictures”, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism , 70(1): 43–53.

How to cite this entry . Preview the PDF version of this entry at the Friends of the SEP Society . Look up topics and thinkers related to this entry at the Internet Philosophy Ontology Project (InPhO). Enhanced bibliography for this entry at PhilPapers , with links to its database.

• Thomson-Jones, Katherine, 2014, Philosophy of Film , in Oxford Bibliographies Online .
• Enlighten, “WhatWasThere” (2010–2023) [ WhatWasThere available online ] [ archive link ]
• Gottfried Michael Koenig Project
• Austin Museum of Digital Art
• Digital Art Museum
• Rhizome’s Artbase , the largest on-line archive of new media art
• Digital Art & Design – Victoria and Albert Museum , information on the history and practice of computer art and design.
• The Whitney Museum’s Art Port , providing access to the museum’s collection of digital art and an exhibition space for commissioned works of net art.

computing: modern history of | creativity | film, philosophy of | Goodman, Nelson: aesthetics | ontology of art, history of

Copyright © 2023 by Katherine Thomson-Jones < Katherine . Thomson-Jones @ oberlin . edu > Shelby Moser < shelby . moser @ gmail . com >

• Accessibility

Support SEP

Mirror sites.

View this site from another server:

• Info about mirror sites

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy is copyright © 2024 by The Metaphysics Research Lab , Department of Philosophy, Stanford University

Library of Congress Catalog Data: ISSN 1095-5054

Home — Essay Samples — Information Science and Technology — Computer Graphics — Research in Digital Art

Research in Digital Art

• Categories: Computer Graphics Digital Era Impact of Technology

About this sample

Words: 1465 |

Published: Oct 23, 2018

Words: 1465 | Pages: 3 | 8 min read

Table of contents

Art and technology, the beginning, the beginnings of the internet, computer generated imagery, interactive digital installations, exploring the internet, concept and styles, digital sculpture, art on screen.

Cite this Essay

Let us write you an essay from scratch

• 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
• Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

Get high-quality help

Prof. Kifaru

Verified writer

• Expert in: Information Science and Technology

+ 120 experts online

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

Related Essays

2 pages / 701 words

3 pages / 1474 words

1 pages / 666 words

4 pages / 1850 words

Remember! This is just a sample.

You can get your custom paper by one of our expert writers.

121 writers online

Still can’t find what you need?

Browse our vast selection of original essay samples, each expertly formatted and styled

Related Essays on Computer Graphics

A digital image is composed of a finite number of elements called pixels, each of which has a particular location and value (intensity). Typically, pixels are organized in an ordered 2-dimentional array (Matrix). The size of an [...]

Bitmap images are made up of pixels positioned in vertical and horizontal rows to form a grid. They are same sized tiny squares of individual colour and brightness and they come together and make up what you see on your screen. [...]

A DNS server is a computer server that contains a database of public IP addresses and their associated hostnames, and in most cases, serves to resolve, or translate, those common names to IP addresses as requested. DNS servers [...]

In the present day growing dependency on the cyber-technology, a new threat begins to emerge on the digital frontier. Our everyday life is being integrated digitally through computers and mobile devices. Our nation’s [...]

Once we have all the information we need, we will prepare a customized digital marketing strategy to drive your business to the next level and help you get the results you want, in the fastest possible way. Why digital [...]

This paper deals with the applications of Moore’s Law in the technological advancement in the area of semiconductor Industry for 50 years. Semiconductor plays a vital role in the foundation of communication systems and is the [...]

Related Topics

By clicking “Send”, you agree to our Terms of service and Privacy statement . We will occasionally send you account related emails.

Where do you want us to send this sample?

By clicking “Continue”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy.

Be careful. This essay is not unique

This essay was donated by a student and is likely to have been used and submitted before

Download this Sample

Free samples may contain mistakes and not unique parts

Sorry, we could not paraphrase this essay. Our professional writers can rewrite it and get you a unique paper.

Please check your inbox.

We can write you a custom essay that will follow your exact instructions and meet the deadlines. Let's fix your grades together!

Get Your Personalized Essay in 3 Hours or Less!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base
• How to write an argumentative essay | Examples & tips

How to Write an Argumentative Essay | Examples & Tips

Published on July 24, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

An argumentative essay expresses an extended argument for a particular thesis statement . The author takes a clearly defined stance on their subject and builds up an evidence-based case for it.

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes

Table of contents

When do you write an argumentative essay, approaches to argumentative essays, introducing your argument, the body: developing your argument, concluding your argument, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about argumentative essays.

You might be assigned an argumentative essay as a writing exercise in high school or in a composition class. The prompt will often ask you to argue for one of two positions, and may include terms like “argue” or “argument.” It will frequently take the form of a question.

The prompt may also be more open-ended in terms of the possible arguments you could make.

Argumentative writing at college level

At university, the vast majority of essays or papers you write will involve some form of argumentation. For example, both rhetorical analysis and literary analysis essays involve making arguments about texts.

In this context, you won’t necessarily be told to write an argumentative essay—but making an evidence-based argument is an essential goal of most academic writing, and this should be your default approach unless you’re told otherwise.

Examples of argumentative essay prompts

At a university level, all the prompts below imply an argumentative essay as the appropriate response.

Your research should lead you to develop a specific position on the topic. The essay then argues for that position and aims to convince the reader by presenting your evidence, evaluation and analysis.

• Don’t just list all the effects you can think of.
• Do develop a focused argument about the overall effect and why it matters, backed up by evidence from sources.
• Don’t just provide a selection of data on the measures’ effectiveness.
• Do build up your own argument about which kinds of measures have been most or least effective, and why.
• Don’t just analyze a random selection of doppelgänger characters.
• Do form an argument about specific texts, comparing and contrasting how they express their thematic concerns through doppelgänger characters.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

An argumentative essay should be objective in its approach; your arguments should rely on logic and evidence, not on exaggeration or appeals to emotion.

There are many possible approaches to argumentative essays, but there are two common models that can help you start outlining your arguments: The Toulmin model and the Rogerian model.

Toulmin arguments

The Toulmin model consists of four steps, which may be repeated as many times as necessary for the argument:

• Make a claim
• Provide the grounds (evidence) for the claim
• Explain the warrant (how the grounds support the claim)
• Discuss possible rebuttals to the claim, identifying the limits of the argument and showing that you have considered alternative perspectives

The Toulmin model is a common approach in academic essays. You don’t have to use these specific terms (grounds, warrants, rebuttals), but establishing a clear connection between your claims and the evidence supporting them is crucial in an argumentative essay.

Say you’re making an argument about the effectiveness of workplace anti-discrimination measures. You might:

• Claim that unconscious bias training does not have the desired results, and resources would be better spent on other approaches
• Cite data to support your claim
• Explain how the data indicates that the method is ineffective
• Anticipate objections to your claim based on other data, indicating whether these objections are valid, and if not, why not.

Rogerian arguments

The Rogerian model also consists of four steps you might repeat throughout your essay:

• Discuss what the opposing position gets right and why people might hold this position
• Highlight the problems with this position
• Present your own position , showing how it addresses these problems
• Suggest a possible compromise —what elements of your position would proponents of the opposing position benefit from adopting?

This model builds up a clear picture of both sides of an argument and seeks a compromise. It is particularly useful when people tend to disagree strongly on the issue discussed, allowing you to approach opposing arguments in good faith.

Say you want to argue that the internet has had a positive impact on education. You might:

• Acknowledge that students rely too much on websites like Wikipedia
• Argue that teachers view Wikipedia as more unreliable than it really is
• Suggest that Wikipedia’s system of citations can actually teach students about referencing
• Suggest critical engagement with Wikipedia as a possible assignment for teachers who are skeptical of its usefulness.

You don’t necessarily have to pick one of these models—you may even use elements of both in different parts of your essay—but it’s worth considering them if you struggle to structure your arguments.

Regardless of which approach you take, your essay should always be structured using an introduction , a body , and a conclusion .

Like other academic essays, an argumentative essay begins with an introduction . The introduction serves to capture the reader’s interest, provide background information, present your thesis statement , and (in longer essays) to summarize the structure of the body.

Hover over different parts of the example below to see how a typical introduction works.

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise, and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators—as a uniquely comprehensive and accessible information source; a means of exposure to and engagement with different perspectives; and a highly flexible learning environment.

The body of an argumentative essay is where you develop your arguments in detail. Here you’ll present evidence, analysis, and reasoning to convince the reader that your thesis statement is true.

In the standard five-paragraph format for short essays, the body takes up three of your five paragraphs. In longer essays, it will be more paragraphs, and might be divided into sections with headings.

Each paragraph covers its own topic, introduced with a topic sentence . Each of these topics must contribute to your overall argument; don’t include irrelevant information.

This example paragraph takes a Rogerian approach: It first acknowledges the merits of the opposing position and then highlights problems with that position.

Hover over different parts of the example to see how a body paragraph is constructed.

A common frustration for teachers is students’ use of Wikipedia as a source in their writing. Its prevalence among students is not exaggerated; a survey found that the vast majority of the students surveyed used Wikipedia (Head & Eisenberg, 2010). An article in The Guardian stresses a common objection to its use: “a reliance on Wikipedia can discourage students from engaging with genuine academic writing” (Coomer, 2013). Teachers are clearly not mistaken in viewing Wikipedia usage as ubiquitous among their students; but the claim that it discourages engagement with academic sources requires further investigation. This point is treated as self-evident by many teachers, but Wikipedia itself explicitly encourages students to look into other sources. Its articles often provide references to academic publications and include warning notes where citations are missing; the site’s own guidelines for research make clear that it should be used as a starting point, emphasizing that users should always “read the references and check whether they really do support what the article says” (“Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia,” 2020). Indeed, for many students, Wikipedia is their first encounter with the concepts of citation and referencing. The use of Wikipedia therefore has a positive side that merits deeper consideration than it often receives.

Here's why students love Scribbr's proofreading services

Discover proofreading & editing

An argumentative essay ends with a conclusion that summarizes and reflects on the arguments made in the body.

No new arguments or evidence appear here, but in longer essays you may discuss the strengths and weaknesses of your argument and suggest topics for future research. In all conclusions, you should stress the relevance and importance of your argument.

Hover over the following example to see the typical elements of a conclusion.

The internet has had a major positive impact on the world of education; occasional pitfalls aside, its value is evident in numerous applications. The future of teaching lies in the possibilities the internet opens up for communication, research, and interactivity. As the popularity of distance learning shows, students value the flexibility and accessibility offered by digital education, and educators should fully embrace these advantages. The internet’s dangers, real and imaginary, have been documented exhaustively by skeptics, but the internet is here to stay; it is time to focus seriously on its potential for good.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

College essays

• Choosing Essay Topic
• Write a College Essay
• Write a Diversity Essay
• College Essay Format & Structure
• Comparing and Contrasting in an Essay

 (AI) Tools

• Grammar Checker
• Paraphrasing Tool
• Text Summarizer
• AI Detector
• Plagiarism Checker
• Citation Generator

An argumentative essay tends to be a longer essay involving independent research, and aims to make an original argument about a topic. Its thesis statement makes a contentious claim that must be supported in an objective, evidence-based way.

An expository essay also aims to be objective, but it doesn’t have to make an original argument. Rather, it aims to explain something (e.g., a process or idea) in a clear, concise way. Expository essays are often shorter assignments and rely less on research.

At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).

Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .

The majority of the essays written at university are some sort of argumentative essay . Unless otherwise specified, you can assume that the goal of any essay you’re asked to write is argumentative: To convince the reader of your position using evidence and reasoning.

In composition classes you might be given assignments that specifically test your ability to write an argumentative essay. Look out for prompts including instructions like “argue,” “assess,” or “discuss” to see if this is the goal.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2023, July 23). How to Write an Argumentative Essay | Examples & Tips. Scribbr. Retrieved June 18, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/academic-essay/argumentative-essay/

Is this article helpful?

Jack Caulfield

Other students also liked, how to write a thesis statement | 4 steps & examples, how to write topic sentences | 4 steps, examples & purpose, how to write an expository essay, "i thought ai proofreading was useless but..".

I've been using Scribbr for years now and I know it's a service that won't disappoint. It does a good job spotting mistakes”

Essay Writing Guide

Last updated on: Nov 20, 2023

Art Topics - 200+ Brilliant Ideas to Begin With

By: Nova A.

14 min read

Reviewed By: Rylee W.

Published on: Apr 23, 2019

Are you a student struggling to find interesting and engaging art topics for your assignments or projects?

The world of art is vast and diverse, offering countless possibilities for exploration and creative expression. However, with so many options available, it can be overwhelming to narrow down your focus. But fret not, as we're here to help you navigate this artistic maze! 

In this blog, we will provide you with a curated list of fascinating art topics that will inspire your creativity and make your assignments stand out. Whether you're interested in exploring different art movements or delving into the cultural and historical significance of art, we've got you covered.

So let’s get started!

On this Page

Art Topics For Students

Here are some engaging art topics to write about that will spark your creativity and deepen your understanding of the artistic world.

• The Impressionist movement and its impact on art.
• Exploring the use of color in abstract art.
• The influence of nature in landscape painting.
• The evolution of portraiture throughout history.
• The symbolism in still life paintings.
• The role of art in social and political activism.
• Exploring different art mediums: painting, sculpture, photography, etc.
• The connection between art and emotions.
• Exploring cultural diversity in art.
• The representation of mythology in art.

Art Topics for Elementary Students

Here's a table with three columns containing art topics suitable for grades 3, 4, and 5:

History Art Topics

We always turn back and refer to history in hopes of avoiding past mistakes and learning new things. The same goes for art history. It provides us with a great number of exciting subjects and topics.

You can write about any art movement, time period, and school, talk about their origin and uniqueness, etc. Following are some amazing topics related to history that can help you draft an exceptional piece of writing. 

• Egyptians used the same art canon for 3000 years. Why?
• The history and techniques used in printmaking.
• What is the philosophy of art? Explain the relationship between art and philosophy.
• African countries and the return of cultural property post World War II.
• Discuss primeval musical instruments.
• Stained glass in Medieval France.
• Venetian carnival masks and their history.
• Human sacrifice in Mayan culture and its depiction in art.
• Components of sculptures in Ancient Greece.
• Draw a comparison between Egyptian and Mesoamerican pyramids.
• The history and origin of Greek theater.
• Biblical motives in the early paintings of Leonardo da Vinci.
• The significance of Christian symbols in Renaissance art.
• The beauty standards of Renaissance women.
• The significance of Raphael’s work.

Art Topics on Artist Bibliography

Artist’s bibliographies make up for interesting essay topics. You never know what you might find going deep into their personal and professional lives, struggles, childhood, and their thinking and ideas.

We have gathered a list of artists from the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, respectively, for you to choose for your upcoming art essay.

18th Century

• William Blake
• Francisco Goya
• J. M. W. Turner
• Samuel Morse
• Jacques-Louis David
• Eugene Delacroix
• Thomas Gainsborough
• Mikhail Lomonosov
• John James Audubon
• Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
• Katsushika Hokusai
• Marie Tussaud
• E. T. A. Hoffmann
• Grandma Moses

19th Century

• Vincent Willem Van Gogh
• Claude Manet
• Gustav Klimt
• Rabindranath Tagore
• Henri-Émile-Benoît Matisse
• Hilaire Germain Edgar
• Auguste Renoir
• Georges Seurat
• Alfred Sisley
• Edgar Degas
• Paul Cezanne
• John Everett Millais
• Frederic Remington
• Thomas Lawrence
• Adolf Menzel

20th Century

• Louise Bourgeois
• Marcel Duchamp
• Frida Kahlo
• Pablo Picasso
• Judy Chicago
• Cindy Sherman
• Andy Warhol
• Henry Spencer Moore
• Georgia Totto O’Keeffe
• Alberto Giacometti
• David Smith
• Vanessa Bell
• Frank Lloyd Wright
• Benny Andrews

Paper Due? Why Suffer? That's our Job!

Art Topics on Different Epochs

The 18th century was an era of lavish architecture and musicians.

• Influence of industrial revolution on art development.
• Late Baroque architecture.
• Rococo interior design.
• Importance of Denis Diderot’s critiques of French art in the 18th century.
• Neoclassicism sculpture: A combination of new and old ideas.
• Comparison between Baroque and Rococo art designs.
• Well-known composers of First Viennese School.
• Marquis de Sade and its contribution to literature.
• Significance of Denis Diderot’s criticism of French Art.
• History of the famous Eugene Delacroix’s paintings.

The work of the artists of the 19th century.

• Vincent van Gogh’s The Starry Night and its colorists.
• Why is the carving of the Veiled Virgin by Giovanni Strazza so special?
• How were the Victorian beauty standards portrayed in their art?
• Monet’s Sunrise: what is so special about the light?
• Dancing paintings by Edgar Degas.
• Changes in the methodology of Impressionism paintings.
• Artists and their depiction of Victorian beauty standards.
• The relation between Goya’s prints and French caricatures.
• The historical significance of Francisco de Goya’s paintings.
• Paul Gauguin's savage art.

20th-century movements

• Art Deco and Art Nouveau: similarities and differences.
• Surrealism in Salvador Dali’s sculptures.
• Basic principles of futurism.
• Frida Kahlo’s paintings and the most commonly used symbol in them.
• Techniques used in Jackson Pollock’s art?
• The Kiss by Gustav Klimt: discuss its styles.
• Jasper Johns Flag: realistic and artificial motifs.
• Futurism and its basic principles.
• Unusual techniques in the art of Jackson Pollock.
• Evolution of mannerism in Pablo Picasso’s paintings.

Art Therapy Topics

Art therapy is a worthwhile resource to explore. Here is an interesting list of art therapy topic ideas that you can consider before starting your writing process.

• Art therapy as an industry.
• Art Therapy a Form of Psychotherapy.
• Art Therapy in Abused Children.
• Art for Communities and Families.
• Art therapy and the creative process.
• Benefits of art therapy.
• Art Therapy in Group Setting.
• Art Therapy in Children and its Effectiveness.
• Quantitative Research in Art Therapy.
• The Power of Art Therapy.
• Techniques Used For Art Therapy.
• Losing Yourself in Art.
• Art Therapy Resources.
• Art Therapy Activities.
• Art therapy and mental health.

Art Debate Topics

Coming up with an interesting Art debate topic can be tricky. There are a number of things that you need to consider when coming up with an interesting topic. Following are some of the unique  debate topics  ideas that you can consider choosing.

• Should abstract be considered a type of art?
• Should art be recognized more academically?
• Should kids draw horror art?
• The purpose of art.
• Is it possible to appreciate art without liking it?
• Art vs. Design.
• How important is art for children's education?
• How art affects and reflects the world.
• Is Art Really Necessary Anymore?
• Was Hitler’s contribution to the arts powerful?
• Modern art and its legitimacy.
• Critiquing styles of Harold Rosenberg and Clement Greenberg.
• The uniqueness of Russian artists.
• How is primitivism real art?

Art Persuasive Speech Topics

When given to come up with a persuasive speech, it is often up to students to choose a topic.

Choosing the right topic is not an easy task. Here you can find some of the interesting art persuasive speech topic ideas to help you start the process.

• Do some pets pose a danger to the community?
• Is battery farming ethical?
• Why should art classes be enforced in all public schools?
• How can one benefit from having a pet?
• What makes a dog a perfect pet?
• How are dolphins important to the environment?
• Reasons why you should not raise wild animals as pets
• What we lose when animals go extinct.
• Reasons why students should be taught to play musical instruments in school.
• Significance of learning different languages.
• Why should graffiti be considered art?
• Why should museums be free for citizens?
• Significance of cultural art education in schools
• Effectiveness of music therapy.
• How cultural interactions can make people successful professionally?

You can also explore articles to find more  persuasive speech topic ideas  on  5StarEssays.com  and write compelling essays.

Art Topics on Different Cultures

• How has pop art influenced American culture?
• Styles and material used in Japanese calligraphy.
• How does the henna pattern differ in the Middle East, India, and Africa?
• Asian tribes: their fashion and textile.
• Maori culture: war dance haka.
• Bollywood and the Hindi film industry.
• Why should inappropriate language in English literature be removed?
• Bollywood dance routines Vs. Americans.
• History and significance of pop music culture.
• Why should art therapy be covered in medical health insurance in different parts of the world?
• Pros and cons of watching Sci-Fi films.
• Comparison between the romantic comedy of Hollywood Vs. Bollywood.
• Features of Irani cinema.
• Significance of sitar in Hindu culture.
• Contemporary dance forms in different cultures.

Art Topics on Ancient Civilization

• Influence of science on Ancient Greek sculptures
• Explain the main reasons for the shift in Roman artistic style in the 4th century.
• The Great Wall of China and its construction.
• Women and Politics in Ancient Rome.
• Female representation in Ancient Art.
• Art and architecture in Ancient Times.
• The story behind the art and architecture of Ancient Rome.
• Describe Ancient Greek literature and theater.
• Contribution of Ancient Civilizations to the modern art
• Depiction of beauty in Ancient Art

Art Research Paper Topics

Despite the fact that art cannot be measured with figures as its value depends on personal impressions, it still can be a subject for research.

It is quite a challenging task to study something full of emotions. But don’t worry, as there is much credible data that you can include in your research paper only if you choose the right topic.

Following are some of the interesting topic ideas that you can choose to start with.

• Gothic and Neo-Gothic.
• Comparison of Nazi and Soviet art.
• Can abstract art be decoded?
• The art of disgusting.
• Bauhaus movement.
• Surrealist movement.
• Photography as art.
• History and origin of Abstract Expressionism.
• Similarities and differences between Claude Monnet and Edouard Manet.
• How cultural identity affects the creation of art?
• Breaking stereotypes through art and literature.
• Limitations of the performance art.
• Mysterious photography and artwork of Vivian Maier.
• Jazz music of the 19th century.
• Hidden meanings in the famous paintings.

Tough Essay Due? Hire Tough Writers!

Modern Art Topics

Modern art consists of interesting movements, styles, and forms. Choose any of the below topics to write on.

• The abstract expressionism movement.
• Pablo Picasso, founder of cubism.
• Impressionism Vs. Cubism.
• Development of American pop art.
• Is contemporary art merely a way for greedy capitalists to make money?
• Political cartoons as an art form.
• Are people scared of modern art?
• History and techniques of printmaking.
• The definition of “Philosophy of Arts.”
• The artistic styles of Art Deco.

Art History Compare and Contrast Essay Topics

Writing a compare and contrast essay isn’t easy, but it allows you to learn a great deal about different time periods, artists and their work and movements, etc.

• Picasso’s blue and rose periods: similarities and differences.
• Baroque and Rococo design styles: compare and analyze.
• Traditional vs. Modern Caribbean music.
• Renaissance vs. Baroque Epoch
• What are the main differences between Picasso and Leonardo Da Vinci?
• Roman Vs. Greek mythology.
• Venus de Milo Vs. The Thinker.
• Similarities and differences between the artworks of the 18th and 19th centuries.
• The artwork of India and Africa.
• Styles and techniques of painting landscapes.

We have added a variety of more compare and contrast essay topics in this blog; go check it out.

Art Argumentative Essay Topics

• The most significant piece of art of the 20th century and why?
• Graffiti art or vandalism?
• Banksy artist or vandal?
• What contributed to making Paris a center of art in the 20th century?
• Why do we need art in our lives?
• Why is TV becoming obsolete?
• Significance of print media in current times.
• Advantages of listening to classical music.
• How painting can help treat mental illnesses.

Need more argumentative essay topics? Check out our blog on  argumentative essay topics .

Cause and Effect Essay Topics on Art

• Did iconoclasm affect Muslim art, and how?
• Causes of the decline of art in Medieval Europe?
• How has the cultural revolution influenced Chinese art?
• The invention of the printing press changed the status of the mass media. Examples must be provided to support your position.
• Raphael’s influence on the art of the Renaissance.
• Influence of Hitler’s work on literature.
• Influence of WWI of art.
• Influence of WWII on literature.
• How the work of William Blake paved the path for modern art?
• How did art influence the people during Hitler’s time?

Art Topics For Presentation

• The evolution of street art: From graffiti to mainstream acceptance.
• The impact of technology on contemporary art.
• Art therapy: The healing power of creativity.
• Women artists throughout history: Challenging gender norms and making their mark.
• Exploring cultural appropriation in art: Appreciation vs. exploitation.
• Art and environmental activism: Raising awareness through creative expression.
• The influence of ancient civilizations on modern art.
• Art as a form of storytelling: Narrative elements in visual arts.
• The role of art museums in preserving and promoting artistic heritage.
• The intersection of art and science: The fusion of creativity and innovation.

Performing Arts Topics

• The influence of dance in different cultures
• The evolution of musical theater
• The impact of technology on contemporary dance performances.
• The portrayal of social issues in modern dance
• The role of improvisation in theater
• Exploring different styles of classical music
• The significance of costume design in theater
• How music influences our feelings and experiences.
• The power of storytelling through puppetry
• The fusion of traditional and contemporary elements in multicultural performances.

Literary Arts Topics

• Exploring the use of symbols to convey deeper meanings.
• The evolution of the novel: From its early forms to modern genres.
• The impact of postcolonial literature
• Exploring magical realism in literature: Blending reality and the fantastical.
• The role of satire in social critique
• Women writers and the feminist literary movement
• The portrayal of mental health in literature
• The influence of mythology in contemporary literature
• Analyzing the portrayal of bleak future societies.
• The power of storytelling in oral traditions

Art and Society Topics

• Art as a vehicle for social change
• How art shapes and revitalizes communities.
• Exploring the intersection of art, capitalism, and consumer culture.
• Analyzing instances of art being censored or restricted due to societal or political factors.
• Examining the benefits and challenges of arts education in schools.
• Exploring the therapeutic benefits of engaging with art.
• How artists express and challenge notions of race, gender, sexuality, and culture.
• Examining the relationship between art, digital media, and technological advancements.
• Exploring how artists respond to and raise awareness about ecological issues.
• Analyzing art projects that promote dialogue, collaboration, and inclusivity within communities.

Art Topics for Personal Development

• Art journaling for self-reflection and growth
• The power of imagination and artistic expression to manifest personal goals and aspirations.
• Exploring art techniques as a form of meditation and cultivating present moment awareness.
• Using art-making as a means to reduce stress, promote relaxation, and enhance well-being.
• Creating visual representations of personal stories and experiences.
• Using different art mediums to process and communicate emotions.
• Utilizing collage or mixed media techniques to visually represent personal goals and aspirations.
• Engaging in artistic activities to explore personal identity, values, and beliefs.
• Using art-making as a means to cope with and overcome challenges and adversity.
• Experimenting with different art styles and mediums to discover one's unique artistic voice.

Miscellaneous Art Essay Topics

• Contemporary artists, you like and why?
• What is your opinion on true art: what is it?
• If you are an artist, how would you explain your kind of art to others?
• Does life and nature influence art?
• What are your views on art therapy?
• Difference between a French and American artist.
• History and evaluation of animation
• Significance of censorship
• Origin of Crop art
• Urban sculptures and their significance
• What is fiber art?
• The emergence of textile arts
• History of graphic novels
• Interactive art of modern times
• Introduction and significance of tramp art?

In conclusion, choosing an art topic is an important and personal decision for an art student. It's a process that involves self-reflection, exploration, and experimentation. By reflecting on your interests, researching, and seeking inspiration, you can discover the subjects that truly ignite your creativity. 

Remember, there's no right or wrong answer when it comes to art topics. The key is to follow your passion and enjoy the journey of artistic exploration. 

So, whichever topic you choose, just add it to our AI essay generator and get an AI essay for reference. 

Or, if you need help writing a high-quality paper, feel free to contact 5StarEssays.com expert essay writers. Simply request ‘ write my essay ’ and get assistance for all types of academic essays and papers. 

Marketing, Law

As a Digital Content Strategist, Nova Allison has eight years of experience in writing both technical and scientific content. With a focus on developing online content plans that engage audiences, Nova strives to write pieces that are not only informative but captivating as well.

Was This Blog Helpful?

Keep reading.

• How to Write an Essay - A Complete Guide with Examples

• The Art of Effective Writing: Thesis Statements Examples and Tips

• Writing a 500 Word Essay - Easy Guide

• What is a Topic Sentence - An Easy Guide with Writing Steps & Examples

• A Complete Essay Outline - Guidelines and Format

• 220 Best Transition Words for Essays

• Essay Format: Detailed Writing Tips & Examples

• How to Write a Conclusion - Examples & Tips

• Essay Topics: 100+ Best Essay Topics for your Guidance

• How to Title an Essay: A Step-by-Step Guide for Effective Titles

• How to Write a Perfect 1000 Word Essay

• How To Make An Essay Longer - Easy Guide For Beginners

• Learn How to Start an Essay Effectively with Easy Guidelines

• Types of Sentences With Examples

• Hook Examples: How to Start Your Essay Effectively

• Essay Writing Tips - Essential Do’s and Don’ts to Craft Better Essays

• How To Write A Thesis Statement - A Step by Step Guide

• Writing Conventions and Tips for College Students

People Also Read

• press release format
• elements of press release
• transition words for essays
• compare and contrast essay outline
• thesis writing

Burdened With Assignments?

Advertisement

• Homework Services: Essay Topics Generator

© 2024 - All rights reserved

Choose Your Test

Sat / act prep online guides and tips, 3 key tips for how to write an argumentative essay.

General Education

If there’s one writing skill you need to have in your toolkit for standardized tests, AP exams, and college-level writing, it’s the ability to make a persuasive argument. Effectively arguing for a position on a topic or issue isn’t just for the debate team— it’s for anyone who wants to ace the essay portion of an exam or make As in college courses.

To give you everything you need to know about how to write an argumentative essay , we’re going to answer the following questions for you:

• What is an argumentative essay?
• How should an argumentative essay be structured?
• How do I write a strong argument?
• What’s an example of a strong argumentative essay?
• What are the top takeaways for writing argumentative papers?

By the end of this article, you’ll be prepped and ready to write a great argumentative essay yourself!

Now, let’s break this down.

What Is an Argumentative Essay?

An argumentative essay is a type of writing that presents the writer’s position or stance on a specific topic and uses evidence to support that position. The goal of an argumentative essay is to convince your reader that your position is logical, ethical, and, ultimately, right . In argumentative essays, writers accomplish this by writing:

• A clear, persuasive thesis statement in the introduction paragraph
• Body paragraphs that use evidence and explanations to support the thesis statement
• A paragraph addressing opposing positions on the topic—when appropriate
• A conclusion that gives the audience something meaningful to think about.

Introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion: these are the main sections of an argumentative essay. Those probably sound familiar. Where does arguing come into all of this, though? It’s not like you’re having a shouting match with your little brother across the dinner table. You’re just writing words down on a page!

...or are you? Even though writing papers can feel like a lonely process, one of the most important things you can do to be successful in argumentative writing is to think about your argument as participating in a larger conversation . For one thing, you’re going to be responding to the ideas of others as you write your argument. And when you’re done writing, someone—a teacher, a professor, or exam scorer—is going to be reading and evaluating your argument.

If you want to make a strong argument on any topic, you have to get informed about what’s already been said on that topic . That includes researching the different views and positions, figuring out what evidence has been produced, and learning the history of the topic. That means—you guessed it!—argumentative essays almost always require you to incorporate outside sources into your writing.  

What Makes Argumentative Essays Unique?

Argumentative essays are different from other types of essays for one main reason: in an argumentative essay, you decide what the argument will be . Some types of essays, like summaries or syntheses, don’t want you to show your stance on the topic—they want you to remain unbiased and neutral.

In argumentative essays, you’re presenting your point of view as the writer and, sometimes, choosing the topic you’ll be arguing about. You just want to make sure that that point of view comes across as informed, well-reasoned, and persuasive.

Another thing about argumentative essays: they’re often longer than other types of essays. Why, you ask? Because it takes time to develop an effective argument. If your argument is going to be persuasive to readers, you have to address multiple points that support your argument, acknowledge counterpoints, and provide enough evidence and explanations to convince your reader that your points are valid.

Our 3 Best Tips for Picking a Great Argumentative Topic

The first step to writing an argumentative essay deciding what to write about! Choosing a topic for your argumentative essay might seem daunting, though. It can feel like you could make an argument about anything under the sun. For example, you could write an argumentative essay about how cats are way cooler than dogs, right?

It’s not quite that simple . Here are some strategies for choosing a topic that serves as a solid foundation for a strong argument.

Choose a Topic That Can Be Supported With Evidence

First, you want to make sure the topic you choose allows you to make a claim that can be supported by evidence that’s considered credible and appropriate for the subject matter ...and, unfortunately, your personal opinions or that Buzzfeed quiz you took last week don’t quite make the cut.

Some topics—like whether cats or dogs are cooler—can generate heated arguments, but at the end of the day, any argument you make on that topic is just going to be a matter of opinion. You have to pick a topic that allows you to take a position that can be supported by actual, researched evidence.

(Quick note: you could write an argumentative paper over the general idea that dogs are better than cats—or visa versa!—if you’re a) more specific and b) choose an idea that has some scientific research behind it. For example, a strong argumentative topic could be proving that dogs make better assistance animals than cats do.)

You also don’t want to make an argument about a topic that’s already a proven fact, like that drinking water is good for you. While some people might dislike the taste of water, there is an overwhelming body of evidence that proves—beyond the shadow of a doubt—that drinking water is a key part of good health.  

To avoid choosing a topic that’s either unprovable or already proven, try brainstorming some issues that have recently been discussed in the news, that you’ve seen people debating on social media, or that affect your local community. If you explore those outlets for potential topics, you’ll likely stumble upon something that piques your audience’s interest as well.  

Choose a Topic That You Find Interesting

Topics that have local, national, or global relevance often also resonate with us on a personal level. Consider choosing a topic that holds a connection between something you know or care about and something that is relevant to the rest of society. These don’t have to be super serious issues, but they should be topics that are timely and significant.

For example, if you are a huge football fan, a great argumentative topic for you might be arguing whether football leagues need to do more to prevent concussions . Is this as “important” an issue as climate change? No, but it’s still a timely topic that affects many people. And not only is this a great argumentative topic: you also get to write about one of your passions! Ultimately, if you’re working with a topic you enjoy, you’ll have more to say—and probably write a better essay .

Choose a Topic That Doesn’t Get You Too Heated

Another word of caution on choosing a topic for an argumentative paper: while it can be effective to choose a topic that matters to you personally, you also want to make sure you’re choosing a topic that you can keep your cool over. You’ve got to be able to stay unemotional, interpret the evidence persuasively, and, when appropriate, discuss opposing points of view without getting too salty.

In some situations, choosing a topic for your argumentative paper won’t be an issue at all: the test or exam will choose it for you . In that case, you’ve got to do the best you can with what you’re given.

In the next sections, we’re going to break down how to write any argumentative essay —regardless of whether you get to choose your own topic or have one assigned to you! Our expert tips and tricks will make sure that you’re knocking your paper out of the park.

The Thesis: The Argumentative Essay’s Backbone

You’ve chosen a topic or, more likely, read the exam question telling you to defend, challenge, or qualify a claim on an assigned topic. What do you do now?

You establish your position on the topic by writing a killer thesis statement ! The thesis statement, sometimes just called “the thesis,” is the backbone of your argument, the north star that keeps you oriented as you develop your main points, the—well, you get the idea.

In more concrete terms, a thesis statement conveys your point of view on your topic, usually in one sentence toward the end of your introduction paragraph . It’s very important that you state your point of view in your thesis statement in an argumentative way—in other words, it should state a point of view that is debatable.

And since your thesis statement is going to present your argument on the topic, it’s the thing that you’ll spend the rest of your argumentative paper defending. That’s where persuasion comes in. Your thesis statement tells your reader what your argument is, then the rest of your essay shows and explains why your argument is logical.

Why does an argumentative essay need a thesis, though? Well, the thesis statement—the sentence with your main claim—is actually the entire point of an argumentative essay. If you don’t clearly state an arguable claim at the beginning of your paper, then it’s not an argumentative essay. No thesis statement = no argumentative essay. Got it?

Other types of essays that you’re familiar with might simply use a thesis statement to forecast what the rest of the essay is going to discuss or to communicate what the topic is. That’s not the case here. If your thesis statement doesn’t make a claim or establish your position, you’ll need to go back to the drawing board.

Example Thesis Statements

Here are a couple of examples of thesis statements that aren’t argumentative and thesis statements that are argumentative

The sky is blue.

The thesis statement above conveys a fact, not a claim, so it’s not argumentative.

To keep the sky blue, governments must pass clean air legislation and regulate emissions.

The second example states a position on a topic. What’s the topic in that second sentence? The best way to keep the sky blue. And what position is being conveyed? That the best way to keep the sky blue is by passing clean air legislation and regulating emissions.

Some people would probably respond to that thesis statement with gusto: “No! Governments should not pass clean air legislation and regulate emissions! That infringes on my right to pollute the earth!” And there you have it: a thesis statement that presents a clear, debatable position on a topic.

Here’s one more set of thesis statement examples, just to throw in a little variety:

Spirituality and otherworldliness characterize A$AP Rocky’s portrayals of urban life and the American Dream in his rap songs and music videos.

The statement above is another example that isn’t argumentative, but you could write a really interesting analytical essay with that thesis statement. Long live A$AP! Now here’s another one that is argumentative:

To give students an understanding of the role of the American Dream in contemporary life, teachers should incorporate pop culture, like the music of A$AP Rocky, into their lessons and curriculum.

The argument in this one? Teachers should incorporate more relevant pop culture texts into their curriculum.

This thesis statement also gives a specific reason for making the argument above: To give students an understanding of the role of the American Dream in contemporary life. If you can let your reader know why you’re making your argument in your thesis statement, it will help them understand your argument better.

An actual image of you killing your argumentative essay prompts after reading this article! 

Breaking Down the Sections of An Argumentative Essay

Now that you know how to pick a topic for an argumentative essay and how to make a strong claim on your topic in a thesis statement, you’re ready to think about writing the other sections of an argumentative essay. These are the parts that will flesh out your argument and support the claim you made in your thesis statement.  

Like other types of essays, argumentative essays typically have three main sections: the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. Within those sections, there are some key elements that a reader—and especially an exam scorer or professor—is always going to expect you to include.

Let’s look at a quick outline of those three sections with their essential pieces here:

• Introduction paragraph with a thesis statement (which we just talked about)
• Support Point #1 with evidence
• Explain/interpret the evidence with your own, original commentary (AKA, the fun part!)
• Support Point #2 with evidence
• Explain/interpret the evidence with your own, original commentary
• Support Point #3 with evidence
• New paragraph addressing opposing viewpoints (more on this later!)
• Concluding paragraph

 Now, there are some key concepts in those sections that you’ve got to understand if you’re going to master how to write an argumentative essay. To make the most of the body section, you have to know how to support your claim (your thesis statement), what evidence and explanations are and when you should use them, and how and when to address opposing viewpoints. To finish strong, you’ve got to have a strategy for writing a stellar conclusion.

This probably feels like a big deal! The body and conclusion make up most of the essay, right? Let’s get down to it, then.

How to Write a Strong Argument

Once you have your topic and thesis, you’re ready for the hard part: actually writing your argument. If you make strategic choices—like the ones we’re about to talk about—writing a strong argumentative essay won’t feel so difficult.

There are three main areas where you want to focus your energy as you develop a strategy for how to write an argumentative essay: supporting your claim—your thesis statement—in your essay, addressing other viewpoints on your topic, and writing a solid conclusion. If you put thought and effort into these three things, you’re much more likely to write an argumentative essay that’s engaging, persuasive, and memorable...aka A+ material.

Focus Area 1: Supporting Your Claim With Evidence and Explanations

So you’ve chosen your topic, decided what your position will be, and written a thesis statement. But like we see in comment threads across the Internet, if you make a claim and don’t back it up with evidence, what do people say? “Where’s your proof?” “Show me the facts!” “Do you have any evidence to support that claim?”

Of course you’ve done your research like we talked about. Supporting your claim in your thesis statement is where that research comes in handy.

You can’t just use your research to state the facts, though. Remember your reader? They’re going to expect you to do some of the dirty work of interpreting the evidence for them. That’s why it’s important to know the difference between evidence and explanations, and how and when to use both in your argumentative essay.

What Evidence Is and When You Should Use It

Evidence can be material from any authoritative and credible outside source that supports your position on your topic. In some cases, evidence can come in the form of photos, video footage, or audio recordings. In other cases, you might be pulling reasons, facts, or statistics from news media articles, public policy, or scholarly books or journals.

There are some clues you can look for that indicate whether or not a source is credible , such as whether:

• The website where you found the source ends in .edu, .gov, or .org
• The source was published by a university press
• The source was published in a peer-reviewed journal
• The authors did extensive research to support the claims they make in the source

This is just a short list of some of the clues that a source is likely a credible one, but just because a source was published by a prestigious press or the authors all have PhDs doesn’t necessarily mean it is the best piece of evidence for you to use to support your argument.

In addition to evaluating the source’s credibility, you’ve got to consider what types of evidence might come across as most persuasive in the context of the argument you’re making and who your readers are. In other words, stepping back and getting a bird’s eye view of the entire context of your argumentative paper is key to choosing evidence that will strengthen your argument.

On some exams, like the AP exams , you may be given pretty strict parameters for what evidence to use and how to use it. You might be given six short readings that all address the same topic, have 15 minutes to read them, then be required to pull material from a minimum of three of the short readings to support your claim in an argumentative essay.

When the sources are handed to you like that, be sure to take notes that will help you pick out evidence as you read. Highlight, underline, put checkmarks in the margins of your exam . . . do whatever you need to do to begin identifying the material that you find most helpful or relevant. Those highlights and check marks might just turn into your quotes, paraphrases, or summaries of evidence in your completed exam essay.

What Explanations Are and When You Should Use Them

Now you know that taking a strategic mindset toward evidence and explanations is critical to grasping how to write an argumentative essay. Unfortunately, evidence doesn’t speak for itself. While it may be obvious to you, the researcher and writer, how the pieces of evidence you’ve included are relevant to your audience, it might not be as obvious to your reader.

That’s where explanations—or analysis, or interpretations—come in. You never want to just stick some quotes from an article into your paragraph and call it a day. You do want to interpret the evidence you’ve included to show your reader how that evidence supports your claim.

Now, that doesn’t mean you’re going to be saying, “This piece of evidence supports my argument because...”. Instead, you want to comment on the evidence in a way that helps your reader see how it supports the position you stated in your thesis. We’ll talk more about how to do this when we show you an example of a strong body paragraph from an argumentative essay here in a bit.

Understanding how to incorporate evidence and explanations to your advantage is really important. Here’s why: when you’re writing an argumentative essay, particularly on standardized tests or the AP exam, the exam scorers can’t penalize you for the position you take. Instead, their evaluation is going to focus on the way you incorporated evidence and explained it in your essay.

Focus Area 2: How—and When—to Address Other Viewpoints

Why would we be making arguments at all if there weren’t multiple views out there on a given topic? As you do research and consider the background surrounding your topic, you’ll probably come across arguments that stand in direct opposition to your position.

Oftentimes, teachers will ask you to “address the opposition” in your argumentative essay. What does that mean, though, to “ address the opposition ?”

Opposing viewpoints function kind of like an elephant in the room. Your audience knows they’re there. In fact, your audience might even buy into an opposing viewpoint and be waiting for you to show them why your viewpoint is better. If you don’t, it means that you’ll have a hard time convincing your audience to buy your argument.

Addressing the opposition is a balancing act: you don’t want to undermine your own argument, but you don’t want to dismiss the validity of opposing viewpoints out-of-hand or ignore them altogether, which can also undermine your argument.

This isn’t the only acceptable approach, but it’s common practice to wait to address the opposition until close to the end of an argumentative essay. But why?

Well, waiting to present an opposing viewpoint until after you’ve thoroughly supported your own argument is strategic. You aren’t going to go into great detail discussing the opposing viewpoint: you’re going to explain what that viewpoint is fairly, but you’re also going to point out what’s wrong with it.

It can also be effective to read the opposition through the lens of your own argument and the evidence you’ve used to support it. If the evidence you’ve already included supports your argument, it probably doesn’t support the opposing viewpoint. Without being too obvious, it might be worth pointing this out when you address the opposition.

Focus Area #3: Writing the Conclusion

It’s common to conclude an argumentative essay by reiterating the thesis statement in some way, either by reminding the reader what the overarching argument was in the first place or by reviewing the main points and evidence that you covered.

You don’t just want to restate your thesis statement and review your main points and call it a day, though. So much has happened since you stated your thesis in the introduction! And why waste a whole paragraph—the very last thing your audience is going to read—on just repeating yourself?

Here’s an approach to the conclusion that can give your audience a fresh perspective on your argument: reinterpret your thesis statement for them in light of all the evidence and explanations you’ve provided. Think about how your readers might read your thesis statement in a new light now that they’ve heard your whole argument out.

That’s what you want to leave your audience with as you conclude your argumentative paper: a brief explanation of why all that arguing mattered in the first place. If you can give your audience something to continue pondering after they’ve read your argument, that’s even better.

One thing you want to avoid in your conclusion, though: presenting new supporting points or new evidence. That can just be confusing for your reader. Stick to telling your reader why the argument you’ve already made matters, and your argument will stick with your reader.

A Strong Argumentative Essay: Examples

For some aspiring argumentative essay writers, showing is better than telling. To show rather than tell you what makes a strong argumentative essay, we’ve provided three examples of possible body paragraphs for an argumentative essay below.

Think of these example paragraphs as taking on the form of the “Argumentative Point #1 → Evidence —> Explanation —> Repeat” process we talked through earlier. It’s always nice to be able to compare examples, so we’ve included three paragraphs from an argumentative paper ranging from poor (or needs a lot of improvement, if you’re feeling generous), to better, to best.

All of the example paragraphs are for an essay with this thesis statement: 

Thesis Statement: In order to most effectively protect user data and combat the spread of disinformation, the U.S. government should implement more stringent regulations of Facebook and other social media outlets.

As you read the examples, think about what makes them different, and what makes the “best” paragraph more effective than the “better” and “poor” paragraphs. Here we go:

A Poor Argument

Example Body Paragraph: Data mining has affected a lot of people in recent years. Facebook has 2.23 billion users from around the world, and though it would take a huge amount of time and effort to make sure a company as big as Facebook was complying with privacy regulations in countries across the globe, adopting a common framework for privacy regulation in more countries would be the first step. In fact, Mark Zuckerberg himself supports adopting a global framework for privacy and data protection, which would protect more users than before.

What’s Wrong With This Example?

First, let’s look at the thesis statement. Ask yourself: does this make a claim that some people might agree with, but others might disagree with?

The answer is yes. Some people probably think that Facebook should be regulated, while others might believe that’s too much government intervention. Also, there are definitely good, reliable sources out there that will help this writer prove their argument. So this paper is off to a strong start!  

Unfortunately, this writer doesn’t do a great job proving their thesis in their body paragraph. First, the topic sentence—aka the first sentence of the paragraph—doesn’t make a point that directly supports the position stated in the thesis. We’re trying to argue that government regulation will help protect user data and combat the spread of misinformation, remember? The topic sentence should make a point that gets right at that, instead of throwing out a random fact about data mining.

Second, because the topic sentence isn’t focused on making a clear point, the rest of the paragraph doesn’t have much relevant information, and it fails to provide credible evidence that supports the claim made in the thesis statement. For example, it would be a great idea to include exactly what Mark Zuckerberg said ! So while there’s definitely some relevant information in this paragraph, it needs to be presented with more evidence.

A Better Argument  

This paragraph is a bit better than the first one, but it still needs some work. The topic sentence is a bit too long, and it doesn’t make a point that clearly supports the position laid out in the thesis statement. The reader already knows that mining user data is a big issue, so the topic sentence would be a great place to make a point about why more stringent government regulations would most effectively protect user data.

There’s also a problem with how the evidence is incorporated in this example. While there is some relevant, persuasive evidence included in this paragraph, there’s no explanation of why or how it is relevant . Remember, you can’t assume that your evidence speaks for itself: you have to interpret its relevance for your reader. That means including at least a sentence that tells your reader why the evidence you’ve chosen proves your argument.

A Best—But Not Perfect!—Argument  

Example Body Paragraph: Though Facebook claims to be implementing company policies that will protect user data and stop the spread of misinformation , its attempts have been unsuccessful compared to those made by the federal government. When PricewaterhouseCoopers conducted a Federal Trade Commission-mandated assessment of Facebook’s partnerships with Microsoft and the makers of the Blackberry handset in 2013, the team found limited evidence that Facebook had monitored or even checked that its partners had complied with Facebook’s existing data use policies. In fact, Facebook’s own auditors confirmed the PricewaterhouseCoopers findings, despite the fact that Facebook claimed that the company was making greater attempts to safeguard users’ personal information. In contrast, bills written by Congress have been more successful in changing Facebook’s practices than Facebook’s own company policies have. According to The Washington Post, The Honest Ads Act of 2017 “created public demand for transparency and changed how social media companies disclose online political advertising.” These policy efforts, though thus far unsuccessful in passing legislation, have nevertheless pushed social media companies to change some of their practices by sparking public outrage and negative media attention.

Why This Example Is The Best

This paragraph isn’t perfect, but it is the most effective at doing some of the things that you want to do when you write an argumentative essay.

First, the topic sentences get to the point . . . and it’s a point that supports and explains the claim made in the thesis statement! It gives a clear reason why our claim in favor of more stringent government regulations is a good claim : because Facebook has failed to self-regulate its practices.

This paragraph also provides strong evidence and specific examples that support the point made in the topic sentence. The evidence presented shows specific instances in which Facebook has failed to self-regulate, and other examples where the federal government has successfully influenced regulation of Facebook’s practices for the better.

Perhaps most importantly, though, this writer explains why the evidence is important. The bold sentence in the example is where the writer links the evidence back to their opinion. In this case, they explain that the pressure from Federal Trade Commission and Congress—and the threat of regulation—have helped change Facebook for the better.

Why point out that this isn’t a perfect paragraph, though? Because you won’t be writing perfect paragraphs when you’re taking timed exams either. But get this: you don’t have to write perfect paragraphs to make a good score on AP exams or even on an essay you write for class. Like in this example paragraph, you just have to effectively develop your position by appropriately and convincingly relying on evidence from good sources.

Top 3 Takeaways For Writing Argumentative Essays

This is all great information, right? If (when) you have to write an argumentative essay, you’ll be ready. But when in doubt, remember these three things about how to write an argumentative essay, and you’ll emerge victorious:

Takeaway #1: Read Closely and Carefully

This tip applies to every aspect of writing an argumentative essay. From making sure you’re addressing your prompt, to really digging into your sources, to proofreading your final paper...you’ll need to actively and pay attention! This is especially true if you’re writing on the clock, like during an AP exam.

Takeaway #2: Make Your Argument the Focus of the Essay

Define your position clearly in your thesis statement and stick to that position! The thesis is the backbone of your paper, and every paragraph should help prove your thesis in one way or another. But sometimes you get to the end of your essay and realize that you’ve gotten off topic, or that your thesis doesn’t quite fit. Don’t worry—if that happens, you can always rewrite your thesis to fit your paper!

Takeaway #3: Use Sources to Develop Your Argument—and Explain Them

Nothing is as powerful as good, strong evidence. First, make sure you’re finding credible sources that support your argument. Then you can paraphrase, briefly summarize, or quote from your sources as you incorporate them into your paragraphs. But remember the most important part: you have to explain why you’ve chosen that evidence and why it proves your thesis.

What's Next?

Once you’re comfortable with how to write an argumentative essay, it’s time to learn some more advanced tips and tricks for putting together a killer argument.

Keep in mind that argumentative essays are just one type of essay you might encounter. That’s why we’ve put together more specific guides on how to tackle IB essays , SAT essays , and ACT essays .

But what about admissions essays? We’ve got you covered. Not only do we have comprehensive guides to the Coalition App and Common App essays, we also have tons of individual college application guides, too . You can search through all of our college-specific posts by clicking here.

Ashley Sufflé Robinson has a Ph.D. in 19th Century English Literature. As a content writer for PrepScholar, Ashley is passionate about giving college-bound students the in-depth information they need to get into the school of their dreams.

Ask a Question Below

Have any questions about this article or other topics? Ask below and we'll reply!

Improve With Our Famous Guides

• For All Students

The 5 Strategies You Must Be Using to Improve 160+ SAT Points

How to Get a Perfect 1600, by a Perfect Scorer

Series: How to Get 800 on Each SAT Section:

Score 800 on SAT Math

Score 800 on SAT Reading

Score 800 on SAT Writing

Series: How to Get to 600 on Each SAT Section:

Score 600 on SAT Math

Score 600 on SAT Reading

Score 600 on SAT Writing

Free Complete Official SAT Practice Tests

What SAT Target Score Should You Be Aiming For?

15 Strategies to Improve Your SAT Essay

The 5 Strategies You Must Be Using to Improve 4+ ACT Points

How to Get a Perfect 36 ACT, by a Perfect Scorer

Series: How to Get 36 on Each ACT Section:

36 on ACT English

36 on ACT Math

36 on ACT Reading

36 on ACT Science

Series: How to Get to 24 on Each ACT Section:

24 on ACT English

24 on ACT Math

24 on ACT Reading

24 on ACT Science

What ACT target score should you be aiming for?

ACT Vocabulary You Must Know

ACT Writing: 15 Tips to Raise Your Essay Score

How to Get Into Harvard and the Ivy League

How to Get a Perfect 4.0 GPA

How to Write an Amazing College Essay

What Exactly Are Colleges Looking For?

Is the ACT easier than the SAT? A Comprehensive Guide

Should you retake your SAT or ACT?

When should you take the SAT or ACT?

Get Informed

Get the latest articles and test prep tips!

Looking for Graduate School Test Prep?

Check out our top-rated graduate blogs here:

GRE Online Prep Blog

GMAT Online Prep Blog

TOEFL Online Prep Blog

Holly R. "I am absolutely overjoyed and cannot thank you enough for helping me!”

100+ Art Essay Topics for Your Excellent Paper

Art is a gold mine for essay ideas. The multiplicity of art styles, genres, and movements gives a great opportunity to choose a topic of your interest. If you are bored with standard assignments, you will like our post because writers of our essay service we have collected unusual and catchy essay topics about art of different epochs and countries. Writing essays about artists, artworks, or art history is not only exciting – it may also broaden your erudite horizons. Don’t hesitate to steep yourself in the world of beauty and aesthetics!

Best art essay topics in December 2023

• How modern technology has altered the landscape of art.
• The value of public artworks in contemporary cityscapes.
• The colossal cultural influence of Christmas art.
• How social justice movements relate to artistic expression.
• How works of art and literature depict mental illness.
• What digital art has become and where it stands in the modern art scene.
• Edited AI-generated images as a form of art.
• How art can help People from different cultures understand and empathize with one another.
• The morality of cinematic and photographic depictions of art.
• Images of the LGBTQ+ community in media and entertainment.
• The impact of the development of AI tools on modern artists.
• What museums can do to keep history alive.

Our great collection of art essay ideas

When we want to avoid the mistakes of the past, we turn back to our history. The same happens when we are looking for art essay ideas. Art history is a treasury filled with various and exciting topics for your papers. You can choose any epoch, any art movement, any school and present their peculiarities, representatives, and origins. Check out the list of art essay ideas from our art essay writing service .

• Printmaking: history and techniques.
• The return of cultural property to the African countries after WWII.
• The formal elements of the Egyptian portraits of royalties and aristocrats: the use of space; colors and color blocks; lines and texture; gestures and emotions.
• How can you explain the “philosophy of art”?
• When and how did photography become art?
• Jewelry of Ancient Egypt: the role of jewelry in the afterlife; the most used materials and metals; protective amulets; types of ancient Egyptian jewelry.
• Edo in Japan: Kabuki theater and woodblock prints.
• Why did Egyptians never change their art canon for 3,000 years?
• The first Impressionists: Édouard Manet and Claude Monet.
• Primeval musical instruments.
• The references to Renaissance art history in “The Da Vinci Code” by Dan Brown.
• How do the painters of different epochs depict the Apocalypse?
• The history of the Venetian carnival masks.
• Sacrifice in Mayan art.
• Stained glass in Medieval France.

Artist biography essay ideas

Artists’ biographies always have something to surprise with: skeletons in the closet, unusual career stories, difficult childhood, etc. Studying the details of their lives doesn’t only serve for fun. When we analyze a certain piece of art, it is necessary to look into the author’s ideas, motives, and feelings. The understanding of all these aspects simplifies the analysis of the art piece and allows us to produce a more detailed and exhaustive paper. Below, we provide you with a list of talented artists of three centuries. Writing about their colorful lives will be a great art essay idea and paper writing help .

18th century:

Etienne Falconet Francesco Rastrelli Hubert Robert Jacques-Louis David Jean-Antoine Houdon Johann Sebastian Bach Louis François Roubiliac Ludwig van Beethoven Thomas Gainsborough Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

19th century:

Auguste Rodin Claude Monet Edgar Degas Eduard Manet Eugene Delacroix Franz Schubert Giuseppe Verdi Gustav Klimt Paul Cézanne Paul Gauguin Vincent Willem van Gogh

20th century

Alberto Giacometti Andy Warhol Constantin Brâncuși Edvard Munch Frida Kahlo Georges Braque Georgia Totto O’Keeffe Henry Spencer Moore Jackson Pollock Judy Chicago Pablo Picasso Salvador Dali

Art around the world essay topics

Our planet is an amazing place. We share our home with thousands of different nations, ethnic groups, and tribes. Their cultures are unique and fascinating. You only have to look closer to find some great art essay ideas.

• Japanese calligraphy: styles and materials.
• K-pop: music style and subculture.
• Chinese circus art as a synthesis of ancient traditions and innovations.
• Bollywood and Hindi-language film industry.
• Fashion and textiles of the African tribes.
• The war dance haka in the Maori culture: history and types.
• Wayang: traditional shadow puppet theater in Indonesia and Malaysia.
• The peculiarities of mehndi in India, Africa, and the Middle East.
• Water puppetry: a unique Vietnamese tradition.
• The totem masks in the art of Papua New Guinea.

Art piece analysis topic ideas

Art appreciation essay topics require some specific knowledge. If you choose one of these topics, make sure that you provide all kinds of research about the artist, his or her personal style and technique, the art school, the background, etc. A detailed and well-considered art piece analysis is always highly appreciated.

• “The Last Supper” by Leonardo da Vinci: style, composition, symbols.
• What makes “Darkness Falls” by Patrick Hughes a unique artwork?
• Analyze the purpose of the painting “Marriage Contract” by Giovanni Arnolfini.
• Describe the structure of “Heart of Gold” by Christopher David White.
• The biblical symbols in “The Garden of Delights” by Hieronymus Bosch.
• The “demons” of Mikhail Vrubel: “The Demon Seated,” “The Demon Flying,” “The Demon Downcast.”
• Symbolism and interpretations of the engraving “Melencolia I” by Albrecht Dürer.
• The depiction of the female body in the painting “The Three Graces” by Peter Paul Rubens.
• The role of decorating elements for the perception of the painting “The Kiss” by Gustav Klimt.
• Magic realism in the painting “La note bleu” by Eric Roux-Fontaine.

Modern art topic ideas

New is always better. Of course, this aphorism doesn’t cover all aspects of life. Anyway, modern art has something to surprise you with. The multiplicity of styles, movements, and forms is breathtaking, and you can choose any to write an excellent essay about it!

• The artistic styles of modern art: British Pop art Conceptual art Constructivism Art Deco
• Globalization in contemporary art.
• Activism as a platform for modern art.
• Use of technologies and social media in modern art.
• Rise of art fairs in the 2000s.
• Multiplicity of forms in modern art.
• Political cartoons as a modern art form.
• The modern mural as an instrument of political protest.
• The technologies that define art of the 21th century
• Large-scale artworks within contemporary art.

Art essay topics by type of essay

Below, we have placed the art essay ideas for argumentative, cause and effect, and compare and contrast essays. These three types are frequently assigned for homework because they allow the evaluation of critical thinking, argumentative skills, and logical reasoning of students.

Argumentative essay topics about art

If you like good discussions as well as art, you are welcome to train your argumentation skills. Prove your viewpoint using logical reasoning and enhanced arguments. Write a well-structured essay, and the high grades will come soon!

• How can we define “good art”?
• Why art disciplines are necessary for school programs.
• The most important painting of the 20th century.
• What makes Baroque sculptures recognizable?
• Why does “Birth of Venus” by Botticelli best exemplify the ideals of the Renaissance?
• Why does modern society put the arts in the role of social service?
• Computer games as a kind of art.
• Why has “Guernica” by Pablo Picasso had a global impact?
• In what ways does art influence our everyday life?
• Why is the “Mozart effect” not real?
• Is the theater an art form significant enough to change culture?
• Why the feminist movement is important for contemporary art.
• Is graffiti a kind of art?
• Banksy: vandal or artist?
• Is art a good option for investments?
• Should photojournalism be censored?
• Can we consider advertisement to be a kind of modern art?
• What made Paris a center of art in the 20th century?
• Why is art education undervalued around the world?
• How does art education help to think different?
• The appearance of Gala and her influence on Dali’s art .

Cause and effect essay topics about art

These art essay topics are based on two key pillars: reasons and consequences. A cause-and-effect link connects everything in this world. There is no exception for art.

• Choose one American painting created under strong influence of Japanese art and explain what exact effect it has had.
• How did the Second Great Migration influence the art of the Harlem Renaissance?
• What was the impact of Hudson River School of Art on the American painting?
• How did iconoclasm affect Muslim art?
• Has the Cultural Revolution influenced Chinese art?
• How did Japanese art influence Van Gogh’s paintings?
• The impact of Raphael on the art of the Renaissance (check the list of Renaissance topics for your papers).
• How did mythology influence the sculptures of Ancient Greece?
• How did the Japanese mentality and lifestyle affect the art of the rock garden?
• What caused the decline of art in Medieval Europe?

Compare and contrast essay topics about art

These art essay topics are not that easy. You have to work twice as hard to compare two things because you have to be well-informed about each of them. However, the game is worth the candle.

• Compare the main ideas of Middle Age art and Renaissance art.
• Compare Greek and Egyptian canons of proportions.
• The peculiarities of modern art in comparison with the previous art periods.
• Similarities and differences in Mannerism and Baroque styles.
• Compare the novelties in the paintings of Gustave Courbet to those of Edouard Manet.
• Compare Picasso’s Blue and Rose periods.
• Compare traditional and modern Caribbean music.
• Compare and contrast French and English gardens.
• Compare the surrealism in the paintings of Rene Magritte and Salvador Dali.
• Compare Baroque and Rococo design styles.

We are absolutely sure that you’ve found an interesting and unusual topic for your art essay in our lists. No doubt, art provides us with inspiration for creating high-quality papers. If you don’t feel confident about your writing skills but have an excellent idea for a paper, you are welcome to use the college paper writing service EssayShark. Here, you will find a comfortable ordering system, a team of experienced writers, and 24/7 available support. Good luck on the path to academic success, and may the Force be with you!

One thought on “ 100+ Art Essay Topics for Your Excellent Paper ”

happy for finding this art essay topics

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

What our customers say

Our website uses secure cookies. More details

Get professional help from best writers right from your phone

Grab our 3 e-books bundle for $27 FREE

• All Content Types Blog Papers Events Videos Contributors
• All Groups Academic Futurology Concepts, Figures, Art Forms: Cooperation Concepts, Figures, Art Forms: Melodrama Concepts, Figures, Art Forms: The Other Concepts-Figures-Art Forms: Adorno Concepts-Figures-Art Forms: Whose Kafka Conference: Health Humanities and Social Justice Dance Program Department of African & African American Studies Department of Art, Art History & Visual Studies Department of Asian & Middle Eastern Studies Department of Classical Studies Department of Cultural Anthropology Department of English Department of German Languages & Literature Department of History Department of Music Department of Philosophy Department of Political Science Department of Religious Studies Department of Romance Studies Department of Slavic & Eurasian Studies Department of Theater Studies FHI-NCCU Digital Humanities Initiative Humanities Futures at Large: Conferences & Symposia Humanities Futures at Large: Distinguished Speakers Program in Gender, Sexuality, and Feminist Studies Program in Literature Special Projects: Conferences + Speakers Uncategorized video Working Group: African Cities Working Group: Ancient Mind Working Group: Corporealities Working Group: Environment Working Group: Global Asian Health Humanities Working Group: Global Health Humanities Working Group: Islamic Studies Working Group: Israel/Palestine Working Group: Remapping Sound Studies Working Group: The Black Outdoors Working Group: The Paranormal Working Group: The Present and Future of Critical Islamic Studies Working Group: Translations Studies
• All Keywords academic futurology Accra Achille Mbembe acoustemology activism activismo aesthetic aesthetics Aesthetics Now affect Africa african american studies African cities african studies African-American africanist Afro-Eurasia Afro-Latinidad afro-pessimism agriculture air Alan Bleakley alt-ac(tivism) animals anthropocene anthropology Antihumanism apocalypse archives art writing arts Asia Asian American Studies automation bacteria beauty BGI biogeochemical cycles Biopolis biopolitics biotech black Italians Black Lives Matter black outdoors blackness bodies body body art botany Breath Body Voice breath body voice conference Brexit British music bruno latour business Bylex campus finance cancer capitalism catarina gomes catfish cell culture challenges Chinese medicine cisgender cities classical studies climate change Cold War college debt Colombia colonial medicine colonialism comics commodity communication community comparative modernities computational concepts/figures/art forms seminars concert Congo consumption corporatization cosmography cosmopolitanism craft creativity crisis critical ecology critical islamic studies critical thinking critical zone critical zone science criticism cultural anthropology cultural studies cultural views culture currency Damon Tweedy dance dance studies Daoism databasing David Novak de-colonialismo decolonialism democracy department partnerships Departments dictadura dictatorship digital Digital Futures digital humanities digital media digitalization discipline Donald Trump Donna Haraway Dreamer Movement duke global health Duke Health Duke Music Duke University dystopia early modern East Asia ebook ecology embodied simulation embodiment emotional intelligence empiricists entextulization environment environmental humanities epistemology esotericism ethics ethnic ethnography ethnomusicology ethnonationalism Eurasia Eurasian studies Eurasianism European Union exile exilio experimental music expressive life faces faculty union fake news fascist feeling feminism field folding fred moten future future of political theory gender gender roles genome geopolitics george balanchine Ghana global & emerging humanities working groups global and emerging humanities working groups global Asian health humanities global blackness global South global warming globalism globalization governance graduate students groundwater recharge Han Tong-se hauntology health health humanities health/medical humanities healthcare heteropatriarchy history Hobbes hope hospitality humanism humanities humanities in africa humanities lab humanities labs humanity and humanism hyperpartisanship hypothalamic neurons Ibn Arabi illness image images independence independencia india indifference indigenous indigenous knowledges indigenous peoples industrialization inequality inequity inflation infrastructure intellectuals inter-departmental seminars interdependencies interdisciplinarity international health intersectionality invisibilized Islam Islamicate italianità Japanoise Jay Hammond jihad John Hope Franklin justice Keywords in Sound Kinshasa knowledge knowledge-holders labor market lake dessication land subsidence language Latin America learning liberal arts literary multilingualism literatura literature local love machine mapping maroonage mass dictatorship materialism materiality Medhin Paolos media mediatization medical humanities medicine meme memory MENA metaphor metrics michael merson Middle East migration Migrations minoritization mobilization modern power modernity molecular biology multilingual philology music Muslim national borders nature negritud mundial negrophobogenesis neo-Freudianism neuroarchaeology neurodiversities neuroesthetics neuropsychiatry neuroscience new comedy North Africa open access origami Pan-Asian paradoxes Paul Celan people of color perception performance Persianate perspectivism peter sloterdijk pharmaceuticals phenomenology philosophy pluralism POC political aesthetics political science politics pollution population postcolonial postcolonialism posthumanist ethics postmodernism power practice vs. theory precarity professional progress public and private spheres public humanities publishing queerness race race assemblage racial translations racialization reading reality reason rebellion redemption redevelopment Religion religious studies research ritual Rockefeller Foundation Russia russian studies sacrifice saidiya hartman satellite city science studies scientific expedition security sensation significant configuration slaveness slavery social justice sonification Sony Lab’Ou Tansi sound studies soundscape South Asia South Korea sovereignty space sport steam-punk steampunk Stephen Jaffe study Sufism sustainability systemic racism technologies technology tenure-track job terrorism text textbook the global arena the visual theater theater studies themes and figures theorists theory theory/pratice tigritud Tigritude timespace totalitarianism Tourist City tradition transborder exchange transgender transgender studies translation transpacific trash Trump truth underemployment undergraduate students undocumented citizenship union untranslatables urban urbanism utopia value production Victorian art violence vision visual brain visual motion war water WHO Wissenschaft Wole Soyinka world literature writing Zong
• Contributors

Against Digital Art History

Claire bishop cuny graduate center.

First, let me clarify that I am not talking about digitized art history (i.e., the use of online image collections) but rather digital art history, that is, the use of computational methodologies and analytical techniques enabled by new technology: visualization, network analysis, topic modeling, simulation, pattern recognition, aggregation of materials from disparate geographical locations, etc. Some of these techniques have been around for several decades and have proven useful, especially for scholars working on periods where there is little surviving visual evidence (e.g., reconstructing ancient sites). Yet the visual theorist Johanna Drucker, writing in 2013, states that so far none of art history’s "fundamental approaches, tenets of belief, or methods are altered by digital work"—unlike in the 1980s, when "traditional art history" was upended by the incursion of semiotics, psychoanalysis, Marxism, feminism, post-colonial theory, and post-structuralism (Drucker 2013). 1 Drucker nevertheless imagines that future digital databases will permit new questions to be asked of canonical works; she imagines, for example, a database containing the provenance history of different sources of pigments used in Western manuscript illumination and Renaissance painting, which would situate a work like Van Eyck’s Arnolfini Wedding (1434) in relation to global systems of trade and economic value. Her vision of digital art history thus stands as a combination of digital technologies, network analysis, and connoisseurship.

I am not talking about digitized art history…but rather digital art history, that is, the use of computational methodologies and analytical techniques enabled by new technology.

Rather than thinking in terms of theoretical changes, however, we should compare the incursion of digital reproduction into art history to previous technological innovations. Prior to the late nineteenth century, art historians employed originals, casts, prints, sketches, and verbal descriptions to support and disseminate their research (Nelson 2000). The introduction of photographic reproduction enabled wholly new methodological approaches in art history—from the formalism of Heinrich Wölfflin, who introduced the slide comparison to the art history lecture in the 1880s, to the iconographical approach of Aby Warburg in the 1920s, who drew upon a vast archive of photographic reproductions from antiquity to advertising to advance his theory of nachleben . The change wrought by the digitization of slide collections since 2000 is therefore not only one of size and speed (an increased quantity of images for analysis and faster search returns), but also one of method, opening the door to "distant viewing." Already well known in Comparative Literature as "distant reading," this method proceeds by subjecting vast numbers of cultural artifacts to quantitative computational analysis.

A troubling introduction to this method can be found in the first issue of the International Journal for Digital Art History, launched in June 2015. In the first of six articles, new media theorist Lev Manovich introduces five key terms from data science that he believes to be useful to art historians: object , features , data , feature space , and dimension reduction (Manovich 2015). His text is illustrated with examples of his own research projects that draw upon Big Data, including Selfiecity (visualizations of thousands of Instagram selfies in different cities around the globe, assessing the images in terms of age, gender, position, frequency of smiling, etc.) and a principle content analysis (PCA) of over six thousand Impressionist paintings, calculating visual similarities in content and coloration. 2 Another paper, by K. Bender, analyzes 1,840 works of art from the thirteenth to the twentieth centuries showing the figure of Aphrodite or Venus, revealing that on average, artists turned to this theme 2.8 times in their lives (Bender 2015). A third article reports the results of feeding 120,000 portraits from the thirteenth to the twentieth centuries through facial-recognition software in order to establish whether the "canon of beauty" had changed over time (de la Rosa and Suárez 2015). Unsurprisingly, it had—the study concludes that there is a conspicuous decrease of "beauty" in the twentieth century. Only to someone entirely unfamiliar with modernism would this come as a surprise.

I admit that most academic papers, when boiled down to one line, risk sounding simplistic, but in this case the fatuity is extreme. Basic terms like beauty (and even portraiture ) remain uninterrogated; instead, the authors observe that the "more average and symmetrical, the more beautiful a face is usually ranked," noting with approval that this criterion turns "a subjective opinion such as what face is beautiful into something measurable and objective" (ibid.). A complex human evaluation is reduced to statistical calculation. Equally blunt is the claim, found in almost every essay in this journal’s inaugural issue, that "this empirical finding has never before been highlighted in art history"—as if novelty were a sufficient measure of interest and substance. Further, the data set affirms the art historical canon ("Impressionist paintings," "figures of Aphrodite or Venus") rather than challenging it or even addressing it critically. Who decides what is understood as the canon? What is left out? On the evidence of these articles, practitioners of digital art history have a limited awareness of critical debates within art history (such as the long-standing, and some would say long-dead, question of "beauty"), but also a limited grasp on how to frame a meaningful research question. Theoretical problems are steamrollered flat by the weight of data.

Who decides what is understood as the canon? What is left out?

This silence, however, seems to be to digital art history’s advantage. This new approach is already finding its way into museums, and not just conservation departments that have long had a relationship to scientific research. Consider the network map produced by the Museum of Modern Art, New York, for the exhibition "Inventing Abstraction 1910–1925" (2012–13), created by the curators in collaboration with a professor and a doctoral student at Columbia University’s business school. 3 The map, an update of Barr’s well-known diagram for the catalogue Cubism and Abstract Art (1936), covered a wall at the entrance to the exhibition. On the exhibition website, the map allows users to click on various names, mapped geospatially from the West to the East, in order to see which artists were in contact with whom during this period. One positive outcome of this mapping was that several female artists, usually relegated to the sidelines, were repositioned as key players: Sonia Delaunay and Natalia Goncharova were ranked as the "most connected" alongside Jean Arp, Guillaume Apollinaire, Pablo Picasso, Tristan Tzara, and Alfred Stieglitz. But what does it really mean to be "connected"? As art history doctoral students Jonathan Patkowski and Nicole Reiner argue in their critique of the exhibition, this map recodes the early twentieth-century artist as a contemporary networked entrepreneur whose importance is now gauged in terms of number of social connections (i.e., documentable acquaintances) rather than artistic innovations (Patkowski and Reiner 2013). Carefully reasoned historical narrative is replaced by social network (the avant-garde equivalent of LinkedIn) and has no room for non-human agents that elude quantification—such as African artifacts, which were crucial to the development of abstraction, or the imperial powers that mobilized their circulation in Europe.

My point is that subordinating art history to computational analysis might well reveal "empirical findings never before highlighted in art history," but this method also perpetuates uncritical assumptions about the intrinsic value of statistics.

My point is that subordinating art history—whether the invention of abstraction, Impressionist painting, or the new genre of the selfie—to computational analysis might well reveal "empirical findings never before highlighted in art history," but this method also perpetuates uncritical assumptions about the intrinsic value of statistics. In Undoing the Demos (2015), Wendy Brown argues that neoliberalism should be regarded less as a political formation than as a form of reason, a system of governance in which "all spheres of existence are framed and measured by economic terms and metrics, even when those spheres are not directly monetized" (Brown 2015, 10). Her examples include any online activity that measures output by the number of "likes" or "followers," from Facebook and Instagram to online dating. Digital art history is just such a subordination of human activity to metric evaluation. It is inextricably linked to the ascendancy of the digital humanities, which has flourished despite financial cuts to the "analog humanities", and which is seen as a way to make humanities’ outputs "useful"—like science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (i.e., industry-preferred STEM subjects). 4 In the words of new media scholar Richard Grusin, "It is no coincidence that the digital humanities has emerged as ‘the next big thing’ at the same moment that the neoliberalization and corporatization of higher education has intensified in the first decades of the twenty-first century" (Grusin 2013). This is not to say that the digital humanities are doomed to be the unwitting handmaidens of neoliberal imperatives, but it is important to note how its technopositivist rationality is disturbingly synchronous with the marketization of education: the promotion of MOOCs as value-for-money content delivery; the precarious position of adjunct professors; the tyranny of academic rankings; and the remaking of the university away from "quaint concerns with developing the person and citizen" and toward a model of the student as self-investing human capital (Brown 2015, 23). 5 Any study that mobilizes Big Data needs to reflect critically on the mechanisms by which this data is gathered: corporate data mining, state surveillance, and algorithmic governance techniques. 6

Digital art history, as the belated tail end of the digital humanities, signals a change in the character of knowledge and learning.

Digital art history, as the belated tail end of the digital humanities, signals a change in the character of knowledge and learning. Ideals like public service, citizenship, knowledge as an end in itself, and questions of what is just, right, and true have decreasing validity because they resist quantitative measurement, and moreover do not easily translate into information that optimizes the performance of society (i.e. generate) profit. Instead, research and knowledge are understood in terms of data and its exteriorization in computational analyses. This raises the question of whether there is a basic incompatibility between the humanities and computational metrics. Is it possible to enhance the theoretical interpretations characteristic of the humanities with positivist, empirical methods—or are they incommensurable?

We have to be careful how we phrase this dilemma. Drucker floats the possibility—although she eventually rejects the idea—that visual art might be fundamentally resistant to computational processing and analysis because it is so emphatically tied up in narratives of singularity, individuality, and exceptionality. These valorizing terms are of course not exclusive to art history and play an important role in canon formation across all of the humanities. We know from Franco Moretti’s controversial method of "distant reading"—analyzing literature not by studying particular texts, but by aggregating massive amounts of data—that singular genius is one of the first concepts to fall by the wayside when dealing with literature as an integrated system of global publishing. On the one hand, this is appealing: who among us could really argue that the canon isn’t too white, male, and European? And Moretti is right to observe that close readings can become a "theological exercise—very solemn treatment of very few texts taken very seriously" (Moretti 2000). 7 When you glance at Moretti’s work—such as Graphs, Maps, Trees (2007)—it is conspicuous that paradigmatic examples and block quotes have been replaced with diagrams, models, and schemas, but at least these graphs trigger interpretation: a social history supported by statistics rather than text mining the number of times a given word appears in Proust. 8 Moretti’s earlier work, prior to setting up the Stanford Literary Lab in 2010, is especially interesting in trying to analyze all literature from a given period, both canonical and noncanonical; questions of historical causality remain central for him, in part because they are the blind spot of distant reading, the argument that statistics cannot supply.

Yet, increasingly, Moretti—like Lev Manovich—proceeds with the data set in advance of a research question, or what digital humanist Alan Liu calls "tabula rasa interpretation—the initiation of interpretation through the hypothesis-free discovery of phenomena" (Liu 2013). 9 In this model, topics are generated without an initial concept or question from an interpreter looking to confirm a theme or pattern; computers read texts/images algorithmically, with minimal human intervention. In the case of Manovich’s Cultural Analytics (a hybrid new interdiscipline), data are aestheticized into patterns, but the task of interpreting these patterns is left up to others. 10 As a result, digital art history has a fraught relationship to history and interpretation. Does the data set exist in history before being sequenced digitally or is it only actualized once it has been laid out via the digital archive? Are the assembled historical "facts" found or produced? What’s the relation between what’s empirically observable and what’s true? Technology is presumed to provide objective access to reality in a way that subjective interpretation cannot. The result is an avoidance of argumentation and interpretation, as exemplified by the articles in the International Journal of Digital Art History . 11 Computational metrics can help aggregate data and indicate patterns, but they struggle to explain causality, which in the humanities is always a question of interpretation. In effect, a post-historical position is assumed: the data is out there, gathered and complete; all that remains is for scholars to sequence it at will. Here, computational methods become another manifestation of the drive for mastery over history and the archive. The analog humanities, by contrast, remain outside the logic of tidy deliverable answers; their importance, as media theorist Gary Hall notes, lies in their ability to hold open a space for "much-needed elements of dissensus, dysfunction, ambiguity, conflict, unpredictability, inaccessibility, and inefficiency" (Hall 2013, 798).

Contemporary art, perhaps more than any other art form, is entirely embroiled in digital technology: it permeates the production of work, its consumption and circulation. It is noticeable that artists are increasingly turning to cut-and-paste methods to create work across a wide variety of media. Pre-existing cultural artifacts are remixed and reformatted, generating a mise-en-abyme of references to previous historical eras. As part of this historical orientation, obsolete technologies have acquired a new auratic currency (8 and 16mm film, slide projectors, fax machines, even VCR players), as has the trope of the archive. We are currently in a hybrid moment where non- or pre-digital materiality is sustained alongside a digital way of thinking: an approach to information in which sources are decontextualized, remixed, reorganized, and archived. This hybridized interpenetration of digital and non-digital extends to the distribution and consumption of art. Today, most exhibitions reach their audiences as jpgs: artists increasingly mount their shows with the installation shot in mind, and gallery lighting has become brighter so that photographs ‘pop’ on a back-lit plasma screen. Works of art are bought and sold as jpgs, without collectors ever having seen the original in person.

My current project, "Déjà Vu: Reformatting Modernist Architecture," has engaged in a type of distant reading—one that could only have been realized with the assistance of digital technology, but which is steered by a critical human eye. In the slideshow that accompanies the lecture version of "Déjà Vu," I replace the singular, paradigmatic example with hundreds of case studies—works of art gathered from North and South America and Eastern and Western Europe since 1989. Over three hundred images scroll before viewers, in different combinations; the aim is to move beyond the traditional illustrative slide comparison to a scenario in which the images begin to create an argument in their own right, bolstering (but also at moments contesting) my interpretation. Over the course of an hour, the audience experiences a number of déjà vus: works of art, all of which take as their starting point a pre-existing work of modernist architecture or design (including iconic structures by Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, and Vladimir Tatlin), also recur in different sequences. 12 The title refers to Paolo Virno’s theory of déjà vu as a distanciation from agency: he describes it as a pathological condition of watching ourselves live and feeling that the future has been fatalistically prescribed for us, and connects this condition to the post-political consensus after 1989. 13 Something of this fatalism is conveyed in the relentlessness of my PowerPoint, which generates the feeling of scrolling through a tide of images (as when searching online), and yet each work appears before us, rather than being aggregated into a single graphic visualization. The PowerPoint partly repeats the numbing effect of the online image world, but also becomes a tool to make this available to interpretation.

My target is the mainstream, the mediocre, the déjà vu: the work we feel like we’ve seen before, the highlights of modernism already witnessed, the projects by artists that are unquotable because they are themselves so reliant upon quotation.

Given that the rise of this artistic trend is a convergence of ideological narratives about a geopolitical condition ("the end of history") encountering the proliferation of digital media, this flow of images generates an argument about repetition and banality without me having to spell it out verbally. The slideshow has occasionally infuriated audiences, who see it as leveling the specificity of artists’ practices in different parts of the world, and ignoring attempts to chart gender or race through the quotation of modernist forebears (even though my text draws out these historical and ideological differences). My reason for presenting images in this "distant," non-hierarchical way is that I believe there are no paradigmatic examples of this trend, and that the differences between these works are less significant than their similarities. My target is the mainstream, the mediocre, the déjà vu: the work we feel like we’ve seen before, the highlights of modernism already witnessed, the projects by artists that are unquotable because they are themselves so reliant upon quotation.

Distant reading serves as a critique of the system in which these works thrive: not just the rapidity of image circulation online, but also the New York art world, with its thousands of commercial galleries and their disproportionate impact upon museum practice, all of which creates an increasingly off-putting haze of hype and high finance around contemporary art. This condition is rarely resisted by artists here, who leave art schools with huge debts and need to get on the career ladder as soon as possible in order to start repaying loans. The MFA-debt/gallery-profit cycle has made it increasingly difficult to write about contemporary art without also wanting to run a mile from it. Distant viewing is my expression of this distance. The disjunctive simultaneity of proximity and distance is also the condition of consuming images in the twenty-first century and thus the subject of my paper as much as its method. As such, I hope that my project functions as a critical intervention both into a contemporary art history that seems always to bolster singular figures for the market, and into a digital art history that privileges computational over ideological analyses.

1 Drucker draws the useful distinction between digitized and digital art history on page 5.

2 Selfiecity can be found online at www.selfiecity.net . The main findings include the following: more women take selfies than men and strike more extreme poses; the average age of selfie photographers is 23.7; people in Moscow smile less than people in São Paulo and Bangkok. The project used Amazon’s Mechanical Turk workers to classify 640 selfies from each city, taken from a random sample of 120,000 images from Instagram.

3 Paul Ingram and Mitali Banerjee, www.moma.org/interactives/exhibitions/2012/inventingabstraction/?page=connections

4 The term analog humanities is taken from Sterne 2015, 18.

5 The Washington Post recently reported that Purdue University (Indiana) has partnered with businesses as an alternative to student loans: investors front students the money to pay for education in exchange for a share in future earnings (Douglas-Gabriel 2015).

6 This problem is not confined to digital art history. As English/Comp Lit scholar Brian Lennon notes, ". . .the digital humanities has displayed almost no specifically political interest in the world outside the university and too little explicit interest of any kind in the broader interinstitutional politics of the world within the university in its imbrication with the institutions of security and military intelligence" (Lennon 2014, 140–41).

7 For a concise response, see Schulz (2011).

8 Influenced by historian Ferdinand Braudel’s theory of the longue durée , Moretti argues that the novel developed as a system of its genres (in other words, we cannot speak of "the novel" but only of a whole set of forty-four genres). Looking at the publication rates for novels over periods of decades, he moves from quantitative facts to speculation and interpretation; for example, he suggests that the rise and fall of the various genres of the novel in the United Kingdom correlate to twenty-five- to thirty-five-year cycles (i.e., to generations of readers) (Moretti 2007). Earlier work, such as "Conjectures in World Literature," provocatively conclude that the modern novel first arises not as an autonomous development but as a compromise between a western formal influence (usually French or English) and local materials"; in other words, the Western European novel is an exception, not the rule (Moretti 2000).

9 This can be seen, for example, in Moretti’s quantification of the plot of Shakespeare’s Hamlet (Moretti 2011).

10 See Gary Hall’s incisive critique of Manovich (Hall 2013).

11 Likewise, the authors of the paper on beauty and portraiture conclude that "any approach to the culturomics of art history and beauty also takes into account cultural evolution and cultural history as forces that shape the results we find in the data"—without feeling any obligation to supply this (Rosa and Suárez 2015, 125).

12 This type of work is near unsearchable on the Internet because search engines cannot cope with self-reflexivity (contemporary art quoting modern art). My examples were therefore amassed slowly, via exhibition catalogues, artists’ websites, press releases, Tumblrs, and blogs.

13 Post-politics is a term used by political philosophers—including Jacques Rancière, Chantal Mouffe, Slavoj Žižek, and Jodi Dean—to describe the post-ideological consensus that dominated global politics after the Cold War.

Bender, K. 2015. "Distant Viewing in Art History, A Case Study of Artistic Productivity." International Journal for Digital Art History 1: 100–110.

Brown, Wendy. 2015. Undoing the Demos: Neoliberalism’s Stealth Revolution . New York: Zone Books.

Douglas-Gabriel, Danielle. 2015. "Investors Buying Shares in College Students." Washington Post , November 27.

Drucker, Johanna. 2013. "Is There a ‘Digital’ Art History?" Visual Resources 29 (March): 7.

Grusin, Richard. 2013. "The Dark Side of the Digital Humanities." Thinking C21 blog. http://www.c21uwm.com/2013/01/09/dark-side-of-the-digital-humanities-part-2

Hall, Gary. 2013. "Toward a Postdigital Humanities." American Literature 85 (4): 781–809.

Lennon, Brian. 2014. "The Digital Humanities and National Security." differences 25 (1): 132–55.

Liu, Alan. 2013. "The Meaning of the Digital Humanities." PMLA 128 (2): 414.

Manovich, Lev. 2015. "Data Science and Digital Art History," International Journal for Digital Art History 1: 12–35. www.dah-journal.org

Moretti, Franco. 2000. "Conjectures on World Literature." New Left Review 1: Jan–Feb. http:// www.newleftreview.org/II/1/franco-moretti-conjectures-on-world-literature

———. 2007. Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for a Literary History . London: Verso.

———. 2011. Network Theory, Plot Analysis." New Left Review 68: March–April. http://www.newleftreview.org/II/68/franco-moretti-network-theory-plot-analysis

Nelson, Robert. 2000. "The Slide Lecture, or the Work of Art History in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction." Critical Inquiry 26: 414–34.

Patkowski, Jonathan, and Nicole Reiner. 2013. "Inventing Abstraction, Reinventing Our Selves," Material World blog, February 23. www.materialworldblog.com/2013/02/inventing-abstraction-reinventing-our-selves

de la Rosa, Javier, and Juan-Luis Suárez. 2015. "A Quantitative Approach to Beauty: Perceived Attractiveness of Human Faces in World Painting." International Journal for Digital Art History 1: 112–29.

Schulz, Kathryn. 2011. "What Is Distant Reading?" New York Times , June 24. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/26/books/review/the-mechanic-muse-what-is-distant-reading.html

Sterne, Jonathan. 2015. "The Example: Some Historical Considerations." In Between Humanities and the Digital , edited by Patrik Svensson and David Theo Goldberg. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Virno, Paul. 2015. Déjà Vu and the End of History . New York: Verso. Previously published in 1999.

Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License

• Curated Group: Digital Futures
• Department of Art, Art History & Visual Studies

Share This Article

Inter-departmental seminar: translations.

October 20, 2015

Latest Blogs

• Transgender Studies: Course Listings & Sample Reading List October 15, 2019
• FHI-NCCU Digital Humanities Fellows holds second annual symposium June 7, 2018
• Table of Contents for Humanities Futures Papers December 4, 2017
• Instructor Guest Post: Building Global Audiences for the Franklin Humanities Institute September 25, 2017
• Announcing new cohort of FHI-NCCU Digital Humanities Fellows (2017-18) August 19, 2017

Latest Papers

• Academic Precarity in American Anthropology
• After the Rebellion: Religion, Rebels, and Jihad in South Asia
• Climate Change, Cultures, Territories, Nonhumans, and Relational Knowledges in Colombia
• Clive Bell’s "Significant Form" and the Neurobiology of Aesthetics
• The New Humanities?
• Health, Illness, and Memory

Latest Media

• An Interview with David Novak, UC Santa Barbara
• “The Education of Bruno Latour: From the Critical Zone to the Anthropocene” Feature-Length Documentary
• From Body to Body: Duke Students Learn From a Dance Legend
• Archaeology, Memory, and Conflicts Workshop [Panopto stream]
• Craig Klugman: Future Trends in Health Humanities Publishing and Pedagogy
• Neurodiversities | Deborah Jenson: Flaubert’s Brain: Epilepsy, Mimesis, and Injured-Self Narrative

Get science-backed answers as you write with Paperpal's Research feature

What is an Argumentative Essay? How to Write It (With Examples)

We define an argumentative essay as a type of essay that presents arguments about both sides of an issue. The purpose is to convince the reader to accept a particular viewpoint or action. In an argumentative essay, the writer takes a stance on a controversial or debatable topic and supports their position with evidence, reasoning, and examples. The essay should also address counterarguments, demonstrating a thorough understanding of the topic.

Table of Contents

• What is an argumentative essay?  
• Argumentative essay structure 
• Argumentative essay outline 
• Types of argument claims 

How to write an argumentative essay?

• Argumentative essay writing tips 
• Good argumentative essay example 

How to write a good thesis

• How to Write an Argumentative Essay with Paperpal? 

Frequently Asked Questions

What is an argumentative essay.

An argumentative essay is a type of writing that presents a coherent and logical analysis of a specific topic. 1 The goal is to convince the reader to accept the writer’s point of view or opinion on a particular issue. Here are the key elements of an argumentative essay: 

• Thesis Statement : The central claim or argument that the essay aims to prove. 
• Introduction : Provides background information and introduces the thesis statement. 
• Body Paragraphs : Each paragraph addresses a specific aspect of the argument, presents evidence, and may include counter arguments. 

Articulate your thesis statement better with Paperpal. Start writing now!

• Evidence : Supports the main argument with relevant facts, examples, statistics, or expert opinions. 
• Counterarguments : Anticipates and addresses opposing viewpoints to strengthen the overall argument. 
• Conclusion : Summarizes the main points, reinforces the thesis, and may suggest implications or actions. 

Argumentative essay structure

Aristotelian, Rogerian, and Toulmin are three distinct approaches to argumentative essay structures, each with its principles and methods. 2 The choice depends on the purpose and nature of the topic. Here’s an overview of each type of argumentative essay format.

Have a looming deadline for your argumentative essay? Write 2x faster with Paperpal – Start now!  

Argumentative essay outline

An argumentative essay presents a specific claim or argument and supports it with evidence and reasoning. Here’s an outline for an argumentative essay, along with examples for each section: 3  

1.  Introduction : 

• Hook : Start with a compelling statement, question, or anecdote to grab the reader’s attention. 

Example: “Did you know that plastic pollution is threatening marine life at an alarming rate?” 

• Background information : Provide brief context about the issue. 

Example: “Plastic pollution has become a global environmental concern, with millions of tons of plastic waste entering our oceans yearly.” 

• Thesis statement : Clearly state your main argument or position. 

Example: “We must take immediate action to reduce plastic usage and implement more sustainable alternatives to protect our marine ecosystem.” 

2.  Body Paragraphs : 

• Topic sentence : Introduce the main idea of each paragraph. 

Example: “The first step towards addressing the plastic pollution crisis is reducing single-use plastic consumption.” 

• Evidence/Support : Provide evidence, facts, statistics, or examples that support your argument. 

Example: “Research shows that plastic straws alone contribute to millions of tons of plastic waste annually, and many marine animals suffer from ingestion or entanglement.” 

• Counterargument/Refutation : Acknowledge and refute opposing viewpoints. 

Example: “Some argue that banning plastic straws is inconvenient for consumers, but the long-term environmental benefits far outweigh the temporary inconvenience.” 

• Transition : Connect each paragraph to the next. 

Example: “Having addressed the issue of single-use plastics, the focus must now shift to promoting sustainable alternatives.” 

3.  Counterargument Paragraph : 

• Acknowledgement of opposing views : Recognize alternative perspectives on the issue. 

Example: “While some may argue that individual actions cannot significantly impact global plastic pollution, the cumulative effect of collective efforts must be considered.” 

• Counterargument and rebuttal : Present and refute the main counterargument. 

Example: “However, individual actions, when multiplied across millions of people, can substantially reduce plastic waste. Small changes in behavior, such as using reusable bags and containers, can have a significant positive impact.” 

4.  Conclusion : 

• Restatement of thesis : Summarize your main argument. 

Example: “In conclusion, adopting sustainable practices and reducing single-use plastic is crucial for preserving our oceans and marine life.” 

• Call to action : Encourage the reader to take specific steps or consider the argument’s implications. 

Example: “It is our responsibility to make environmentally conscious choices and advocate for policies that prioritize the health of our planet. By collectively embracing sustainable alternatives, we can contribute to a cleaner and healthier future.” 

Types of argument claims

A claim is a statement or proposition a writer puts forward with evidence to persuade the reader. 4 Here are some common types of argument claims, along with examples: 

• Fact Claims : These claims assert that something is true or false and can often be verified through evidence.  Example: “Water boils at 100°C at sea level.”
• Value Claims : Value claims express judgments about the worth or morality of something, often based on personal beliefs or societal values. Example: “Organic farming is more ethical than conventional farming.” 
• Policy Claims : Policy claims propose a course of action or argue for a specific policy, law, or regulation change.  Example: “Schools should adopt a year-round education system to improve student learning outcomes.” 
• Cause and Effect Claims : These claims argue that one event or condition leads to another, establishing a cause-and-effect relationship.  Example: “Excessive use of social media is a leading cause of increased feelings of loneliness among young adults.” 
• Definition Claims : Definition claims assert the meaning or classification of a concept or term.  Example: “Artificial intelligence can be defined as machines exhibiting human-like cognitive functions.” 
• Comparative Claims : Comparative claims assert that one thing is better or worse than another in certain respects.  Example: “Online education is more cost-effective than traditional classroom learning.” 
• Evaluation Claims : Evaluation claims assess the quality, significance, or effectiveness of something based on specific criteria.  Example: “The new healthcare policy is more effective in providing affordable healthcare to all citizens.” 

Understanding these argument claims can help writers construct more persuasive and well-supported arguments tailored to the specific nature of the claim.  

If you’re wondering how to start an argumentative essay, here’s a step-by-step guide to help you with the argumentative essay format and writing process.

• Choose a Topic: Select a topic that you are passionate about or interested in. Ensure that the topic is debatable and has two or more sides.
• Define Your Position: Clearly state your stance on the issue. Consider opposing viewpoints and be ready to counter them.
• Conduct Research: Gather relevant information from credible sources, such as books, articles, and academic journals. Take notes on key points and supporting evidence.
• Create a Thesis Statement: Develop a concise and clear thesis statement that outlines your main argument. Convey your position on the issue and provide a roadmap for the essay.
• Outline Your Argumentative Essay: Organize your ideas logically by creating an outline. Include an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Each body paragraph should focus on a single point that supports your thesis.
• Write the Introduction: Start with a hook to grab the reader’s attention (a quote, a question, a surprising fact). Provide background information on the topic. Present your thesis statement at the end of the introduction.
• Develop Body Paragraphs: Begin each paragraph with a clear topic sentence that relates to the thesis. Support your points with evidence and examples. Address counterarguments and refute them to strengthen your position. Ensure smooth transitions between paragraphs.
• Address Counterarguments: Acknowledge and respond to opposing viewpoints. Anticipate objections and provide evidence to counter them.
• Write the Conclusion: Summarize the main points of your argumentative essay. Reinforce the significance of your argument. End with a call to action, a prediction, or a thought-provoking statement.
• Revise, Edit, and Share: Review your essay for clarity, coherence, and consistency. Check for grammatical and spelling errors. Share your essay with peers, friends, or instructors for constructive feedback.
• Finalize Your Argumentative Essay: Make final edits based on feedback received. Ensure that your essay follows the required formatting and citation style.

Struggling to start your argumentative essay? Paperpal can help – try now!   

Argumentative essay writing tips

Here are eight strategies to craft a compelling argumentative essay: 

• Choose a Clear and Controversial Topic : Select a topic that sparks debate and has opposing viewpoints. A clear and controversial issue provides a solid foundation for a strong argument. 
• Conduct Thorough Research : Gather relevant information from reputable sources to support your argument. Use a variety of sources, such as academic journals, books, reputable websites, and expert opinions, to strengthen your position. 
• Create a Strong Thesis Statement : Clearly articulate your main argument in a concise thesis statement. Your thesis should convey your stance on the issue and provide a roadmap for the reader to follow your argument. 
• Develop a Logical Structure : Organize your essay with a clear introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion. Each paragraph should focus on a specific point of evidence that contributes to your overall argument. Ensure a logical flow from one point to the next. 
• Provide Strong Evidence : Support your claims with solid evidence. Use facts, statistics, examples, and expert opinions to support your arguments. Be sure to cite your sources appropriately to maintain credibility. 
• Address Counterarguments : Acknowledge opposing viewpoints and counterarguments. Addressing and refuting alternative perspectives strengthens your essay and demonstrates a thorough understanding of the issue. Be mindful of maintaining a respectful tone even when discussing opposing views. 
• Use Persuasive Language : Employ persuasive language to make your points effectively. Avoid emotional appeals without supporting evidence and strive for a respectful and professional tone. 
• Craft a Compelling Conclusion : Summarize your main points, restate your thesis, and leave a lasting impression in your conclusion. Encourage readers to consider the implications of your argument and potentially take action. 

Good argumentative essay example

Let’s consider a sample of argumentative essay on how social media enhances connectivity:

In the digital age, social media has emerged as a powerful tool that transcends geographical boundaries, connecting individuals from diverse backgrounds and providing a platform for an array of voices to be heard. While critics argue that social media fosters division and amplifies negativity, it is essential to recognize the positive aspects of this digital revolution and how it enhances connectivity by providing a platform for diverse voices to flourish. One of the primary benefits of social media is its ability to facilitate instant communication and connection across the globe. Platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram break down geographical barriers, enabling people to establish and maintain relationships regardless of physical location and fostering a sense of global community. Furthermore, social media has transformed how people stay connected with friends and family. Whether separated by miles or time zones, social media ensures that relationships remain dynamic and relevant, contributing to a more interconnected world. Moreover, social media has played a pivotal role in giving voice to social justice movements and marginalized communities. Movements such as #BlackLivesMatter, #MeToo, and #ClimateStrike have gained momentum through social media, allowing individuals to share their stories and advocate for change on a global scale. This digital activism can shape public opinion and hold institutions accountable. Social media platforms provide a dynamic space for open dialogue and discourse. Users can engage in discussions, share information, and challenge each other’s perspectives, fostering a culture of critical thinking. This open exchange of ideas contributes to a more informed and enlightened society where individuals can broaden their horizons and develop a nuanced understanding of complex issues. While criticisms of social media abound, it is crucial to recognize its positive impact on connectivity and the amplification of diverse voices. Social media transcends physical and cultural barriers, connecting people across the globe and providing a platform for marginalized voices to be heard. By fostering open dialogue and facilitating the exchange of ideas, social media contributes to a more interconnected and empowered society. Embracing the positive aspects of social media allows us to harness its potential for positive change and collective growth.

• Clearly Define Your Thesis Statement:   Your thesis statement is the core of your argumentative essay. Clearly articulate your main argument or position on the issue. Avoid vague or general statements.  
• Provide Strong Supporting Evidence:   Back up your thesis with solid evidence from reliable sources and examples. This can include facts, statistics, expert opinions, anecdotes, or real-life examples. Make sure your evidence is relevant to your argument, as it impacts the overall persuasiveness of your thesis.  
• Anticipate Counterarguments and Address Them:   Acknowledge and address opposing viewpoints to strengthen credibility. This also shows that you engage critically with the topic rather than presenting a one-sided argument. 

How to Write an Argumentative Essay with Paperpal?

Writing a winning argumentative essay not only showcases your ability to critically analyze a topic but also demonstrates your skill in persuasively presenting your stance backed by evidence. Achieving this level of writing excellence can be time-consuming. This is where Paperpal, your AI academic writing assistant, steps in to revolutionize the way you approach argumentative essays. Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to use Paperpal to write your essay: 

• Sign Up or Log In: Begin by creating an account or logging into paperpal.com .  
• Navigate to Paperpal Copilot: Once logged in, proceed to the Templates section from the side navigation bar.  
• Generate an essay outline: Under Templates, click on the ‘Outline’ tab and choose ‘Essay’ from the options and provide your topic to generate an outline.  
• Develop your essay: Use this structured outline as a guide to flesh out your essay. If you encounter any roadblocks, click on Brainstorm and get subject-specific assistance, ensuring you stay on track. 
• Refine your writing: To elevate the academic tone of your essay, select a paragraph and use the ‘Make Academic’ feature under the ‘Rewrite’ tab, ensuring your argumentative essay resonates with an academic audience. 
• Final Touches: Make your argumentative essay submission ready with Paperpal’s language, grammar, consistency and plagiarism checks, and improve your chances of acceptance.  

Paperpal not only simplifies the essay writing process but also ensures your argumentative essay is persuasive, well-structured, and academically rigorous. Sign up today and transform how you write argumentative essays. 

The length of an argumentative essay can vary, but it typically falls within the range of 1,000 to 2,500 words. However, the specific requirements may depend on the guidelines provided.

You might write an argumentative essay when:  1. You want to convince others of the validity of your position.  2. There is a controversial or debatable issue that requires discussion.  3. You need to present evidence and logical reasoning to support your claims.  4. You want to explore and critically analyze different perspectives on a topic. 

Argumentative Essay:  Purpose : An argumentative essay aims to persuade the reader to accept or agree with a specific point of view or argument.  Structure : It follows a clear structure with an introduction, thesis statement, body paragraphs presenting arguments and evidence, counterarguments and refutations, and a conclusion.  Tone : The tone is formal and relies on logical reasoning, evidence, and critical analysis.    Narrative/Descriptive Essay:  Purpose : These aim to tell a story or describe an experience, while a descriptive essay focuses on creating a vivid picture of a person, place, or thing.  Structure : They may have a more flexible structure. They often include an engaging introduction, a well-developed body that builds the story or description, and a conclusion.  Tone : The tone is more personal and expressive to evoke emotions or provide sensory details. 

• Gladd, J. (2020). Tips for Writing Academic Persuasive Essays.  Write What Matters . 
• Nimehchisalem, V. (2018). Pyramid of argumentation: Towards an integrated model for teaching and assessing ESL writing.  Language & Communication ,  5 (2), 185-200. 
• Press, B. (2022).  Argumentative Essays: A Step-by-Step Guide . Broadview Press. 
• Rieke, R. D., Sillars, M. O., & Peterson, T. R. (2005).  Argumentation and critical decision making . Pearson/Allyn & Bacon. 

Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.  

Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.  

Experience the future of academic writing – Sign up to Paperpal and start writing for free!  

Related Reads:

• Empirical Research: A Comprehensive Guide for Academics 
• How to Write a Scientific Paper in 10 Steps 
• What is a Literature Review? How to Write It (with Examples)
• Life Sciences Papers: 9 Tips for Authors Writing in Biological Sciences

Make Your Research Paper Error-Free with Paperpal’s Online Spell Checker 

The do’s & don’ts of using generative ai tools ethically in academia, you may also like, how to structure an essay, leveraging generative ai to enhance student understanding of..., how to write a good hook for essays,..., addressing peer review feedback and mastering manuscript revisions..., how paperpal can boost comprehension and foster interdisciplinary..., what is the importance of a concept paper..., how to write the first draft of a..., mla works cited page: format, template & examples, how to ace grant writing for research funding..., powerful academic phrases to improve your essay writing .

Writing a Persuasive Essay

Persuasive essays convince readers to accept a certain perspective. Writing a persuasive essay therefore entails making an argument that will appeal to readers, so they believe what you say has merit. This act of appealing to readers is the art of persuasion, also known as rhetoric. In classical rhetoric, persuasion involves appealing to readers using ethos, pathos, and logos.

In this tutorial, we refer to the sample persuasive draft and final paper written by fictional student Maggie Durham.

THE ART OF PERSUASION

Ethos refers to establishing yourself as a credible source of information. To convince an audience of anything, they must first trust you are being earnest and ethical. One strategy to do this is to write a balanced discussion with relevant and reliable research that supports your claims. Reliable research would include quoting or paraphrasing experts, first-hand witnesses, or authorities. Properly citing your sources, so your readers can also retrieve them, is another factor in establishing a reliable ethos. When writing for academic purposes, expressing your argument using unbiased language and a neutral tone will also indicate you are arguing fairly and with consideration of others having differing views.

When you appeal to your readers’ emotions, you are using pathos. This appeal is common in advertising that convinces consumers they lack something and buying a certain product or service will fulfill that lack. Emotional appeals are subtler in academic writing; they serve to engage a reader in the argument and inspire a change of heart or motivate readers toward a course of action. The examples you use, how you define terms, any comparisons you draw, as well as the language choices you use can draw readers in and impact their willingness to go along with your ideas.

Consider that one purpose of persuasion is to appeal to those who do not already agree with you, so it will be important to show that you understand other points of view. You will also want to avoid derogatory or insulting descriptions or remarks about the opposition. You wouldn’t want to offend the very readers you want to persuade.

Establishing an appeal of logos is to write a sound argument, one that readers can follow and understand. To do this, the facts and evidence you use should be relevant, representative, and reliable, and the writing as a whole should be well organized, developed, and edited.

STEPS FOR WRITING PERSUASIVELY

Step one: determine the topic.

The first step in writing a persuasive essay is to establish the topic. The best topic is one that interests you. You can generate ideas for a topic by prewriting, such as by brainstorming whatever comes to mind, recording in grocery-list fashion your thoughts, or freewriting in complete sentences what you know or think about topics of interest.

Whatever topic you choose, it needs to be:

• Interesting : The topic should appeal both to you and to your intended readers.
• Researchable : A body of knowledge should already exist on the topic.
• Nonfiction : The information about the topic should be factual, not based on personal opinions or conspiracy theories.
• Important : Your reader should think the topic is relevant to them or worthy of being explored and discussed.

Our sample student Maggie Durham has selected the topic of educational technology. We will use Maggie’s sample persuasive draft and final paper as we discuss the steps for writing a persuasive essay.

Step Two: Pose a Research Question

Once you have a topic, the next step is to develop a research question along with related questions that delve further into the first question. If you do not know what to ask, start with one of the question words: What? Who? Where? When? Why? and How? The research question helps you focus or narrow the scope of your topic by identifying a problem, controversy, or aspect of the topic that is worth exploration and discussion. Some general questions about a topic would be the following:

• Who is affected by this problem and how?
• Have previous efforts or polices been made to address this problem? – What are they?
• Why hasn’t this problem been solved already?

For Maggie’s topic of educational technology, potential issues or controversies range from data privacy to digital literacy to the impact of technology on learning, which is what Maggie is interested in. Maggie’s local school district has low literacy rates, so Maggie wants to know the following:

• Are there advantages and/or disadvantages of technology within primary and secondary education?
• Which types of technology are considered the best in terms of quality and endurance?
• What types of technology and/or programs do students like using and why?
• Do teachers know how to use certain technologies with curriculum design, instruction, and/or assessment?

Step Three: Draft a Thesis

A thesis is a claim that asserts your main argument about the topic. As you conduct your research and draft your paper, you may discover information that changes your mind about your thesis, so at this point in writing, the thesis is tentative. Still, it is an important step in narrowing your focus for research and writing.

The thesis should

1. be a complete sentence,

2. identify the topic, and

3. make a specific claim about that topic.

In a persuasive paper, the thesis is a claim that someone should believe or do something. For example, a persuasive thesis might assert that something is effective or ineffective. It might state that a policy should be changed or a plan should be implemented. Or a persuasive thesis might be a plea for people to change their minds about a particular issue.

Once you have figured out your research question, your thesis is simply the answer. Maggie’s thesis is “Schools should supply technology aids to all students to increase student learning and literacy rates.” Her next step is to find evidence to support her claim.

Step Four: Research

Once you have a topic, research question, and thesis, you are ready to conduct research. To find sources that would be appropriate for an academic persuasive essay, begin your search in the library. The Purdue Global Library has a number of tutorials on conducting research, choosing search teams, types of sources, and how to evaluate information to determine its reliability and usefulness. Remember that the research you use will not only provide content to prove your claim and develop your essay, but it will also help to establish your credibility as a reliable source (ethos), create a logical framework for your argument (logos), and appeal to your readers emotionally (pathos).

Step Five: Plan Your Argument; Make an Outline

Once you have located quality source information—facts, examples, definitions, knowledge, and other information that answers your research question(s), you’ll want to create an outline to organize it. The example outline below illustrates a logical organizational plan for writing a persuasive essay. The example outline begins with an introduction that presents the topic, explains the issue, and asserts the position (the thesis). The body then provides the reasoning for the position and addresses the opposing viewpoints that some readers may hold. In your paper, you could modify this organization and address the opposing viewpoints first and then give the reasoning for your viewpoints, or you can alternate and give one opposing viewpoint then counter that with your viewpoint and then give another opposing viewpoint and counter that with your viewpoint.

The outline below also considers the alternatives to the position—certainly, there are other ways to think about or address the issue or situation. Considering the alternatives can be done in conjunction with looking at the opposing viewpoints. You do not always have to disagree with other opinions, either. You can acknowledge that another solution could work or another belief is valid. However, at the end of the body section, you will want to stand by your original position and prove that in light of all the opposing viewpoints and other perspectives, your position has the most merit.

Sample Outline of a Persuasive Argument

• 1. Introduction: Tell them what you will tell them.
• a. Present an interesting fact or description to make the topic clear and capture the reader’s attention.
• b. Define and narrow the topic using facts or descriptions to illustrate what the situation or issue is (and that is it important).
• c. Assert the claim (thesis) that something should be believed or done about the issue. (Some writers also briefly state the reasons behind this claim in the thesis as Maggie does in her paper when she claims that schools should supply tablets to students to increase learning , engagement, and literacy rates ).
• 2. Body: Tell them.
• a. Defend the claim with logical reasons and practical examples based on research.
• b. Anticipate objections to the claim and refute or accommodate them with research.
• c. Consider alternate positions or solutions using examples from research.
• d. Present a final point based on research that supports your claim in light of the objections and alternatives considered.
• 3. Conclusion: Tell them what you told them.
• a. Recap the main points to reinforce the importance of the issue.
• b. Restate the thesis in new wording to reinforce your position.
• c. Make a final remark to leave a lasting impression, so the reader will want to continue this conversation and ideally adopt the belief or take the action you are advocating.

In Maggie’s draft, she introduced the topic with facts about school ratings in Texas and then narrowed the topic using the example of her local school district’s literacy rates. She then claimed the district should provide each student a tablet in order to increase learning (and thus, literacy rates).

Maggie defends her claim with a series of examples from research that proved how access to tablets, technology-integrated curriculums, and “flipped classrooms” have improved literacy rates in other districts. She anticipates objections to her proposal due to the high cost of technology and counter argues this with expert opinions and examples that show partnerships with businesses, personalized curriculums that technology makes possible, and teacher training can balance the costs. Maggie included an alternative solution of having students check out tablets from the library, but her research showed that this still left students needing Wi-Fi at home while her proposal would include a plan for students to access Wi-Fi.

Maggie concluded her argument by pointing out the cost of not helping the students in this way and restated her thesis reaffirming the benefits, and then left the reader with a memorable quote.

Click here to see Maggie’s draft with feedback from her instructor and a peer. Sample Persuasive Draft

Feedback, Revision, and Editing

After you write a draft of your persuasive essay, the next step is to have a peer, instructor, or tutor read it and provide feedback. Without reader feedback, you cannot fully know how your readers will react to your argument. Reader feedback is meant to be constructive. Use it to better understand your readers and craft your argument to more appropriately appeal to them.

Maggie received valuable feedback on her draft from her instructor and classmate. They pointed to where her thesis needed to be even more specific, to paragraphs where a different organization would make her argument more convincing, to parts of the paper that lacked examples, sentences that needed revision and editing for greater clarity, and APA formatting that needed to be edited.

Maggie also took a critical look at her paper and looked back at her writing process. One technique she found helpful was to read her paper aloud because it let her know where her wording and organization were not clear. She did this several times as she revised and again as she edited and refined her paper for sentence level clarity and concision.

In the end, Maggie produced a convincing persuasive essay and effective argument that would appeal to readers who are also interested in the way technology can impact and improve student learning, an important topic in 2014 when this paper was written and still relevant today.

Click here to see Maggie’s final draft after revising and editing. Sample Persuasive Revised

Share this:

• Click to email a link to a friend (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Reddit (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window)
• Click to share on Pinterest (Opens in new window)
• Click to print (Opens in new window)

Follow Blog via Email

Enter your email address to follow this blog and receive email notifications of new posts.

Email Address

• RSS - Posts
• RSS - Comments
• COLLEGE WRITING
• USING SOURCES & APA STYLE
• EFFECTIVE WRITING PODCASTS
• LEARNING FOR SUCCESS
• PLAGIARISM INFORMATION
• FACULTY RESOURCES
• Student Webinar Calendar
• Academic Success Center
• Writing Center
• About the ASC Tutors
• DIVERSITY TRAINING
• PG Peer Tutors
• PG Student Access

Subscribe to Blog via Email

Enter your email address to subscribe to this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email.

• College Writing
• Using Sources & APA Style
• Learning for Success
• Effective Writing Podcasts
• Plagiarism Information
• Faculty Resources
• Tutor Training

Twitter feed

Featured Topics

Featured series.

A series of random questions answered by Harvard experts.

Explore the Gazette

Read the latest.

This course changed how I see the world

That old ‘Gatsby’ magic, made new 

American Dream turned deadly

If it wasn’t created by a human artist, is it still art.

Illustration by Judy Blomquist/Harvard Staff

Harvard Staff Writer

Writer, animator, architect, musician, and mixed-media artist detail potential value, limit of works produced by AI

The emergence of AI-image generators, such as DALL-E 2 , Discord , Midjourney , and others, has stirred a controversy over whether art generated by artificial intelligence should be considered real art — and whether it could put artists and creators out of work. The Gazette spoke with faculty who are involved in the production of art — a writer, a film animator, an architect, a musician, and a mixed-media artist — to ask them whether they see AI as a threat or a collaborator or a tool to further their own creativity and imagination. The interviews have been edited for length and clarity.

“Most at risk are commercial genres with easily recognizable styles and tropes.”

Photo by Sasha Pedro

Novelist and short-story writer Daphne Kalotay , instructor, Creative Writing & Literature Program, Harvard Extension School

I recently judged a story contest, and reading the shortlist was a clue to the challenges AI might encounter in creating good writing versus great. The best of these human-written stories surprised me with 1) unique ways of viewing the world (personality), 2) linguistic originality, 3) inimitable details that could come only from personal experience. Other stories were written deftly yet lacked these elements of originality and surprise. AI is a superb mimic and quick learner and might easily write strong works in recognizable modes, and with linguistic experimentation if prompted, but — I think — will lack true insight and experience. Most at risk are commercial genres with easily recognizable styles and tropes. Even something like autofiction with its ruminating first-person narrators is easily mimicked — but what will be missing, I’m guessing, is genuine vision from living in a specific physical world.

“That sense of interplay, or the ability to react in the moment, is something that artificial intelligence can’t reproduce.”

Harvard file photo

Saxophonist, percussionist, and composer Yosvany Terry , senior lecturer on music, director of Jazz Bands

When it comes to the performative aspect of music, artificial intelligence is not a concern to me. Music can transmit and represent emotion, and AI cannot do either of those things yet. And especially within jazz and creative music, music is in-the-moment composition, something that happens as musicians are collaborating onstage. That sense of interplay, or the ability to react in the moment, is something that artificial intelligence can’t reproduce because to do that requires being intelligent and having the agency to use your curiosity and your musical vocabulary. Only then, you can be able to react and create music in the moment.

With regards to composition, we know that AI has been used to compose music for film and television for quite a few years. That is a concern because AI is doing the work that musicians used to do. But when you hear those compositions by AI, they lack surprise, emotion, and even silence. I love dramatism in music, and for me, emotion in music is important, and AI is not there yet. As for how music gets to people, this is where we have seen tremendous changes. The many music platforms we have, such as Spotify, YouTube, iTunes, etc., use algorithm-based features, and they make musical recommendations based on what you listen to. We all know that AI is behind it. Musicians would like to see algorithms suggest composers who are less known rather than those who are already popular. The new technology should democratize the field, make sure that people have access to things that are outside the mainstream, and learn to recognize musical traditions that are not only from the Western world.

It’s important to welcome AI with open arms to try to understand what AI can do for us and work with it in creative ways. Any new technology is first seen as a threat to the status quo, like the way radio was received when it first aired. There have always been movements opposing those innovations. I don’t think AI is different, but we must remember that all these innovations are man-made, and as humans we can create and innovate. As a musician, I think we should open our eyes, ears, and arms to work with the new knowledge and innovation that AI can bring.

“AI is acting like a sort of collective unconscious.”

Jon Chase/Harvard Staff Photographer

Independent animator Ruth Stella Lingford , senior lecturer on Art, Film, and Visual Studies

Often, when I speak to my contemporaries in the animation world, they prefer not to think much about AI. But of course, we need to.

Generally speaking, AI does threaten jobs in the animation industry. I’m told that it is already being used in some large studios. But it will also be a collaborator.

I am told by a knowledgeable friend that it would be possible to train AI on my style and have it work as an assistant in my work. I can see how this would be useful, but, as I actually like the repetitiveness of the animation process, the idea is not very appealing, at least for my own personal work. But it might be a tempting idea in commercial jobs, though I have not explored it yet. In my personal work, the repetition of hand drawing (I draw on a digital tablet) gives me access to a less conscious, intentional side of the creative process, which I think makes the work richer and more nuanced.

Although it is maybe far-fetched to talk about AI as creative or imaginative, the melding of images from different sources, with large elements of the random, closely approximates some aspects of the creative process. AI is acting like a sort of collective unconscious, and I do find some of what it produces very interesting. I don’t suppose that animated films made entirely by AI would be very successful, but used with human guidance throughout the process, they could probably work very well.

I recently attended the Annecy Festival , and many people I spoke to there talked about “riding the shark” — harnessing the power of AI while staying in control. People also predicted the audience’s fatigue with the look of AI. It was noticeable that a high proportion of films shown at this year’s festival were made using recognizably analog techniques — stop-motion, animated painting, etc. — and this seems like a reaction against the dominance of computer-generated imagery in the last years. We do seem to want to see evidence of the human hand. Of course, AI may soon be able to simulate that absolutely seamlessly!

A programmer I spoke to was of the opinion that the panic over the power of AI is hype-manufactured by its makers to disguise its limitations and make it seem sexier. This person saw it going the same way as VR, seeming to offer unlimited potential, but then fizzling out. I would like to think that he’s right, but I can’t quite believe it.

“We should be grateful to be challenged and knocked out of our habits and assumptions!”

File photo by Stephanie Mitchell/Harvard Staff Photographer

Mixed-media artist Matt Saunders ’97, professor and director of undergraduate studies, Department of Art, Film and Visual Studies

To the question of whether AI can be a threat or collaborator, I might respond that every new technology upends conventions and delivers not only new possibilities but a new kind of material intelligence. I am sure many artists will be intrigued by the “agency” of AI and seek ways to grapple or collaborate with it. Many already are. And we should be grateful to be challenged and knocked out of our habits and assumptions! Most of the things that worry me about this fall into the realm of the social and ethical. I hope there are great artists to help us imagine around and work with this new reality.

As to whether it could be creative or comparable, I end up in circular thinking. Art means what we ascribe to it. It can be a provocation, but it is essentially always part of a conversation. Many artists are already using the inventions (and provocations) of AI in works of great substance, but of course the artists are still the ones bringing it into the room. If things change, maybe that will change too.

“If we ask the right questions, AI is going to give us significant answers.”

Sipa via AP Images

Architect and urban planner Moshe Safdie , design critic in architecture, Graduate School of Design

  I’ve been following AI since the 1970s, when Marvin Minsky [one of the pioneers of artificial intelligence] and I spent time together. But AI has emerged as the product of an extraordinary computation capacity; algorithm, which is quite different from what Minsky had imagined when he started working on it. For him, AI was the science of making machines be as intelligent as humans, with the capacity for human reasoning.

Right now, it seems to me that AI has an extraordinary capacity to analyze, but I don’t see it yet doing the kinds of things we, architects, do in our head when we design, which involves taking into account a very large number of variables and sorting them out. And yet, as an architect, I think AI can change our lives. If we ask the right questions, AI is going to give us significant answers. For example, I can ask AI, “I have this building that’s sitting on this particular site, and I’d like to optimize the sun, the shadow pattern, and I’d like to position the windows at the place of optimal orientation,” and I think AI could give us a helpful response. We could perfect our designs or improve them based on the response. But I don’t think it’s going to give us the whole answer. For example, if you ask AI to make a garden with hideaways, clearings, and planting arrangements for all the seasons, I think it’ll do that very well. But if you want to have a garden arranged in a way that is magical and pleases you, I’m not sure it can do that.

I’m not frightened of AI at all. I’m intrigued. I think AI will be able to create graphic presentations of extraordinary beauty and interest, but that leads us to the question of what is art. Art has an element that is spiritual, emotional. It is something that happens when you look at Picasso’s “Guernica” and makes you think of the cruelty of humans to humans, or when you look at a Monet piece, and you feel the unity with nature. In terms of art created by AI, I don’t think we can call it art. I don’t see AI yet doing the kind of creative things we do. I can see that it composes a piece of music, but I don’t think it could create Beethoven’s last sonatas on its own. AI can imitate something that’s already been created and regurgitate it in another format, but that is not an original work.

When our firm designed the Jewel Changi Airport in Singapore, our idea was to have retail shops, airport facilities, and an attraction. The idea that this attraction should be a magical garden came from me. I wonder if AI could have come up with the same idea. I don’t think so, but who knows? That would be a very interesting test.

I don’t know if Minsky’s dream of artificial intelligence is attainable because it assumed that AI attains consciousness and independence of thoughts. Therefore, in some ways, artificial intelligence is a misnomer. Maybe I’m underestimating its capacity, but from where I stand as an amateur, because I’m an architect, not a mathematician, it seems to me that intelligence assumes a certain independence and consciousness, which I don’t think AI has right now.

Share this article

More like this.

Will ChatGPT supplant us as writers, thinkers?

What happens when computers take on one of ‘most human’ art forms?

Imagine a world in which AI is in your home, at work, everywhere

You might like.

A photographer’s love letter to ‘Vision and Justice’

Fitzgerald’s masterpiece, now the inspiration for a new A.R.T. musical, never reads the same 

He just needs to pass the bar now. But blue-collar Conor’s life spirals after a tangled affair at old-money seaside enclave in Teddy Wayne’s literary thriller

Finding right mix on campus speech policies

Legal, political scholars discuss balancing personal safety, constitutional rights, academic freedom amid roiling protests, cultural shifts

Good genes are nice, but joy is better

Harvard study, almost 80 years old, has proved that embracing community helps us live longer, and be happier

College sees strong yield for students accepted to Class of 2028  

Financial aid was a critical factor, dean says

• Share full article

Advertisement

Supported by

Can A.I. Rethink Art? Should It?

There is an increasing overlap between art and artificial intelligence. Some celebrate it, while others worry.

By Farah Nayeri

Reporting from Venice

The skeleton seems to be at the epicenter of a mystifying ritual.

In a new work by the French artist Pierre Huyghe, robots powered by artificial intelligence film the unburied remains of a man, and periodically position objects next to it in a ceremony that only they seem to understand. The scene takes place in the Atacama Desert in Chile, one of the planet’s oldest and driest deserts.

“Camata” is on view at the Punta della Dogana – Pinault Collection exhibition space, in a show concurrent with the Venice Biennale (through Nov. 24). It’s a stirring example of the increasing overlap between art and artificial intelligence, or A.I.

Those two vowels, placed side by side, seem to present a menace to many disciplines whose practitioners risk being replaced by smart and autonomous machines. Humanity itself could, at some future point, be replaced by superintelligent machines, according to some globally renowned thinkers and philosophers such as the Israeli historian Yuval Noah Harari and Stephen Hawking.

So why are artists dabbling with A.I.? And do they risk being extinguished by it?

“There’s always been an attraction, on the part of artists, for chance: something which is beyond your own control, something that liberates you from the finite subject,” said Daniel Birnbaum, a curator who is the artistic director of the digital art production platform Acute Art and a panelist at the Art for Tomorrow conference here this week convened by the Democracy & Culture Foundation with panels moderated by New York Times journalists.

Birnbaum said that Huyghe was among the artists who — rather than “overwhelming us with A.I.-generated nonsense from the internet” — are interested in exploring “places where nature and artificiality merge,” and where “biological systems and artificial systems somehow collaborate, creating visually strange things.”

In the world at large, Birnbaum acknowledged, there were “frightening scenarios” whereby artificially intelligent systems could control decisions made by governments or the military, and pose grave threats to humanity.

We are having trouble retrieving the article content.

Please enable JavaScript in your browser settings.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access. If you are in Reader mode please exit and  log into  your Times account, or  subscribe  for all of The Times.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access.

Already a subscriber?  Log in .

Want all of The Times?  Subscribe .

182+ Engaging Art Essay Topics to Spark Critical Thinking

Dec 24, 2023

Dec 24, 2023 | Topics

Delving into art essay topics opens up a captivating realm of possibilities. Have you ever wondered about interesting art topics that could make your essay stand out? Well, choosing the perfect topic is an art in itself. Whether you’re passionate about ancient civilizations’ artistic expressions or the contemporary allure of digital art, the options are endless. But how do you narrow down and choose a topic that truly sparks your interest? Don’t worry; we’ve got you covered. In exploring essay topics about art, we’ll guide you through selecting a compelling subject, making it a seamless journey from contemplating to writing an engaging essay. 

Ready to embark on this creative venture? Let’s dive into the fascinating world of art essay topics!

Best Art Essay Topics for College Students

• Baroque Analysis: Exploring the Intricacies and Aesthetics
• Art and Politics: Unraveling the Relationship and Impact
• Components of Sculptures in Ancient Greece: A Deeper Look into Form and Function
• Globalization in Contemporary Art: Navigating Cultural Exchange and Influence
• History of Inuit Art: Cultural Narratives Through Indigenous Creations
• Influences in Renaissance Art: Tracing the Inspirations and Innovations
• Is Photography Art? Debunking the Boundaries Between Capturing Moments and Artistic Expression
• Multiplicity of Forms in Modern Art: Embracing Diversity and Innovation
• Surrealism Analysis: Delving into the Dreamlike and Thought-Provoking Movement
• The Purpose of Art: Philosophical Perspectives on Creativity and Expression
• Analysis of Japanese Edo: Examining Aesthetic Traditions and Cultural Significance
• Art Therapy for Cognition Improvement: Exploring the Healing Power of Creativity
• Basic Principles of Futurism: A Futuristic Gaze into Artistic Manifestos
• Discuss Nazi Art during WWII: Examining Propaganda and Cultural Manipulation
• History of Ancient Art: Tracing Artistic Evolution from Antiquity to Modernity
• Is Anthropology an Art? Exploring the Intersections of Science and Creativity
• Is Art Education Really Necessary? Evaluating the Role of Formal Instruction in Artistic Development
• Modern Art and Its Legitimacy: Addressing Criticisms and Celebrating Innovation
• Paris as a Center of Art: The City of Lights and its Enduring Influence on Creativity
• Primaeval Musical Instruments: Exploring the Artistry in Ancient Sound
• Renaissance Analysis: Unpacking the Revival of Arts, Sciences, and Ideas
• Sacrifice in Mayan Art: Symbolism and Rituals in Ancient Mesoamerican Creations
• Stained Glass in Medieval France: Illuminating Spirituality through Artistic Craftsmanship
• The Evolution of Portraiture Throughout History: Tracing Representations of Identity

Most Interesting Art History Research Paper Topics

• The Art World Unveiled: Navigating Trends, Movements, and Influences
• Comparing and Contrasting Artistic Visions: A Study of Diverse Perspectives
• Beyond the Canvas: Analyzing Artwork Across Mediums and Cultures
• Form of Art: Understanding the Varied Expressions of Creativity
• Visual Art as a Language: Decoding Symbols, Imagery, and Messages
• Art Forms Across Time and Space: Tracing the Evolution of Creative Expression
• Great Art and Its Impact: Examining Masterpieces and Their Enduring Legacy
• Art School Chronicles: Education, Innovation, and the Shaping of Artists
• Unveiling the Unique: Exploring Distinctive Elements in the World of Art

Art Argumentative Essay Topics

• The Impact of Art Education: Advocating for Comprehensive Curriculum
• Art as a Catalyst for Social Change: Examining Activism through Creative Expression
• Cultural Appropriation in Art: Navigating the Boundaries of Influence and Respect
• The Legitimacy of Street Art: Challenging Conventional Notions of Public Expression
• The Role of Technology in Shaping Contemporary Art: Embracing Innovation or Losing Authenticity?
• Art and Politics: Analyzing the Intersection of Creativity and Governance
• Art Censorship: Balancing Freedom of Expression with Societal Sensibilities
• Public Funding for the Arts: Evaluating the Societal Value of Government Support
• Digital Art in the Age of Reproducibility: Examining the Notions of Originality and Authenticity
• Artistic Freedom in Commercial Spaces: Exploring the Line Between Creativity and Corporate Influence

Artist Biography Essay Ideas

• Exploring Unique Art: The Extraordinary Journey of [Artist’s Name]
• Art Styles Beyond Boundaries: Unraveling [Artist’s Name]’s Diverse Creative Palette
• Behind the Canvas: Navigating Privacy Policies in [Artist’s Name]’s Biography
• Should Skeletons in the Closet Stay Hidden? A Candid Look at the Personal Struggles of [Artist’s Name]
• A List of Talented Artists: [Artist’s Name] and Their Indelible Mark on the Artistic Landscape
• Artists’ Biographies Unveiled: A Comparative Analysis of [Artist’s Name] and Their Peers
• You’ve Found the Hidden Gems: [Artist’s Name]’s Lesser-Known Masterpieces
• “Art” Redefined: [Artist’s Name]’s Impact on Shaping Current Trends in the Art World
• Contemporary Art Styles: [Artist’s Name] and Their Exploration of Evolving Aesthetics
• Should Artists Be Allowed to Challenge Norms? [Artist’s Name] and the Quest for Artistic Freedom

Riveting Modern Art Research Paper Topics

• Art Beyond Boundaries: Exploring the Unique Perspectives of Modern Creators
• The Brainstorming Process in Modern Art: Unveiling Creative Techniques and Inspirations
• Influential Artists of the 21st Century: Impact, Innovation, and Cultural Contributions
• The Unusual Career Paths in Modern Art: Navigating Non-Traditional Trajectories
• Three Centuries of Evolution: Tracing the Dynamic Changes in Modern Art
• Ethnic Groups in Contemporary Art: Celebrating Diversity and Cultural Representation
• Cause-and-Effect Dynamics in Modern Art Movements: Analyzing Catalysts and Outcomes
• The Art That Provides Us Insight: A Deeper Look into Modern Works with Profound Meaning
• Revolutionary Perspectives: Examining How Modern Art Redefines Tradition and Norms
• Unpacking the Creative Process: How Modern Artists Transform Ideas into Masterpieces

Engrossing Art Research Paper Topics on Artist Biography

• The Formative Years: Investigating the Early Life of [Artist’s Name] and Its Impact on Their Art
• Artistic Evolution: Tracing the Creative Journey of [Artist’s Name] Over the Decades
• Personal Struggles and Artistic Triumphs: Unveiling the Skeletons in [Artist’s Name]’s Closet
• Cultural Influences: Exploring How Ethnic Groups Shaped [Artist’s Name]’s Artistic Identity
• Beyond the Canvas: [Artist’s Name]’s Unusual Career Path and Its Reflection in Their Art
• Legacy in Three Centuries: Assessing the Enduring Impact of [Artist’s Name]’s Contributions
• Artistic Inspirations: Investigating the Unique Perspectives That Guided [Artist’s Name]
• Cause-and-Effect Dynamics: Analyzing External Factors That Shaped [Artist’s Name]’s Artistic Choices

Thought-Provoking Art Research Topics on Different Epochs

• Creative Revival: Unraveling the Renaissance and Its Impact on Artistic Expression
• Baroque Splendor: Analyzing the Dramatic and Ornate in 17th-Century Art
• Enlightenment Aesthetics: Tracing the Influence of Philosophy on 18th-Century Art
• Romanticism Unveiled: Exploring Emotion, Nature, and Individualism in the 19th Century
• Industrial Revolution and Artistic Response: Examining the Shifts in the 19th-Century Art World
• Modernism’s Paradigm Shift: Investigating the Break from Tradition in the 20th Century
• Postmodern Perspectives: Deconstructing Art in the Late 20th Century
• 21st-Century Art in the Digital Age: Navigating the Intersection of Technology and Creativity

Art History Essay Topics

• Unravelling the Symbolism: A Deep Dive into the Allegorical Meanings in Renaissance Art
• A Comparative Analysis of Classical and Contemporary Art Forms: Evolution or Revolution?
• Cultural Exchange through Art: Tracing the Globalization of Artistic Influences
• Female Artists in History: Overcoming Barriers and Redefining Artistic Narratives
• The Impact of Art Movements on Society: From Impressionism to Abstract Expressionism
• The Role of Patronage in Shaping Artistic Creation: Examining Historical Support Systems
• The Influence of Religion on Art: From Ancient Mythology to Contemporary Spirituality
• Artistic Responses to Sociopolitical Turmoil: Examining the Intersection of Creativity and Activism

Intriguing Art Research Topics on Different Cultures

• Artistic Traditions in Ancient Mesopotamia: Symbolism and Cultural Significance
• Indigenous Art of the Americas: Exploring Diverse Expressions across Native Cultures
• The Aesthetics of East Asian Ink Painting: Examining Techniques and Philosophical Influences
• African Art Beyond Borders: A Comparative Study of Visual Cultures Across Regions
• Oceania’s Artistic Richness: Navigating Creativity in Pacific Islander and Australian Indigenous Art
• South Asian Visual Narratives: From Ancient Temples to Contemporary Masterpieces
• Art and Ritual in Ancient Mesoamerica: Decoding Symbolism in Aztec and Maya Creations
• Islamic Art: Tracing Aesthetic Traditions and Cultural Flourishing Across Centuries

Potential Arts Essay Topics

• The Intersection of Art and Technology: Examining the Impact of Digital Innovation
• Cultural Identity in Contemporary Art: An Exploration of Diversity and Representation
• Beyond the Canvas: Analyzing Public Art Installations and Their Societal Influence
• The Role of Art Museums in Shaping Cultural Understanding and Appreciation
• Environmental Art: Exploring the Connection Between Creativity and Ecological Awareness
• Art as Therapy: Investigating the Healing Potential of Creative Expression
• The Evolution of Street Art: From Subculture to Mainstream Influence
• Art in the Age of Social Media: Navigating the Impact of Online Platforms on Creative Practices

List of Art Essay Topic Ideas

• Exploring the Symbolism in Surrealist Art: Unraveling Hidden Meanings
• The Impact of Pop Art on Contemporary Visual Culture: A Cultural Revolution
• Artistic Responses to Political Turmoil: Activism Through Creativity
• The Aesthetics of Minimalism: Examining Simplicity in Modern Art
• Indigenous Artistic Traditions: Preserving and Celebrating Cultural Heritage
• Evolution of Abstract Expressionism: From Pollock to Contemporary Innovations
• Art and Gender: Deconstructing Stereotypes and Empowering Perspectives
• The Role of Art Institutions in Shaping Public Perception: Museums, Galleries, and Beyond

Art piece analysis topic ideas

• Analyzing the Use of Color and Light in Vincent van Gogh’s “Starry Night”
• The Composition and Symbolism of Leonardo da Vinci’s “The Last Supper”
• Exploring the Emotional Impact of Edvard Munch’s “The Scream”
• Deconstructing the Geometric Precision in Kazimir Malevich’s “Black Square”
• Examining the Social Commentary in Grant Wood’s “American Gothic”
• The Surrealist Elements in Salvador Dalí’s “The Persistence of Memory”
• Dissecting the Dynamic Movement in Auguste Rodin’s “The Thinker”
• Investigating the Cultural Influences in Frida Kahlo’s “The Two Fridas”

Modern art topic ideas

• Exploring Abstract Expressionism: The Freedom of Gesture in Modern Art
• Digital Art and its Impact on Visual Creativity: Navigating the Virtual Canvas
• Minimalist Art: Embracing Simplicity and Spatial Relationships
• Postmodern Perspectives: Deconstructing Narratives in Contemporary Art
• Street Art as a Form of Urban Expression: From Graffiti to Murals
• Environmental Art and Ecological Consciousness: The Intersection of Nature and Creativity
• The Influence of Technology on Contemporary Artistic Practices: Beyond Traditional Mediums
• Artistic Responses to Social and Political Issues in the 21st Century

Fascinating Photography Topics Ideas

• Capturing Time: Long Exposure Photography and Its Aesthetic Impact
• Documentary Photography in Conflict Zones: The Power of Visual Storytelling
• The Art of Portraiture: Exploring Identity and Expression Through Photography
• Mobile Photography Revolution: How Smartphones Have Transformed the Medium
• Architectural Photography: Unveiling the Beauty and Symmetry of Structures
• Environmental Photography and Conservation: Communicating the Urgency of Climate Change
• Experimental Photography Techniques: Pushing the Boundaries of Visual Representation
• Photography and Memory: Examining the Relationship Between Images and Personal Narratives

Art around the world essay topics

• Cross-Cultural Influences in Contemporary Global Art Scenes
• Indigenous Art Traditions: Celebrating Diversity Across the Globe
• Public Art as Cultural Heritage: Murals, Monuments, and Civic Identity
• Artistic Responses to Global Issues: A Panoramic View of Activism Through Creativity
• Artistic Exchange on the Global Stage: International Biennales and Exhibitions
• Cultural Diplomacy Through Art: Promoting Understanding and Tolerance
• The Impact of Globalization on Traditional Art Practices: Preservation or Transformation?
• Transcending Borders: Exploring the Intersection of Migration and Artistic Expression

Contemporary Art Essay Topics

• Exploring the Intersection of Technology and Contemporary Art
• The Role of Contemporary Art in Shaping Social and Political Discourse
• Conceptual Art: A Critical Examination of Ideas and Intentions
• Environmental Consciousness in Contemporary Art: Navigating the Eco-Aesthetic
• Contemporary Art and Identity: Representations and Challenges
• Digital Media and the Evolution of Visual Narratives in Art
• The Impact of Globalization on Contemporary Art Practices
• Beyond Boundaries: Transdisciplinary Approaches in Contemporary Art Creation

Art Appreciation Essay Topics

• The Evolution of Artistic Styles: A Journey Through Art History
• Appreciating the Aesthetics of Classical Portraiture: From Antiquity to the Renaissance
• Symbolism in Art: Decoding Meaning and Metaphor in Visual Language
• Art and Emotion: How Creativity Elicits and Reflects Human Feelings
• The Role of Color Theory in Visual Arts: A Palette of Expression
• Artistic Interpretation: Examining Subjectivity in the Appreciation of Art
• Cultivating a Critical Eye: Analyzing Composition and Design in Art
• Art in Everyday Life: Finding Beauty in the Mundane and Familiar

Artistic Essay Topics for High School Students

• The Renaissance Revival: Exploring Classical Artistic Influences in the Modern World
• Street Art as a Form of Urban Expression: Graffiti, Murals, and Creativity
• Art and Activism: How Creativity Can Drive Social Change
• Artistic Evolution: Tracing the Development of a Specific Art Movement
• The Power of Portraiture: Capturing Identity and Emotion in Art
• Art in Popular Culture: Analyzing its Influence on Fashion, Music, and Film
• The Intersection of Art and Technology: Digital Innovation in the Creative Sphere
• Environmental Art: Advocating for Eco-Consciousness Through Visual Expression

Top 15 Art Topics on Ancient Civilizations

• Ancient Egyptian Art: Symbolism and Spirituality in Hieroglyphics
• Mesopotamian Art: Cultural Expression in Sumer, Babylon, and Assyria
• Greek Sculpture: Capturing Ideal Beauty in Marble and Bronze
• Roman Frescoes and Mosaics: Depicting Daily Life in Ancient Rome
• Mayan Murals: Unraveling Stories on the Walls of Mesoamerican Cities
• Indus Valley Civilization Seals: Artistic Impressions of Ancient Societies
• Chinese Calligraphy: Aesthetic Beauty and Cultural Significance
• Persian Art: Influences on the Achaemenid Empire’s Visual Language
• Minoan Frescoes: Scenes of Life in the Bronze Age Aegean
• Ancient Indian Cave Paintings: Spiritual Narratives in Ajanta and Ellora
• Pre-Columbian Pottery: Artistry and Functionality in Native American Cultures
• Etruscan Funerary Art: Examining Tombs and Ritualistic Objects
• Olmec Stone Heads: Mysterious Sculptures of Pre-Columbian Mexico
• Hittite Metalwork: Craftsmanship and Artistry in Anatolia
• Ancient Sumerian Cylinder Seals: Engraved Impressions of Mesopotamian Societies

Get Help With Your Art Essay Paper

Are you struggling with your art essay paper? Fret not! Essay Freelance Writers is your go-to solution in the industry. Our expert writers are here to assist you in crafting a stellar art essay and wondering how to get started. Click the “ORDER NOW” button above to place your order . Need help with choosing an art essay topic or structuring your paper? Our team is here to guide you through the process. So, why stress over your art essay when you can get professional help with just a click? Please order today, and let us transform your essay into a masterpiece!

What are the topics of art?

Art encompasses many topics, ranging from classical art movements like the Renaissance to contemporary expressions such as digital and street art.

What should I write my art essay about?

The choice of your art essay topic depends on your interests. Consider exploring unique aspects like symbolism in famous paintings or the cultural impact of a specific art movement.

How do I choose an art topic?

To choose an art topic, reflect on your interests and passions within the art world. Whether it’s delving into the aesthetics of a certain era or analyzing the impact of a particular artist, find a subject that resonates with you.

What are the best essay topics?

The best essay topic is subjective and depends on your preferences. Opt for a topic that interests you and allows for in-depth exploration and analysis.

With a passion for education and student empowerment, I create blog content that speaks directly to the needs and interests of students. From study hacks and productivity tips to career exploration and personal development

People Also Read

• 80+ Art Debate Topics That Will Get You Thinking
• Top 100 Critical Thinking Essay Topics for Students
• Outstanding Profile Essay Topics

Most Popular Articles

Racism thesis statement example, how to rephrase a thesis statement, capstone project topic suggestions, how to write an abortion essay, should students wear school uniforms essay, list causal essay topics write, respect essay, signal words, great synonyms, informative speech examples, essay writing guide, introduction paragraph for an essay, argumentative essay writing, essay outline templates, write an autobiographical essay, personal narrative essay ideas, descriptive essay writing, how to write a reflective-essay, how to write a lab report abstract, how to write a grant proposal, point of view in an essay, debate topics for youth at church, theatre research paper topics, privacy overview.

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

Genre Conventions

22 Argument and Digital Writing

By the excelsior online writing lab.

So, by now, you must feel like you’re becoming an expert in all of this argument stuff, even though there is a lot take in. However, before you conclude any lessons in writing good arguments, it’s important to think about the different forms arguments can take.

It’s not all about the essays, and though they are likely to be an important part of most college classes,  digital writing  is likely to play a role as well. You may be asked to create an argumentative presentation to supplement your essay, or you may be asked to create a web page or photo essay instead.

When you enter the world of digital writing, the same rhetorical principals will apply: You have to think about your  audience ,  purpose , and  voice , and you have to consider your persuasiveness by thinking about how you will appeal to  ethos ,  pathos , and  logos . It’s just the medium of presentation might be different.

The following pages will offer some important tips on creating arguments in digital environments and link you to some additional resources, which can be helpful as you work with the technology.

Argumentative Presentations

All good presentations have a clear purpose, and an argumentative presentation will have a  clear  argumentative  purpose .

Many college students are required to build presentations to present information to an audience, and your writing class is likely no different. Chances are, you’ll use  PowerPoint ,  Prezi , or some other presentation software to build a presentation that would present your argument to a broader audience.

Before you begin to build your presentation, be sure to review the tips and help on creating effective PowerPoints and Prezis in the  Online Writing & Presentations  area of the Excelsior OWL. Then, remember the lessons you have learned about building a good argument and apply those to your presentation.

Here are some things to keep in mind:

• Remember to present your thesis statement or main idea clearly, and remember it should present your argument.
• Provide the highlights of your evidence from your essay (if you are building from an essay) or simply focus on the key points of evidence from your research.
• Remember to address the opposition. How you do this will depend upon your goals and the type of argument you are making, but you should always do it.
• Use images relevant to your points as evidence. Images are powerful and are important pieces of an effective presentation.
• Always cite your sources

The sample video linked below was created using Prezi by a student in a beginning writing class. She took an essay she had written on issues in the clothing industry ( Cheap Thrills: The Price of Fast Fashion ) and developed a Prezi to share with a broader audience. Click here to see how one student developed an argumentative presentation for her writing class.

Argument and the Web

Fortunately, there are plenty of free sites out there that offer free web space and easy-to-use programs. In fact, you can have your very own web page with just a little pointing and clicking.

Free and easy-to-use sites for creating web pages for your classes can be found at sites like  Wix ,  Weebly , and even  Google Sites . In fact, if you have a Gmail account, you have access to some free web space already.

The key is to remember you are bringing your argument to a different environment—the web, so you wouldn’t just copy and paste your argumentative essay, plop it in the site, and call it good.

• Reformat your paper to make it work for the web.  This means shorter paragraphs, no more MLA or APA headings, and a font that works well. Times New Roman may be required for your college essays but won’t work well for the web.
• Use images to bring your argument to life.  This could be pictures or graphics. If you get them from other sources, be sure you have permission or use images available for reuse. And, always cite them!
• Remember, when you present your sources, link to them.  One great benefit of writing for the web is that you can make it so easy for your audience to find out more from your sources by linking directly to them.
• Study other web pages  to get an idea about what works well and what will work well for your rhetorical situation.

Argument in Photo Essays

If you’re building your first photo essay, get ready for an exciting challenge. A  photo essay  is essentially a story—or in this case, an argument—that is made through mainly images instead of text.

When you build an argumentative photo essay, just as with any other essay, you’re going to think about what your main argument is and what kind of evidence you’ll use to support your claims. In the case of a photo essay, your evidence comes through visually via pictures.

For example, let’s say you want to create a photo essay about people who live with food insecurity in your area. You would want to take pictures of people who deal with food insecurity, perhaps take pictures of their pantries and refrigerators. These pictures could be extremely powerful and persuasive. The appeals to  pathos  would be strong and moving.

Of course, you should be sure to get permission before you take anyone’s pictures, but photo essays can be a wonderful opportunity to express your creativity and make your argument in a powerful manner.

Sometimes, seeing an example is the best way to get started with a new project. The video below shows a sample student photo essay on the dangers of plastic . Notice the powerful argument the student is able to make by using images and very little text.

Argument in Video Essays

An argumentative video essay uses video to present an argument and can be very powerful. If you think about it, the documentaries you watch are actually really long, argumentative video essays.

Of course, the video essays you make do not have to be the length of a documentary and do not have to be as fancy. But creating a video essay can be an exciting endeavor and a great way to get your arguments and ideas to a wider audience.

In a video essay, you  use videos, images, text, and narration  to present your argument. For example, if you’re creating an argument to call for changes to environmental policies in your area, instead of writing a traditional argumentative essay, it would be extremely powerful to create a video essay, which would allow you to use videos and images of the environments you hope to improve.

The  Online Writing & Presentations  area of the Excelsior OWL offers some helpful tips and software advice for creating a strong  video essay . Remember, you must argue a point!

You can also check out this student’s sample persuasive video essay created for her college application package.

Argumentative Portfolio Letters

If you’re in a class that requires a writing portfolio, you’ll likely be required to submit a reflective cover letter that introduces your work to your audience. In some cases, that audience is your professor, but in other cases, that audience is a committee of professors.

Many times, this reflective cover letter will have an argumentative angle to it. You may be working to make the case that your work shows you have met the requirements of a course or a program and are ready to move on to the next level in your writing.

Thinking about the lessons you have learned in this area of the Excelsior OWL can help you write that letter. If you’re making an argument that your writing meets the requirements of a course or program, what examples and evidence can you provide to your audience? What examples or evidence should you provide? What tone will you take?

The following sample outline for a portfolio letter shows you how this type of writing is really persuasive and what kinds of things you might consider including in your own letter. Of course, this is just a sample outline, and different courses and programs will have different requirements. Still, if you approach your portfolio letter as a persuasive letter, you are likely to be more convincing to the portfolio scoring committee, or your professor, that you have met the requirements of the course and are ready to move forward with your writing.

• In your introduction, provide the portfolio committee with a little background about yourself as a writer . Don’t tell your life story but describe some of your past experiences as a writer. Where were you starting from as a writer when you began this course?
• At the end of your introduction,  provide a thesis statement  that makes a clear assertion about your growth as a writer and what the portfolio committee can expect to see in your portfolio.
• In your body paragraphs, spend some time discussing each piece of your portfolio . Give specific examples of your work, your revision, and what you learned. Make sure you address the outcomes or goals of your course. How does your work reflect these outcomes being met? You may need several pages to make your case here. Be sure to review length requirements with your professor.
• In your conclusion,  explore your continued struggles as a writer,  acknowledge where you want to go, but remind the committee that you have grown and made improvements thanks to your work in the course.

Attributions

• Saavedra, S. (2010, April 18).  The Plastic Soup Photo Essay . [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SQh898IcOgM
• JrdJay. (2011, December 19). College Video Essay. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DJnf7zw_30QCV
• “ Argument & Digital Writing ”  by the Excelsior Online Writing Lab is licensed under CC BY 4.0 .

Writing Arguments in STEM Copyright © by Jason Peters; Jennifer Bates; Erin Martin-Elston; Sadie Johann; Rebekah Maples; Anne Regan; and Morgan White is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Feedback/errata.

Comments are closed.

Digital Tools for Written Argumentation

• Open Access
• First Online: 15 September 2023

Cite this chapter

You have full access to this open access chapter

• Kalliopi Benetos   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8259-7303 8  

5286 Accesses

1 Citations

3 Altmetric

Digital tools for argumentative writing aimed, from early on, to support the use of argumentation to develop knowledge about the topic being argued. Many products were initially created to serve research purposes, and few developed in the last thirty years have made it to the educational technology market for use by instructors and writers. Others are reserved for institutional use or have become obsolete. More recently, research in argumentative writing has moved away from digital platform development specifically aimed at argumentative writing, to simpler generic diagramming and collaboration tools to be integrated in learning activities. Development has focused more on analytic approaches to generating representations of writing (processes and products), while research has shifted towards strategy instruction and related design principles. A selection of differing environments developed to support argumentative writing will be presented to highlight the evolution and the gaps in digital tools for written argumentation.

You have full access to this open access chapter,  Download chapter PDF

• Computer-supported argumentation
• Digital authoring tools
• Written argumentation

1 Introduction

Argumentation has been used for millennia as a means of investigating claims through critical thinking to arrive at informed decisions and build knowledge. Argumentative writing is used in a wide range of academic contexts as a means to develop, convey and measure an individual’s learning and understanding of a selected topic. While the structures, practices and conventions of argumentation may vary from one domain to another (for example in Law, Science or Medicine), written argumentation is valued as a pedagogical approach because it calls upon cognitive and meta-cognitive processes demanded by both writing to learn and argumentation. It also calls upon cognitive and metacognitive skills particular to written argumentation such as goal setting on the topic and task level (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987 ; Felton & Herko, 2004 ; Galbraith, 1999 ), and the acquisition and application of knowledge of the structure of discourse and its components (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987 ; Flower et al., 1986 ). It also involves the recall and reconstitution of domain-specific knowledge and the evaluation of the validity of arguments and counterarguments (Limon, 2001 ), as well as a self-evaluation of both process and learning goals (Flower et al., 1986 ) and the capacity to engage in and self-regulate metacognitive reflection (Felton & Herko, 2004 ; Karoly, 1993 ; Limon, 2001 ). It offers the opportunity to consider multiple perspectives and to confront, reason and resolve contradictions that arise so as to expand and deepen knowledge and enable changes in conceptual understanding (Andriessen, 2006 ; Kuhn, 2001 ; Leitão, 2000 ; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 2006 ). Engaging in argumentative writing thus requires that a vast range of skills be learned in order to engage the critical thinking and writing strategies needed to produce academic level argumentative texts and learn through the processes involved.

Technologies for supporting written argumentation support three main activities: learning to argue , arguing to learn and learning about argumentation (Andriessen et al., 2003 ). Though there are numerous technologies and software to support reasoning and argument construction, our focus in this chapter is on technologies that aim more intentionally to support the development of skills necessary for writing academic texts using the argumentation genre to present and support a hypothesis or thesis statements within linear text formats of which learning to argue and arguing to learn is indisputably a part.

1.1 Background

Computer-supported argumentation technologies burgeoned in the late 1990’s and early 2000’s with early support for generating and analysing arguments through markup languages that could be used to analyze, formalize, diagram and visualize argument structures and components based on argumentation models drawn from Toulmin ( 1958 ) and Walton ( 2008 ), among others. These systems used diagramming devices to graphically organise units of information (textual nodes) and their relations (links) using visual properties to attribute to them their function in argumentation based on defined argumentation ontologies and models (Desmet et al., 2005 ; Gordon & Walton, 2006 ; Reed & Rowe, 2001 ; Smolensky et al., 1987 ). Current argumentative writing tools still embody selected models of argumentation or strategy instruction formalized in frameworks and markup languages and that are represented and rendered operational through the applications or devices within platforms or systems and the guidance they offer.

As digital technologies for delivering applications online evolved, an abundance of diagramming tools has become readily available through navigators (Cmap Tools, Footnote 1 Cacoo, Footnote 2 Diagrams.net, Footnote 3 Mindjet, etc.) or commonly used applications (Microsoft Word, Microsoft PowerPoint, Google Draw, Google Docs). Diagramming tools allow users to create text within shape forms or nodes , and join them together using arrows and lines to create visual links (see Sect.  2 chapter Creativity Software and Idea Mapping Technology). In parallel, argumentation systems designed specifically for diagramming argumentation and writing argumentative texts have become more heavily standardized systems or have given way to strategy instruction combined with simple generic tools to diagram and produce argumentations. In this chapter, we review several digital argumentation systems, their underlying technologies and functionalities, and discuss which cognitive and metacognitive skills are called upon and supported by these systems. We describe how such applications can generate representations of writing processes, support argumentation, and facilitate strategy instruction. Possible developments and tendencies leading to the divergence between multi-feature domain-specific systems with heavily prescribed uses, to more generic multi-purpose, readily available devices in combination with scripting or strategy-based approaches will be discussed. We argue that this use of technology reflects instructors’ and learners’ preference for versatility in software as opposed fully digitalized writing-support systems.

2 The Core Idea Behind Digital Systems for Argumentation

Argumentation systems often integrate multiple technologies to offer systems that include various devices and services for processes and activities related to generating or analysing argumentation. Applications and platforms offer various devices to scaffold argumentative writing, using diagramming and outlining, and prompts for generating, elaborating and linking arguments, alone or in combination with textual or graphical representations, to offer progress indicators on states and goals to be achieved and guide actions to be taken (see examples shown in Figs.  1 , 2 , 3 and 4 ). They provide process and product models for constructing arguments, with or without strategy instruction.

Within these digital environments, users learn through the process of written argumentation by completing tasks using the support embodied in various suggested use schemes and representations of components and actions to be taken to build arguments and argumentations. They can provide contextual cognitive aid through prompts for the development of ideas and the linguistic means to link these ideas. This is achieved in the tools themselves through diagramming, outlining and elaborating text. Knowledge is built by developing an argument, which creates the mental scaffolding for learning content.

Additionally, users of these digital argumentation tools can learn about argumentation through the representations and guidance. They diagram and outline their argument to visualize it, organizing arguments according to their relationships to each other and the rhetorical goal. As such, digital argumentation systems offer support for learning and mastering the structure of discourse on the local argument level, and with regards to its function within the textual discourse moving towards a global rhetorical goal.

Finally, users learn to argue through practising reasoning and learning about the conventions of argumentation. Through various awareness tools that reveal traces of interactions, they can also be encouraged to collaborate with or solicit feedback from peers and instructors about the structure, purpose and effectiveness of the argumentative writing, and become aware of procedures implicit in the embedded scripts. This can be achieved through diagramming and dynamic feedback, as well as reading or elaborating text.

3 Examples of Digital Tools for Written Argumentation

Recently, digital argumentation tools have moved from purpose-specific systems to general interaction devices that can be exploited for diagramming, leaving guidance and strategy instruction to the classroom rather than embodied in the system. In what follows, we will present and discuss a selection of digital argumentation environments currently in use or development that support reasoning and argumentative discourse but differ in the forms and types scaffolding and representations they offer as well as their prescribed uses. By assessing the main similarities and differences in their affordances and prescribed uses, we will be better positioned to identify factors that may explain the scant and slow adoption of digital tools for argumentative writing in classroom settings. We will look more closely at the following representative sample of environments currently in use and their tools: Rationale, Endoxa Learning, Kialo and C-SAW.

With the exception of more generic concept mapping tools, the systems presented here were developed from academic research-based contexts aiming to improve argumentation skills and learning from argumentation in educational contexts (K-12, undergraduate or graduate levels) with the goal of building academic writing skills.

3.1 Rationale

Rationale is a pay-for-service web-based environment designed for “argument mapping” to support reasoning. It allows learners to create maps in order to “structure arguments,” “analyse reasoning,” “identify assumptions,” and “evaluate evidence,” ( Rationale, 2022). Rationale is the most complex of this sampling of digital systems for written argumentation, offering templates and examples for scaffolding written argumentation in various contexts.

Rationale allows users to create and change a visual representation of their line of argument. This starts with a main argument, a claim, a position, a proposition, or a contention. Users then build on that argument by adding reasons to support their main argument to which objections can also be added. Reasons and objections can be supported by examples and additional nodes for citations or statistics.

There are three map types (argumentation schemes) in Rationale: Grouping , Reasoning and Advanced Reasoning . While Grouping allows learners to link ideas, Reasoning and Advanced Reasoning allow them to design an argumentation (Fig.  1 ). Rationale can be used to question the validity and clarity of an argument and its structural components. It offers an “Evaluate,” menu where users can qualify or rate argument components. Rationale is not a synchronous collaborative tool, but users can share maps so they can be modified by others. It also offers note taking for idea-generation and multiple essay planning templates for various argumentation genres to guide drafting outlines and structuring the text as a whole (linearization). The text produced is visible in a sidebar and can be exported as a Word document.

Though the justification of the design and prescribed uses of Rationale are explicitly founded on research on the benefits of computer-aided argument mapping (Davies, 2009 ; van Gelder, 2007 ), much of the research using Rationale does not aim to look at the particular mediating effects of Rationale’s specific devices and their affordances. Rather, it exploits artifacts and traces to examine the effects of computer-aided argument mapping in general on thinking and writing (Lengbeyer, 2014 ; Maftoon et al., 2014 ).

Rationale interface showing categories of argumentation schemes and essay support

3.2 Endoxa Learning

Endoxa Learning is a relative newcomer to the domain of argument diagramming (graphing). Aimed at improving academic argumentation by scaffolding reasoning and critical thinking, it targets primarily educational institutions. It includes off-the-shelf lesson plans with ready-made topical argument graphs based on an existing corpus that learners can peruse or engage with and elaborate, and integrates quiz functionalities to evaluate learning acquisition. Unlike most argument diagramming systems, Endoxa Learning (Fig.  2 ), uses Walton’s critical questions approach to engage reflection upon different argument types (e.g., analogy, generalizations, cause and effect) that is more adapted to hypothesis testing and problem-solving in science and engineering teaching domains, rather than the more commonly used Aristotelian thesis-antithesis-synthesis or Toulmin argumentation models. (Nussbaum & Edwards, 2011 ). Each type of argument presented by the user has characteristic ways in which it can be supported or undermined, and these are captured by the critical questions suggested (purple node in Fig.  2 ) While it currently uses some corpora for the generation of context or argument-type specific guidance prompts, further topic and domain specific corpora integration is currently under development.

Research specific to the use of the Endoxa Learning has yet to be published, but the website offers a whitepaper and a list of research publications upon which its design and development is founded ( Key Articles - Endoxa Learning , 2022 ).

An example from using Endoxa Learning a two-step argument to draw a conclusion. Questions marks raise critical questions. Brain icons call up factual information and sources

Kialo is a web-based platform which aims to provide an environment for collaborative structured discourse and debate. While Rationale, Endoxa Learning and C-SAW focus more on guiding learners to create and modify an argument through learner-system, instructor-system and learner-instructor interactions, Kialo is based on peer feedback, and, to a lesser extent, strategy instruction. Discussions on Kialo can be public, or private and Kialo-edu provides closed debate spaces for instructors and classroom use with added class management services.

Using Kialo (Fig.  3 ), learners may create a thesis or join an existing discussion. Learners and their peers can add pro or con arguments to the thesis, and comment on the arguments. Arguments are nested in branches and threads that can be expanded and rearranged. The nesting visual interface, like Rationale, gives the learners a representation of how arguments in an argumentative essay are built.

Debate Structure in Kialo

Kialo offers little contextual guidance towards constructing a valid or sound argument. While it allows one to export a discussion in text format, it does not give any explicit guidance or devices for organizing a collection (branch) of arguments into a linear text.

The Help section, however, offers clarifications on what makes a good claim, how to support a claim and how to use sources, which can be considered a basic form of strategy instruction external to the application. The evaluation of the soundness of arguments relies on a peer voting system. This may raise awareness about the target audience of a well-written arguments, but it does not provide prompts for good writing per se.

Kialo is not used exclusively for supporting written argumentation. It can also be used in different contexts for decision making. With the advent of web 2.0 technologies that spurred the social web, online debating platforms began to flourish and remain popular, but subject to short lifespans. Kialo, with its added learning management and export options has become one of the most popular digital argumentation tools, with many other similar ones available online: Acceptify, Footnote 4 Socratrees, Footnote 5 DebateGraph. Footnote 6

3.4 C-SAW (Computer-Supported Argumentative Writer)

C-SAW, a web-based authoring software, aims to scaffold writing processes of novices within instructional designs that use argumentative writing as a pedagogical approach to develop reasoning, knowledge construction and critical thinking. It is built upon ArgEssML, an XML markup language specifically designed for developing digital tools for argumentative writing. ArgEssML and the C-SAW interface embody design principles derived from research on written argumentation, self-regulation and conceptual change and several cycles of participatory design-based research (Benetos, 2017 ).

C-SAW aims to help novices of argumentative text composition to develop and structure their written texts. It introduces prompts and devices designed to engage writers in the self-regulation processes that enable deeper reflection and can lead to changes in concepts and understanding. C-SAW offers a visualization and scaffolding of the composition process and product (Fig.  4 ). C-SAW also logs writers’ actions to provide information for research or analytic purposes. It is the only system that explicitly guides the linearization process. Diagrams are generated from users’ actions, but cannot be directly manipulated. Various argument schemes are available, and arguments can be reordered. There is no automated text analysis in C-SAW but there is some automated feedback in the form of various dynamically generated task completion indicators that reflect writers’ actions in a hierarchical tree style diagram to give progress feedback and various textual visualizations for reviewing. C-SAW’s strengths are in the contextual prompts to develop and evaluate one’s argumentation with respect to the rhetorical goal and the linguistic help to link components. It also offers a teacher interface to allow instructors to modify all labels and prompts so as to adapt the language to their context and needs.

C-SAW is also one of the only tools reviewed in this chapter to have available qualitative and quantitative research studying the mediating effects of the use of its devices on argumentation, learning and writing quality (Benetos, 2014 , 2015 , 2017 ; Benetos & Betrancourt, 2020 ). C-SAW is currently a very highly functioning prototype that continues to be developed and tested in field studies and experimental settings using design-based research to further its development.

C-SAW interface in editing mode (Benetos & Betrancourt, 2020 , p. 305)

3.5 Functional Specifications

Computer-supported argumentation systems essentially mediate activities involved in the argumentative writing process by scaffolding various interactions between users and the system, with the bulk of the support being for learner-system interactions. Footnote 7

Learner-system interactions in argumentation systems are varied in complexity and types of activities they mediate. For learner-system interactions, users are often offered linguistic and visual (graphic) prompts as progress and state indicators, task orientation, and goal-setting functionalities. Users can organize and visualize their argument by generating text in nodes, freeform, or in text input fields. The text can be rearranged by moving individual or groups of nodes. Learners may choose to analyze text through selecting, ‘tagging,’ and linking ideas. By being asked to agree/disagree or rate ideas related to the content or the structure of the argumentative text, learners are encouraged to look closer at a text. Linguistic markers offer contextual aid or help link nodes (concepts) and define their relationships within the argumentation. Other prompts may come in the form of ‘empty’ models or templates to be filled out. Learners may be asked to justify and validate their argument by adding sources. These types of prompts can facilitate content generation and elaboration and structuring the argumentation, but also act as aids for self-regulation of writing processes and self-evaluation of the argumentation produced.

The scaffolding focus of these functionalities are substantive (about the task) as well as procedural (how to achieve it). It can be substantive of the first order, i.e., they offer aid to accomplish specific tasks, or of the second order, as in the case of Writing Pal, in that they support learning for transfer (Noroozi et al., 2018 ). Writing Pal (W-Pal) is a web-based intelligent tutoring system that provides learners with “explicit strategy instruction, game-based practice, essay writing practice, and automated formative feedback” (Roscoe et al., 2014 ). Designed with a view to improve essay writing as a whole, not necessarily argument construction or argumentative writing, Writing Pal is covered in detail in the Sect. 3 chapter “ The Future of Intelligent Tutoring Systems for Writing ”. The scaffolding focus in the written argumentation systems covered in this chapter, is more often procedural with respect to organization and structure, offering support for the execution of the conventions of argumentation, though prompts and examples given in systems such as Rationale and C-SAW can also aid transfer.

Interactions between the instructor and the system consist mostly of various analytics, and tools for the management of access, learner tasks and submissions by the instructor. The digital argumentation tools discussed also facilitate the interaction between learner and instructor, offering the instructor various forms of support in providing guidance, assessment, or evaluation. To support the learner-learner interactions, in addition to collaborative editing spaces, these tools add evaluation or dialogue moderation devices (e.g., ratings/likes/votes, comments/chats) to increase social and audience awareness. In sum, digital argumentation tools that structure and diagram argumentation can be seen as both analytical and guidance tools for learning and instruction.

3.6 Technical Specifications

Whether collaborative or individual, digital argumentation systems almost unilaterally use strict to rather loose schemes of informal logic to construct or deconstruct text into argument components (e.g. Buckingham Shum, 2003 ; Toulmin, 1958 ; Walton, 2008 ) and translate them into diagrams based on standardized visual notations. These standards can also define guidance required to adhere to them that can be translated into features, devices or prompts to support text generation and organisation, and provide, awareness and activity mirroring tools and task completion guidance, using various representations. They may also, like KIE and VCRI, two early digital environments no longer supported, define forms of automated or peer-feedback to support testing hypotheses, collaborative debate, and knowledge building (Bell, 2000 ; Erkens et al., 2010 ).

To guide their development, digital argumentation systems use formalized frameworks that define argumentation schemes and practices in specific domains (e.g., law) or contexts, such as hypothesis testing, dialogue and collaborative argumentation or knowledge building. Frameworks such as Argunet’s Argument Interchange Format (AIF) (Schneider et al., 2007 ) or Carneades’ Legal Knowledge Interchange Format (LKIF) (Gordon & Walton, 2006 ) , and markup languages such as Araucaria’s AML (Reed & Rowe, 2001 ) or C-SAW’s ArgEssML (Benetos, 2015 ) , aim to define formal languages to represent argument structures and provide standards that can be interchangeable between different systems, as well as guide the development of digital tools for argumentation (Scheuer et al., 2010 ). In practice, needs for domain specificity or simplification has led to modifications that limit their interoperability (Chesñevar et al., 2006 ) and given rise to proliferation of standards (Scheuer et al., 2010 ) . Of these mentioned, only C-SAW’s ArgEssML presents a grammar for representing argumentative essays rather than just arguments.

An important body of research and systems development to support argumentation has focused on using diagramming in collaborative learning situations (Stegmann et al., 2012 ) to hone general or domain-specific argumentation skills (learning to argue), showing how it can help better use argumentation to broaden and deepen knowledge on a particular topic (arguing to learn) (Baker et al., 2003 ; Muller Mirza et al., 2007 ; Munneke et al., 2003 ; Schwartz & Glassner, 2003 ). Much of it was not specifically concerned with writing as the central activity and how diagramming tools impacted the argumentative writing process post-debate. There is also considerable research on the benefits of using diagramming to analyse argumentative texts as sources for learning and argumentative writing (Bell, 2000 ; Mochizuki et al., 2019 ; Reed & Rowe, 2001 ), but these studies use complex closed systems with highly prescribed and scripted uses. Scheuer et al., ( 2010 ) present a thorough state of the art of digital systems supporting the argumentation process and developing good argumentation practices (learning to argue and about argumentation) as a means towards attaining domain specific learning outcomes (arguing to learn), rather than the writing of quality argumentative texts.

Other research has looked at how argumentation systems and their devices can work as self-regulatory facilitators, providing environments for self-monitoring, metacognitive reflection, and self-management of task completion (Benetos & Bétrancourt, 2015 ; Soller et al., 2005 ). Digital argumentation tools call upon and help develop writing skills through structural and procedural supports, visualizations, and integrated linguistic tools in individual or collaborative situations, through devices that have been found to lead to more complete and justified arguments and may facilitate linearization, leading to the writing of better argumentative texts (Erkens et al., 2010 ).

Technology development and research seem to have highlighted the gaps in teaching strategies and instructional design around second-order learning (Noroozi et al., 2018 ). Feedback, whether intelligent or simply reflective of interaction, is mostly geared to what Noroozi et al. refer to as first order scaffolding to help accomplish the task at hand, with little explicit integrated guidance for transfer. The former type of feedback requires systems to analyse user interactions and products across multiple ‘compositions’ of diagrams and texts. While cloud-based systems can eventually provide quantitative analytics with overviews of users’ contributions and productions, there remains a gap between what systems are providing and the feedback required for second-order learning. With the exception of Writing Pal (see Sect.  3 chapter “ The Future of Intelligent Tutoring Systems for Writing ”), to our knowledge no currently available system integrates feedback or guidance based on a semantic analysis of the content.

Research into teaching practices in the last decade, focuses more on using combinations of readily available digital tools such as simple diagramming for pre-writing and micro-level scaffolding for text elaboration, combined with various forms of strategy learning. Reed et al., ( 2017 ) present the digital argumentation landscape as an “Online Ecosystem of Tools, Systems and Services” and the plethora of social debating platforms would concur. While these may help develop argumentation skills through text, and build repositories of argumentations for further argumentation research, they do little to develop writing lengthy argumentative texts that adhere to current academic conventions and standards.

5 Commentaries: Implications of This Technology for Writing Theory and Practice

Technology acceptance and integration into practice (appropriation) are also dependent on factors external to the technology's scope of influence (organizational, attitudinal, cultural, etc.). Many digital argumentation tools have been created as part of larger research initiatives because of the interactions tracking and data collection they facilitate (e.g., VCRI). Few make it into the educational technology markets to be used by instructors outside of the host institution and if so, fail to remain financially viable. Many quickly become obsolete when the research funding ends though some can still be found in repositories such as GitHub (see List of tools). As such, instructors may resist investing time in heavy systems, and often prefer to use simple diagramming tools like Google Draw or PowerPoint because they are familiar and are readily available. An exception to this seems to be social argumentation and diagramming platforms, with reappropriations of tools like Padlet (Dewitt et al., n.d.) or resorting to LMS forums for online debates. These tools are used individually or collaboratively in pre-writing activities or to elaborate class debates to develop arguments towards a rhetorical goal (Andriessen, 2009 ). Here too, there are contradictory demands. Open social debates appear to be favoured by developers and researchers (Arguman.org, Footnote 8 Kialo), but the tools that seem to survive, rely on educator targeted features that restrict and manage access, but can be easily used in externally scripted activities or strategy instruction. Additionally, Loll et al., ( 2010 ) found that while teachers are optimistic about the capacity of visualizations offered by the digital argumentation diagramming tools to facilitate learning, they also see immediate feedback as essential in unstructured informal learning scenarios. Lightweight social argumentation systems facilitate quicker interaction and feedback, compared to complex multi-task environments that require substantial and time-consuming explicit instructional design, scripting and configuration.

6 Conclusion

Current trends in digital tools for written argumentation seem to be responding either to institutional “learning management” demands for less investment in technical infrastructures and human resources, or instructors’ need for versatile lightweight ready to use tools and services that are familiar and aligned with their teaching practices. However, Noroozi et al., ( 2018 ) argue for the need for more tools that offer second order scaffolding (generalization of strategy adoption for transfer), even though this would seem to imply even more complex and curriculum encompassing systems that go counter to instructors’ demands.

With the recent advances in web-based technologies, and text and web analytics technologies (c.f. Part  3 of this book), it is natural that current tool development seems to favour web-based debating or argument analysis environments, for example OVA + , where user inputs can create corpora for research and generation of visualizations or Argdown that uses a markdown coding environment to scaffold and map argumentation. Research focus in the domain of computer-supported argumentation appears to have shifted to defining principles (Benetos, 2017 ) and strategy instruction (Cotos et al., 2020 ; Noroozi et al., 2018 ) that can be combined with simple applications in common use, as well as with analytic approaches to generating representations of writing processes (Vandermeulen et al., 2020 ).

While we may speculate whether these trends are in reaction to development costs and quickly changing technologies, combined with users’ difficulty in appropriating technologies into their writing and teaching practices, they raise questions as to how these shifts in technology development and use redefine the roles relegated to the technology, instructors, and writers/learners.

Innovation in educational technology is often triggered by technological advances but adoption seems susceptible to the hype-curve with effects on practices lagging on the scale of decades if not generations. After a burgeoning from about 1990 to 2010 of digital environments designed for uses within domain-specific or research contexts, few have survived or transitioned to a wider use or use outside their native institution. There is still much research lacking regarding how learners appropriate argumentation tools into their writing processes, moving from such unstructured or open debating environments to constructing written argumentation in academic contexts and how to best support them with this complex activity. As Noroozi et al. ( 2018 ) argue, it is also important that writing environments and their tools offer second order scaffolding so writers can more effectively transfer the knowledge gained in learning to argue and write through the use of digital tools into academic skills that are not dependent on a specific tool or system. This raises important questions as to the competencies and literacies instructors and learners must acquire and what strategy instruction is needed to help them navigate through an ever-changing eco-system of digital tools for argumentative writing.

7 List of Tools

See Table 1 .

Cmap Tools: https://cmap.ihmc.us .

Cacoo: https://nulab.com/cacoo .

Diagrams.net: https://app.diagrams.net .

https://www.acceptify.at .

https://socratrees.azurewebsites.net .

https://debategraph.org .

Earlier systems designed to study computer-supported collaborative learning placed a greater emphasis on devices to mediate learner-learner interactions.

Arguman.org was a short-lived open structured social debate platform documented and available for download on GitHub: https://github.com/arguman/arguman.org .

Andriessen, J. (2006). Arguing to learn. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (pp. 443–459). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511816833.027

Andriessen, J., Baker, M., & Suthers, D. (Eds.). (2003). Arguing to learn: Confronting cognitions in computer-supported collaborative learning environments . Kluwer Academic.

Google Scholar  

Andriessen, J. E. B. (2009). Argumentation in higher education: Examples of actual practices with argumentation tools. In N. Muller Mirza & A.-N. Perret-Clermont (Eds.), Argumentation and education: Theoretical foundations and practices (pp. 195–213). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-98125-3_8

Baker, M., Quignard, M., Lund, K., & Séjourné, A. (2003). Computer-supported collaborative learning in the space of debate. In B. Wasson, S. Ludvigsen, & U. Hoppe (Eds.), Designing for change in networked learning environments: Proceedings of the International Conference on computer support for collaborative learning 2003, (pp. 11–20). Kluwer Academic Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-0195-2_4

Bell, P. (2000). Scientific arguments as learning artifacts: Designing for learning from the web with KIE. International Journal of Science Education, 22 (8), 797–817. https://doi.org/10.1080/095006900412284

Article   Google Scholar  

Benetos, K. (2014). Writing argumentative texts using C-SAW: A field study. International Conference on writing research . EARLI SIG Writing, Amsterdam.

Benetos, K. (2015). C-SAW : Computer-supported scaffolding of argumentative writing (p. 233). http://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:73672

Benetos, K. (2017). Développement et implémentation des principes de design dans un outil-auteur pour soutenir la rédaction de textes argumentatifs. Environnements Informatiques Pour l’Apprentissage Humain .

Benetos, K., & Bétrancourt, M. (2015). Visualization of computer-supported argumentative writing processes using C-SAW. Romanian Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 8 (4), 281–303.

Benetos, K., & Betrancourt, M. (2020). Digital authoring support for argumentative writing: What does it change? Journal of Writing Research , 12 (1), 263–290. https://doi.org/10.17239/jowr-2020.12.01.09

Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1987). The psychology of written composition. In C. Bereiter & M. Scardamalia (Eds.), The Modern Language Journal 73 (1). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Buckingham Shum, S. (2003). The roots of computer supported argument visualization. Visualizing Argumentation, 3–24 . https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-0037-9_1

Chesñevar, C., Mcginnis, J., Modgil, S., Rahwan, I., Reed, C., Simari, G., South, M., Vreeswijk, G., & Willmott, S. (2006). Towards an argument interchange format. The Knowledge Engineering Review, 21 (04), 293.

Cotos, E., Huffman, S., & Link, S. (2020). Understanding graduate writers’ interaction with and impact of the research writing tutor during revision. Journal of Writing Research, 12 (1), 187–232.

Davies, W. M. (2009). Computer-assisted argument mapping: A rationale approach. Higher Education, 58 (6), 799–820. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-009-9226-9

Desmet, C., Balthazor, R., Hart, A., Mitchell, A., Cummings, R., & Rosenberg, J. (2005). Emma: E-forming composition with XML. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 20 (Suppl 1), 25–46. https://doi.org/10.1093/llc/fqi023

Dewitt, D., Alias, N., & Siraj, S. (n.d.). Collaborative learning: Interactive debates using padlet in a higher education institution . 8.

Erkens, G., Janssen, J., & Kirschner, P. A. (2010). Visualization of argumentation as shared activity. In E. de C. Lieven Verschaffel Ton de Jong, Jan Elen (Ed.), Use of representations in reasoning and problem solving: Analysis and improvement (pp. 242–242). Taylor & Francis.

Felton, M., & Herko, S. (2004). From dialogue to two-sided argument: Scaffolding adolescents’ persuasive writing. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy , 47 (8), 672–683.

Flower, L., Hayes, J., Carey, L., Schriver, K., & Stratman, J. (1986). Detection, diagnosis, and the strategies of revision. College Composition and Communication, 37 (1), 16–55. https://doi.org/10.2307/357381

Galbraith, D. (1999). Writing as a knowledge-constituting process. In M. Torrance & D. Galbraith (Eds.), Knowing what to write: Conceptual processes in text production (pp. 137–158). Amsterdam University Press. http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&btnG=Search&q=intitle:Writing+as+a+knowledge-constituting+process#0

Gordon, T. F., & Walton, D. (2006). The carneades argumentation framework—using presumptions and exceptions to model critical questions. Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications, 144 , 195–207.

Gordon, T., Prakken, H., & Walton, D. (2007). The carneades model of argument and burden of proof. Artificial Intelligence, 171 (10–15), 875–896. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.artint.2007.04.010

Karoly, P. (1993). Mechanisms of self-regulation: A systems view. Annual Review Psychology, 44 , 23–52. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.44.020193.000323

Key Articles—Endoxa Learning . (2022). Endoxa Learning. https://endoxalearning.com/key-articles/

Kuhn, D. (2001). How do people know? Psychological Science, 12 (1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00302

Leitão, S. (2000). The potential of argument in knowledge building. Human Development, 43 , 332–360.

Lengbeyer, L. A. (2014). Critical thinking in the intelligence community: The promise of argument mapping. Inquiry: Critical Thinking across the Disciplines, 29 (2), 14–34. https://doi.org/10.5840/inquiryct20142929

Limon, M. (2001). On the cognitive conflict as an instructional strategy for conceptual change: A critical appraisal. Learning and Instruction, 11 , 357–380.

Loll, F., Scheuer, O., McLaren, B., & Pinkwart, N. (2010). Learning to argue using computers—A view from teachers, researchers, and system developers. Intelligent Tutoring Systems, 6095 , 530–535.

Maftoon, P., Birjandi, P., & Pahlavani, P. (2014). The impact of using Computer-Aided Argument Mapping (CAAM) on the improvement of writing achievement of iranian learners of English. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4 (5), 982–988. https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.4.5.982-988

Mochizuki, T., Nishimori, T., Tsubakimoto, M., Oura, H., Sato, T., Johansson, H., Nakahara, J., & Yamauchi, Y. (2019). Development of software to support argumentative reading and writing by means of creating a graphic organizer from an electronic text. Educational Technology Research and Development, 67 (5), 1197–1230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-019-09676-1

Muller Mirza, N., Tartas, V., Perret-Clermont, A.-N., & Pietro, J.-F. (2007). Using graphical tools in a phased activity for enhancing dialogical skills: An example with digalo. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 2 (2–3), 247–272. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11412-007-9021-5

Munneke, L., van Amelsvoort, M., & Andriessen, J. (2003). The role of diagrams in collaborative argumentation-based learning. International Journal of Educational Research, 39 (1–2), 113–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-0355(03)00076-4

Noroozi, O., Kirschner, P. A., Biemans, H. J. A., & Mulder, M. (2018). Promoting argumentation competence: Extending from first-to second-order scaffolding through adaptive fading. Educational Psychology Review, 30 (1), 153–176. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-017-9400-z

Nussbaum, E. M., & Edwards, O. V. (2011). Critical questions and argument stratagems: A framework for enhancing and analyzing students’ reasoning practices. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 20 (3), 443–488. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508406.2011.564567

Reed, C., Budzynska, K., Duthie, R., Janier, M., Konat, B., Lawrence, J., Pease, A., & Snaith, M. (2017). The argument web: An online ecosystem of tools, systems and services for argumentation. Philosophy & Technology, 30 (2), 137–160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-017-0260-8

Reed, C., & Rowe, G. (2001). Araucaria: Software for puzzles in argument diagramming and xml (pp. 1–21). http://glennrowe.net/Papers/Araucaria01.pdf

Roscoe, R. D., Allen, L. K., Weston, J. L., Crossley, S. A., & McNamara, D. S. (2014). The writing pal intelligent tutoring system: Usability testing and development. Computers and Composition , 34 , 39–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compcom.2014.09.002

Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (2006). Knowledge building: Theory, pedagogy, and technology. Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences , 97–118.

Scheuer, O., Loll, F., Pinkwart, N., & McLaren, B. M. (2010). Computer-supported argumentation: A review of the state of the art. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 5 (1), 43–102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11412-009-9080-x

Schneider, D. C., Voigt, C., & Betz, G. (2007). ArguNet—A software tool for collaborative argumentation analysis and research. 7th Workshop on Computational Models of Natural Argument (CMNA VII) , January 2007 , 57–61.

Schwartz, B. B., & Glassner, A. (2003). The blind and the paralytic: Supporting argumentation in everyday scientific issues. In J. Andriessen, M. Baker, & D. Suthers (Eds.), Arguing to learn: Confronting cognitions in computer-supported collaborative learning environments . Kluwer Academic. http://edu.fss.uu.nl/medewerkers/ja/Confrontations/Ch9.pdf

Smolensky, P., Fox, B., King, R., & Lewis, C. (1987). Computer-aided reasoned discourse or, how to argue with a computer. In Cognitive science and its applications for human-computer interaction (pp. 109–162). http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&btnG=Search&q=intitle:Computer-Aided+Reasoned+Discourse+or,+How+to+Argue+with+a+Computer#0

Soller, A., Martínez, A., Jermann, P., & Muehlenbrock, M. (2005). From mirroring to guiding: A review of state of the art technology for supporting collaborative learning. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 15 (4), 261–290.

Stegmann, K., Wecker, C., Weinberger, A., & Fischer, F. (2012). Collaborative argumentation and cognitive elaboration in a computer-supported collaborative learning environment. Instructional Science, 40 (2), 297–323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-011-9174-5

Toulmin, S. E. (1958). The uses of argument (1969th ed., p. 261). Cambridge University Press.

van Gelder, T. (2007). The rationale for rationale TM. Law, Probability and Risk, 6 (1–4), 23–42. https://doi.org/10.1093/lpr/mgm032

Vandermeulen, N., Leijten, M., & Luuk, V. W. (2020). Reporting writing process feedback in the classroom using keystroke logging data to reflect on writing processes. Journal of Writing Research, 12 (1), 109–140.

Walton, D. (2008). Informal Logic: A Pragmatic Approach. United States: Cambridge University Press.

Download references

Acknowledgements

Loredana Bercuci for her help in researching and evaluating functionalities of main tools detailed in this chapter.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

TECFA, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland

Kalliopi Benetos

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kalliopi Benetos .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

School of Applied Linguistics, Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Winterthur, Switzerland

School of Management and Law, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning, Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Winterthur, Switzerland

Christian Rapp

North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA

Chris M. Anson

TECFA, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland

English Department, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA

Elena Cotos

School of Education, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

TD School, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Antonette Shibani

Rights and permissions

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Benetos, K. (2023). Digital Tools for Written Argumentation. In: Kruse, O., et al. Digital Writing Technologies in Higher Education . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-36033-6_6

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-36033-6_6

Published : 15 September 2023

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-031-36032-9

Online ISBN : 978-3-031-36033-6

eBook Packages : Education Education (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research