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Thinking Critically with Psychological Science Chapter 1

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2.1 What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking is a form of making a judgement; it is not about being negative. It is something that most people do, daily, often with little awareness of the process they are going through. In simple terms, an example of everyday critical thinking is, I’m going hiking today, should I wear trainers or sandals? Critical thinking involves making an assessment of something, and then providing a critique of that position and putting forward new positions. For example, flip flops may be comfortable for the first part of the hike, in hot weather. However, the top of the mountain is rocky so a more substantial trainer might be needed to get to the summit and protect your toes.

There are different stages to critical thinking, but they follow broadly similar steps. Firstly, you need to understand the issue at hand and the problem that is being faced or needs to be solved, and why? Secondly, it is necessary to carry out some form of analysis or collect some evidence about possible ways to understand the issue. For example, when do I need to solve the problem by? What resources do I have available to solve it? What happens if I use method A or method B to solve it? Is there a method C that would solve it more effectively? Thirdly, on the basis of the analysis, an evaluation is carried out, and finally a judgement is made about which way to progress. The advantages of working through these steps is that it widens thinking about a situation or issue, and opens up opportunities to different possible outcomes and solutions.

The four stages of critical thinking

• Understand: what is the problem that needs to be solved, and why?
• Analyse: when do I need to solve the problem by? What resources do I have to solve it? What happens if I use method A or method B to solve it? Is there a method C that would solve it more effectively?
• Evaluate: based on your analysis you should make an evaluation.
• Judge: based on your analysis and evaluation, how will you proceed?

Elder and Paul (2012) describe a ‘well cultivated critical thinker’ as someone who:

• raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely
• gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively
• comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards
• thinks open-mindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognising and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and
• communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems.

Why is critical thinking important to psychology and research methods?

Critical thinking enables the researcher to go through the process of recognising their assumptions, challenging them and looking at possible other ways to do something.

In applying critical thinking to research, you will understand that there are different types of research questions; and that these different types of questions require different types of research designs (and consequently different methods) to answer them. If the question and the design do not correspond, then the conclusions that are made about the research are likely to be questionable at best, and probably wrong.

Now you have a better understanding of what critical thinking is, you will move onto look at a framework for developing research questions.

Definition of Critical Thinking:

Description:

Critical thinking refers to the intellectual process of analyzing, evaluating, and interpreting information and arguments in a systematic and objective manner. It involves the careful examination of facts, evidence, and reasoning to form rational and well-informed judgments.

Components:

Critical thinking includes several essential components:

• Analysis: The ability to break down complex information into its constituent parts and examine them systematically.
• Evaluation: The capacity to assess the credibility, accuracy, and reliability of information and arguments.
• Inference: The skill to draw logical and reasoned conclusions based on available evidence.
• Interpretation: The aptitude to comprehend and explain the meaning and significance of information and evidence.
• Explanation: The capability to clarify and justify one’s own thought processes and reasoning, explicitly stating the underlying assumptions and principles.
• Self-regulation: The discipline to monitor one’s own thinking, recognizing and challenging biases, prejudices, and assumptions.
• Open-mindedness: The willingness to consider alternative viewpoints, perspectives, and hypotheses without prejudice or preconceived notions.

Importance:

Critical thinking plays a vital role in various aspects of life, including education, personal and professional relationships, problem-solving, decision-making, and understanding complex issues. It enables individuals to think independently, make informed judgments, evaluate the reliability of information, and develop well-reasoned arguments.

Developing and applying critical thinking skills can lead to numerous benefits, such as:

• Improved problem-solving abilities and decision-making skills.
• Enhanced communication and argumentation skills.
• Strengthened comprehension and interpretation of information.
• Increased objectivity and rationality in thinking.
• Heightened creativity and innovation.
• Reduced vulnerability to manipulation and misinformation.
• Greater self-awareness and personal growth.

Critical Thinking about Psychology

Mar 17, 2019

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Critical Thinking about Psychology. Lecture Two Don’t Believe Your Eyes. Administration. Room change Wednesday 9am seminar is in W0.01 Seminars start next week!. Last time…. We talked about how common beliefs about behaviour can be wrong

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• participants
• ambiguous sounds
• crop circles
• hidden messages
• electronic recording equipment
• electronic voice phenomena evp

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Critical Thinking about Psychology Lecture Two Don’t Believe Your Eyes

Administration • Room change • Wednesday 9am seminar is in W0.01 • Seminars start next week!

Last time… • We talked about how common beliefs about behaviour can be wrong • How much of the findings of psychological research are counter-intuitive • Illusion of explanatory depth. • This week we will go on to discuss other reasons why people’s conceptions about behaviour are wrong • Seeing patterns where none exist • Lack of self-knowledge

We lack self-knowledge • Often the reasons for our behaviour are not accessible to us Nisbett and Ross (1977) • asked participants to judge the quality of different pairs of tights • all of the tights were in fact identical • the order in which the tights were presented varied • Results • participants always chose the last pair presented • However, they always generated plausible explanations “this pair was a better quality” or “a nicer colour” • None stated that they had chosen them because they were the last pair

Modelling Behaviour • children and neonates model the behaviour of • similar things occur with smiling, nodding in conversations, mirroring body postures, etc. adults Provine (1986) • 55% of participants yawned within 5 minutes of watching a yawn video • contagious yawning

Why do we engage in such modelling behaviour? Chartrand and Bargh (1999) • Participants interacted with confederates during an experiment • Confederate 1: shook foot • Confederate 2: rubbed face • Participant responses matched confederate behaviour Dabbs (1969) • Confederates who mimicked them were rated as having good ideas and being well-informed • If we act like other people then they will like us more!

Seeing patterns where none exist • Often we can be fooled into thinking that a relationship exists between two variables when in fact none exists • E.g. lunar effects • This tendency underpins many curious examples from pseudoscience and parapsychology

The Face on Mars! • Viking 1 in 1976 took the following image of an apparent face on Mars • Perhaps, built by martians and indicating an ancient civilisation? • Perhaps by the same people who built the ancient airstrips in Peru? • Or by those who made crop circles in Wiltshire?

Ancient Astronauts!

Crop Circles

Kermit the Frog on Mars?

The Face on Mars revisited • Photos from later missions sadly revealed that the face was just a bunch of hills.

Pareidolia/Apophenia • These terms can be used interchangeably to describe the tendency for us to see patterns in random data • It is particularly pronounced when we try to make sense of obscure, out of focus or partial images. • It highlights the use of “top-down” processing in cognition • We are using our knowledge of the world to try to make sense of ambiguous data

What is this? • At first we just see random dots • Then a picture of a dog emerges • Clearly being able to make sense of imperfect information is beneficial • But it sometimes leads to error…

Religious artefacts • Images of mother Theresa in cinnamon buns Mother Theresa A cinnamon bun

Hearing voices • We also make errors with ambiguous sounds. • In this next section we will examine some related phenomena • Electronic Voice Phenomena (EVP) • backward masking of hidden messages in rock music

Electronic Voice Phenomena • When people die they become spirits – sources of energy • They interact with electronic recording equipment to leave messages…

Hidden Messages • In the 1970s there was much consternation that satanic messages were hidden in popular music • These messages only became apparent when they were played backwards • http://jeffmilner.com/backmasking.htm

Interpreting ambiguous sounds • Our language systems are highly developed at making sense of ambiguous sounds. • For example, Warren (1970) examined the phoneme restoration. • Replaced a phoneme with a cough in the following sentences • It was found that the (cough)eel was on the axle • It was found that the (cough)eel was on the orange • It was found that the (cough)eel was on the fishing-rod • It was found that the (cough)eel was on the table • We make sense of ambiguous sounds using our prior knowledge.

So what have we learned today? • Explaining human behaviour isn’t always straightforward • We don’t always have insights into our behaviour • We often see patterns which do not actually exist • In order to draw sensible conclusions about the nature of behaviour we need to think critically about psychology.

It’s my second week here and I really want to do some background reading… • Alcock, J.E. Electronic Voice Phenomena: Voices of the Dead? Skeptical EnquirerAvailable online at: http://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/evp.html • Stafford, T. (2007). Isn’t it all just obvious? The Psychologist, 20,2,94-95. • Wilson, Timothy D. (2002). Strangers to Ourselves: Discovering the Adaptive Unconscious. Cambridge, Ma.: Harvard University Press. Chapter 5.

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