what were the causes of the spanish american war essay

If you're seeing this message, it means we're having trouble loading external resources on our website.

If you're behind a web filter, please make sure that the domains *.kastatic.org and *.kasandbox.org are unblocked.

To log in and use all the features of Khan Academy, please enable JavaScript in your browser.

Course: US history   >   Unit 7

• Introduction to the age of empire
• The age of empire

The Spanish-American War

• Imperialism
• The Progressives
• The Progressive Era
• The presidency of Theodore Roosevelt
• Progressivism

• The Cuban movement for independence from Spain in 1895 garnered considerable American support. When the USS Maine sank, the United States believed the tragedy was the result of Spanish sabotage and declared war on Spain.
• The Spanish-American War lasted only six weeks and resulted in a decisive victory for the United States. Future US president Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt rose to national prominence due to his role in the conflict.
• Although the United States promised it would not annex Cuba after victory, it did require Cuba to permit significant American intervention in Cuban affairs.
• As a result of the war, the United States acquired Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines as territories.

The conflict between empire and democracy

Trouble in cuba, a splendid little war, consequences of the spanish-american war, what do you think.

• On American imperialism at the turn of the twentieth century, see George C. Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 299-377.
• For more on the relationship between empire and democracy, see Richard H. Immerman, Empire for Liberty: A History of American Imperialism from Benjamin Franklin to Paul Wolfowitz (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012.
• For more on yellow journalism, see W. Joseph Campbell, The Year that Defined American Journalism: 1897 and the Clash of Paradigms (New York: Routledge, 2006).
• See Edward J. Marolda, ed. Theodore Roosevelt, the US Navy and the Spanish-American War (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001).
• On the Spanish fleet compared to the American fleet, see " The Philippines ," Digital History, 2016.
• See Frank N. Schubert, Black Valor: Buffalo Soldiers and the Medal of Valor, 1870-1898 (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 1997), 133-173.
• Hay quoted in Walter Mills, The Martial Spirit (New York: Arno Press, 1979), 340; on deaths from disease see The American Pageant: A History of the American People , 15th (AP) edition (Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning, 2013), 616.
• On the Platt Amendment, see Louis A. Perez, Jr., Cuba Under the Platt Amendment, 1902-1934 (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1986).
• Taft quoted in Kennedy and Cohen, The American Pageant , 623.
• For more on the war in the Philippines, see David J. Silbey, A War of Frontier and Empire: The Philippine-American War, 1899-1902 (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007).

Want to join the conversation?

• Upvote Button navigates to signup page
• Downvote Button navigates to signup page
• Flag Button navigates to signup page

The Spanish-American War: Causes and Impact

The Spanish-American war was the armed conflict in 1898 between two major countries in that historical period. The fight fundamentally changed the world structure, impacting the future economics and political dominance significantly, hence being an essential event in the development of chronicles (Marolda 4). The research paper will look into the reasons behind the war, its progress, and its effects on the different participants as well as other parties.

First, the background event leading to the war will be discussed. Political dominance over the country was entitled to Spain, as Cuba was its colony. It should be noted that most of the former colonies of Spain were either possessed by other states or gained independence in 1825 (Marolda 16). After numerous wars because of the colonies, the low point of Spanish colonialism was marked (Losang and Demhardt 100). As a result, the metropolitan country itself was in a critical state where it could not adequately manage its provinces.

In such a way, the main reason for the conflict itself was the Cuban crisis. Local people strived to gain independence from the country-suppressor and fully enjoy the benefits of their productions (Marolda 28). The struggle captures the attention of the US because of several factors. Despite the fact that Spain was a metropolitan country, the economic supremacy in the region belonged to the United States. The estimated US investments counted $50 million annually, while the amount of US trade was attributed to about $100 million (Marolda 34). In addition to that, 90% of Cuba’s total exports were transported to the US in 1894, while the country provided 40% of the island’s imports (Losang and Demhardt 102). Therefore, the struggle for Cuban independence disrupted US economic interests and positioned the country against the Spanish side.

Apart from that, the American sentiment played an important role in causing the armed conflict, which emerged in the more critical concept later. The American media posted information about so-called “Concentration areas” in Cuba, where the local people were treated in an inappropriate way (Chaplin 16). The Spanish government did not provide them with adequate shelter, provision, and medical care, which expectedly resulted in death from exposure, hunger, and disease (Marolda 25). Such stories were graphically depicted in the American journals and newspapers, especially in such sensational institutions like New York World and New York Journalasaplin 4). As a result, they caused humanitarian concern among the American population, which was added to traditional sympathy for colonial people struggling for their nation’s independence. Such a social mindset created the demand for intervention, which gained support in the US Congress.

It is significant to be noted that Spain made actions to resolve the conflict and address its colonial problems. In 1897, the new ministry in Spain offered concessions to the colonial people (Marolda 35). Those measures included abandoning the reconcentration policy and granting the Cuban intelligence opportunity to create their parliament with limited self-government powers (Chaplin 17). However, these propositions were made too late, as the insurgent leaders aimed the total political independence at that moment. Consequently, the war continued, and some battles forced the US to intervene because the US citizens’ safety was questioned (Marolda 63). As a result, the American authorities sent the battleship Maine as a tool to grant security for US citizens and property in the region.

The occasion for the start of the war was the explosion of the battleship Maine mentioned above. Although there was no reliable evidence for the Spanish side’s responsibility for the disaster, the US public stimulated by the influence of the aforementioned yellow journalism helped Spain unquestionably guilty (Marolda 101). The strength of the demand and public pressure upon the government was incredibly high. The widespread rallying cry, which sounded like “Remember Maine , to hell with Spain!” quickly became popular (Chaplin 21). The movement was supported by the religious leaders, which created even higher pressure on the US Congress.

At last, the opposition faded after the speech in the Senate by Sen. Redfield Proctor of Vermont. Returning from the tour in Cuba, he described the situation and convinced the politicians in tof necessity to declare the war (Marolda 32). Moreover, one of the arguments to start the conflict was that Spain was unable to end it with the victory (Chaplin 14). The US side offered the mediation of the dispute in the region to reach peace with the insurgents and noted that nothing but independence for the colony was expected.

The Spanish side had a dilemma of resolving this conflict. On the one hand, the country was not ready for the war and its consequences. On the other hand, the action of abandonment on the island meant the government’s disestablishment, including the monarchy (Losang and Demhardt 108). Moreover, the Spanish politicians sought support from other European countries, which did not take any action except for weak verbal cooperation (Marolda 47). In the conclusion of lengthy disputes and debates, the American side demanded Spain to relinquish Cuba, which severed the relations and resulted in the war declaration.

Even though the United States was only interested in Cuba and this region in the very beginning, the process and outcome of the war affewar-affectedcantly more territories and parties. It should be noted that both participants were equally unprepared for the war. As a result of the war mainly dependent on sea power, the evident advantage was on the US side (Marolda 59). Using the powerful new battleships in the North Atlantic Squadron, the American ships attacked the Spanish naval vessels anchored in Manila Bay (Losang and Demhardt 110). The troops’ motivation and perception of the situation played a significant role in the victory of Americans (Marolda 37). Officers and men were extremely confident in their supremacy, while opponents felt they were doomed to defeat and clearly understood their country’s position (Chaplin 19). Therefore, the American party without many losses occupied Manila, weakening Spanish squadrons, and decreasing their war resources.

The armed conflict in Caribbeathe n theatre was characterized by the battles on Cuba and Puerto Rico campaign. As the US-controlled the naval access to the region, Spain could not bring support to the fleet present in Cuba (Marolda 93). The US army consisted of regular soldiers and volunteers, as the public was sympathizing with the insurgents and willed to help (Chaplin 23). The American garrison aimed to trap the Spanish fleet between the army and ships, in such a way making them surrender without any fight and subsequent losses (Losang and Demhardt 113). On July 1, 1898, the Battles of El Caney and San Juan Hill took place, which impacted the progress of the American army into the island (Marolda 23). These events significantly changed the course of action by allowing the troops to penetrate Santiago’s outer defenses. Even though commanders thought about pausing the battles and await while the incidences of malaria and other diseases became less, the Spanish fleet’s attempt to escape impacted contrary decisions (Marolda 49). All the Spanish ships were destroyed or remained in an inoperative condition, meaning that the American party won the battle (Marolda 76). In addition to that, the American commanders occupied Puerto Rico as well. As the situation was with the struggle in the Philippines, the American army experienced few losses.

When the war was practically over, Spain asked French commissioners to arrange the termination of hostilities. According to the protocol signed on August 12, 1898, which resulted from negotiations in Washington, Spain agreed to surrender Cuba (Marolda 108). Furthermore, the agreement stated that the metropolitan country would cede Puerto Rico and the Mariana Islands in favor of the United States. In the Philippines, the US troops would stay in Manila until the peace treaty would be formed and agreed upon (Marolda 99). It was evident that the American politicians had not considered acquiring the territory on the other side of the globe when they started the armed conflict. Despite this fact, McKinley (US president) and his advisers aimed to retrain the US presence in the strategically important region for enhancing the influence in the Far East region (Losang and Demhardt 120). Moreover, given the European aggressions in China, the basement in the Philippines could be action for the security of the US market interests in the area. As a result, the American government demanthe ded transfer of the possession of about 7000 islands and their inhabitants to them (Marolda 93). Spain reluctantly met the requirement, and in the endpoint, the Spanish parties asked to pay them $20 million for the public buildings and works in the Philippines (Marolda 96). The agreement was fixed by the Treaty of Paris, which was the official end of the war movements.

The effects of the Spanish-American war had a long-term impact. Even though the conflict itself was relatively inexpensive in both material and human resources, it became a significant turning point in the participants’ history. The immediate consequences of the war in Spain were destructive for the nation (Marolda 12). However, the tragedy was followed by the renewal in intellectual, cultural, and material aspects. The government and society began to pay particular atten to the internal politics, development, and progress. Transportation, industry, development of mineral resources production fostered in the country, helping it to reestablish economic strength (Losang and Demhardt 115). Therefore, at the beginning of the 20th century, there was a dramatic rising in all social aspects in Spain.

The outcome of the armed conflict for the USA was different but dramatic to the same extent. First, the country increased its land possessions in the world, making it more strategically secure amongst other nations (Marolda 109). Although the stimulus to begin the war was the aim to bring peace to Cuba, the situation was completely different in the result. The country won critical battles in different world regions, which helped it ensure its access to foreign markets (Losang and Demhardt 121). It should be highlighted that shortly after the conflict ended, the US entered the Philippine-American war and experienced even more significant losses than in the fights with Spain (Marolda 111). Despite this fact, generally, the outcome was positive for the country.

There were more changes in the strategic aspect of the country’s politics. The US parties became confident in the necessity to build the Canal in Panama for greater flexibility in transportation. Thus, the US made the Caribbean its lake, and the effect of this event can be observed up to nowadays (Marolda 114). The politicians also understood the importance of the sea weapon and training of men to sea conflicts. Hence, men were stimulated to join the US Navy, which grew significantly after the war, becoming the world’s second largest fleet (Chaplin 25). Besides, the US army, which was seen to be poorly developed in the course of the war, required reforms (Marolda 110). In the course of the war, more men were lost because of exposure and diseases rather than from weapon defeat. That is why the government paid close attention to the development of its soldiery in order to prevent the inevitable unwanted conquests. The US became one of the world’s most strategically influential and essential countries, which had an impact in the Caribbean, the Far East, and later in European relations.

To conclude, the Spanish-American war was a significant event that resulted in long-term consequences in world politics and structure. It can be called the battle of the empire and democracy, as participants had different ideologies. The US decision to enter the war was partially stimulated by the social mind, whereas Spanish politicians decided solely on the basis of considerations for the monarchy. The effect of the outcome can be observed nowadays by looking at the influence of the United States.

Works Cited

Chaplin, Nathan. “The American Press During the Spanish American War: Race, Reconcentration, and Paternalism.” Creighton University , 2018, pp. 1-26.

Losang, Eric, and Imre Demhardt. “Change of Sovereignty and Cartographic Advance: Cartographic Implications of the Spanish-American War of 1898.” Dissemination of Cartographic Knowledge, 2017, pp. 99-128.

Marolda, Edward, editor. Theodore Roosevelt, the U.S. Navy and the Spanish-American War. Springer, 2016.

Cite this paper

• Chicago (N-B)
• Chicago (A-D)

StudyCorgi. (2022, January 15). The Spanish-American War: Causes and Impact. https://studycorgi.com/the-spanish-american-war-causes-and-impact/

"The Spanish-American War: Causes and Impact." StudyCorgi , 15 Jan. 2022, studycorgi.com/the-spanish-american-war-causes-and-impact/.

StudyCorgi . (2022) 'The Spanish-American War: Causes and Impact'. 15 January.

1. StudyCorgi . "The Spanish-American War: Causes and Impact." January 15, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/the-spanish-american-war-causes-and-impact/.

Bibliography

StudyCorgi . "The Spanish-American War: Causes and Impact." January 15, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/the-spanish-american-war-causes-and-impact/.

StudyCorgi . 2022. "The Spanish-American War: Causes and Impact." January 15, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/the-spanish-american-war-causes-and-impact/.

This paper, “The Spanish-American War: Causes and Impact”, was written and voluntary submitted to our free essay database by a straight-A student. Please ensure you properly reference the paper if you're using it to write your assignment.

Before publication, the StudyCorgi editorial team proofread and checked the paper to make sure it meets the highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, fact accuracy, copyright issues, and inclusive language. Last updated: January 15, 2022 .

If you are the author of this paper and no longer wish to have it published on StudyCorgi, request the removal . Please use the “ Donate your paper ” form to submit an essay.

The Spanish American War (1898)

April 21, 1898–August 12, 1898

The Spanish American War was fought between the United States and Spain. The U.S. won the short war, which took place primarily in Cuba. The outcome signaled the emergence of the United States as a global power and the end of Spain’s empire in the Americas.

This 1898 print by Louis Dalrymple is called “Uncle Sam’s Picnic.” It depicts Uncle Sam helping four girls labeled Philippines, Ladrones, Porto Rico, and Cuba. On the old man’s hat are the words, “Monroe Doctrine.” Image Source: Library of Congress .

Spanish American War Summary

The Spanish-American War (April–August 1898) was fought between the United States and Spain, primarily on the island of Cuba. American forces were able to capture the port city of Santiago, defeating Spanish land and sea forces. In the aftermath of the victory, Spain ceded Guan, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines to the U.S., and Cuba became an independent nation. The outcome of the war signaled the emergence of the United States as a global power, the end of Spain’s empire in the Americas, and the rise to prominence of Theodore Roosevelt who became the 26th President of the United States in 1901 . 

Spanish American War Facts

• President: William McKinley was President of the United States during the Spanish American War.
• Belligerents: The United States of America and Cuban Insurgents fought against Spain during the war.
• Start Date: The Spanish American War started on April 21, 1898, when the U.S. Navy blockaded Cuba and Spain severed diplomatic ties with the U.S.
• End Date: Fighting ended on August 12, 1898.
• Duration: The war lasted for about 4 months.
• Location: Major battles were fought in the Philippines and Cuba.
• Who Won: The United States won the Spanish American War.
• Outcome: Cuba gained independence and the U.S. gained Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.
• Slogan: The popular slogan was “Remember the Maine!,” which was used as a rallying cry for Americans following the destruction of the USS Maine on February 15, 1898.
• Fun Fact: Former Confederates, including Joseph Wheeler and Fitzhugh Lee , served with U.S. forces during the war.

Spanish American War Dates

Important dates in the Spanish American War.

• April 25, 1898 — President William McKinley signed the Declaration of War.
• May 1, 1898 — The Battle of Manila Bay takes place in the Philippines. The U.S. Navy defeated the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay.
• June 22, 1898 — U.S. ground forces landed at Daiquiri.
• July 1, 1898 — U.S. forces won the Battle of El Caney and the Battle of San Juan Heights.
• July 3, 1898 — The U.S. Navy defeated the Spanish Navy at the Battle of Santiago de Cuba.
• July 17, 1898 — Spanish forces in Cuba surrendered.
• August 12, 1898 — U.S. and Spanish officials signed the Protocol of Peace, ending hostilities in the Spanish American War.
• December 10, 1898 — The two nations signed the Treaty of Paris.
• February 6, 1899 — The U.S. Senate ratified the 1898 Treaty of Paris.

The Shrinking Spanish Empire

By 1895, Spain’s empire had been reduced to Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, some Pacific islands, and African territories. 

Cubans revolted in 1895, which was viewed in the United States as a struggle for freedom from a corrupt monarchy — reminiscent of the American Revolutionary War. Americans also had economic interests in Cuba and wanted to help protect them. In an effort to aid the Cuban revolutionaries, some Americans smuggled weapons to the island.

Spain’s methods were harsh and destructive in dealing with the Cubans, which endangered American investments in railroads and sugar plantations. Cuban markets were also vital to America, as businesses looked to expand into markets in Latin America, South America, and the Pacific. In order to aid that expansion, the United States envisioned a canal in Central America that would help ports along the East Coast to access markets in East Asia.

The Monroe Doctrine and the Spanish American War

The Monroe Doctrine was established by President James Monroe in 1823. Monroe warned European powers not to interfere in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere. The purpose of the Doctrine was to prevent European colonization and the establishment of puppet regimes in the Americas. 

Although the Doctrine was not well-enforced early on, it became a basic tenet of American foreign policy. Over time, the principles of the Doctrine were invoked in various disputes with European powers and interventions in Latin America in the 19th century, especially in Cuba.

By 1898, several incidents took place that caused the U.S. and Spain to be on the brink of war.

Causes of the Spanish American War

The causes of the Spanish American War included:

• The Virginius Affair (1873)
• The De Lôme Letter (1898)
• Destruction of the USS Maine (1898)
• Yellow Journalism (1895–1901)

The Virginius Affair

In 1873 the United States was nearly pulled into the Cuban Revolution due to the Virginius Affair. 

The Virginius was a former Confederate blockade runner, owned by Cubans, that was used to smuggle guns, ammunition, and men to the Cuban insurrectionists. These rebels had been in conflict with the Spanish government since 1868. 

On October 31, 1873, the Virginius, which was illegally flying the American flag was spotted near the coast of Cuba by the Spanish warship Tornado . Ironically, the Tornado was also a former Confederate blockade runner. A pursuit ensued, and the Virginius was chased within six miles of Jamaica before being captured and towed to Santiago, Cuba by the Tornado .

General Juan Burriel, the Governor of Santiago, convened a court-martial that promptly convicted the crew of the Virginius of piracy. The court responded by sentencing the crew and passengers to death. On November 4, four of the crewmen were executed, which was celebrated by Spaniards living on the island. 

When Spanish government officials in Madrid were informed of the situation. President Emilio Castelar ordered an immediate halt to the executions, pending a government review. Unfortunately, a disruption in the telegraph lines prevented his instructions from reaching Santiago. As a result, a total of 53 men, including 8 American citizens were executed. 

The executions ended when the British warship Niobe arrived. Although there were questions regarding the right of the Virginius to fly the American flag, Americans were outraged by the executions.

Secretary of State Hamilton Fish instructed the American minister to Spain to demand the return of the ship, the release of the remaining crew and passengers, financial compensation, and punishment for General Burriel. Fish made it clear that if the demands were not met, the American minister was to sever diplomatic relations with Spain and return to the United States, which could lead to war between the two nations.

The Spanish government responded by asking for negotiations, which took place in Washington, D.C. The Spanish ambassador, Admiral Don José Polo met with Fish and the two negotiated an agreement that was acceptable to both nations. Spain agreed to adhere to international law, return the Virgnius , return the surviving crew and passengers, and pay $80,000. Burriel remained in power but died soon after.

De Lôme Letter

In December 1897, Enrique Dupuy de Lôme, the Spanish minister to the United States, composed a letter to an acquaintance in Cuba, which was critical of U.S. President William McKinley.

De Lôme accused the President of being “weak and a bidder for the admiration of the crowd,” portraying him as a political opportunist who tried to please both sides while aligning with the more aggressive factions within his party. The letter was stolen from the Havana post office and published in the New York Journal by William Randolph Hearst on February 9, 1898, with a headline that read, “WORST INSULT TO THE UNITED STATES IN ITS HISTORY.”

The relationship between the United States and Spain was already strained due to Spain’s handling of affairs in Cuba and the ongoing military support from Americans to Cuban revolutionaries.

Americans were outraged by the letter, but McKinley decided to ignore the letter, refusing to dignify it with a response. De Lôme, realizing his mistake, offered his resignation on February 10.

Despite de Lôme’s resignation, Congress was not easily appeased, and there was talk of officially recognizing the Cuban rebels and even declaring war against Spain. The American press also called for McKinley and Congress to take action against Spain 

In order to appease the U.S., Spain issued a formal apology on November 14.

Remember the Maine

Just before the uproar over the de Lôme Letter, the U.S. battleship Maine arrived in Cuba at 11:00 a.m. on January 25, 1898. 

American battleships had avoided visiting Maine since 1895 due to Spain’s ongoing conflict with the Cuban rebels. However, as American sympathy for the Cuban rebels grew, so did anti-American sentiments among Spanish loyalists in Havana. 

A riot took place in Havana on January 12, 1898, prompting the American consul, Fitzhugh Lee, to send a telegraph that warned “ships may be necessary later but not now.” McKinley ordered the Maine to Havana on January 24, under the command of Captain Charles D. Sigsbee.

Upon arrival, Sigsbee was treated cordially by Spanish officials, but he refused to allow his crewmen to go ashore, fearing their presence could lead to violence. Security on the ship was tight. The ship’s watch was expanded, and sentries were armed. Both boilers were kept operational, which deviated from the usual practice of running only one, in case the ship needed to be swiftly mobilized. Shells were also positioned in proximity to all of the Maine’s guns.

At 9:40 on the evening of February 15, a massive explosion rocked the Maine , causing it to sink to the depths of Havana harbor. The explosion obliterated the entire forward section of the ship, resulting in the loss of 260 lives from a crew of 355.

A commission was formed to investigate the incident. On March 20, it was determined an underwater mine was responsible for the explosion, but the commission was unable to determine who placed the mine. American newspapers blamed the explosion on Spain and called for war. 

In an attempt to resolve the issue, Spain offered to submit the matter to arbitration, aiming to settle the cost of the damage. They even agreed to an armistice for the ongoing conflict with the Cuban rebels, to be determined by the judgment of the commanding general in Cuba. 

Although President McKinley, a veteran of the Civil War, hoped for a peaceful resolution to the incident, public sentiment leaned toward war. The media also published stories of atrocities committed by Spain in Cuba — both real and sensationalized — which increased public support for the Cuban rebels.

On April 11, 1898, President McKinley asked Congress to declare war on Spain, for the purpose of ending the fighting in Cuba, establishing a stable government, and maintaining order for citizens of the U.S. and Cuba.

Congress deliberated for a week before reaching an agreement on April 19 through a joint resolution. President McKinley signed it on April 25, officially starting the Spanish American War.

Yellow Journalism

Yellow Journalism was a style of reporting that emphasized sensationalism over facts. Newspaper publishers William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer used the tactic to influence the public into favoring war in Cuba and the Philippines, along with the acquisition of overseas territories.

Overview of the Spanish American War

The most significant fighting of the Spanish-American War took place in the Philippines and Cuba. The most famous battle of the war is the Battle of San Juan Heights, which is also known as the Battle of San Juan Hill and the Battle of Kettle Hill. It was during that battle that Theodore Roosevelt, the former Assistant Secretary of the Navy and future President, helped lead American forces in a bold uphill charge to attack Spanish defenses.

Spanish American War in the Philippines — the Battle of Manila Bay

Shortly after war was declared, Commodore George Dewey led the American Asiatic Squadron to the Philippines. Dewey’s mission was to prevent a deteriorating Spanish fleet from making a lengthy journey to reinforce Spanish naval forces in Cuba.

On the morning of May 1, just off Cavite in Manila Bay, the American fleet engaged the Spanish fleet. The Americans won the battle and forced the surrender of Spanish ground forces and artillery batteries on the shore.

While Dewey awaited the arrival of troops, the Filipinos revolted against the Spanish government, seeking their independence. They coordinated with the American army when it arrived to lay siege to Manila. Spanish officials surrendered Manila to American forces on August 14, 1898, pushing the Filipino rebels to the side.

When the Filipino rebels realized the U.S. intended to retain control of the Philippines and annex it as a territory they revolted against the Americans, starting the Philippine-American War.

Spanish American War in Cuba

At first, Havana was the main target for American forces. However, on May 19, 1898, Spanish Rea Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete evaded American warships and went to Santiago Harbor. 

American officials decided to shift their focus to capturing Santiago and destroying the Spanish warships there. 

Rear Admiral William T. Sampson set up a naval blockade but hesitated to enter the harbor due to Spanish mines and coastal defenses. 

Instead, he awaited U.S. ground forces, hoping they could capture Santiago and engage the Spanish ships from the land, either destroying Cervera’s squadron or forcing it to leave.

Ultimately, the U.S. strategy for Cuba included the naval blockade of the island to disrupt Spanish supply lines while the army launched a ground assault on the port of Santiago de Cuba.

Engagements at Cienfuegos — April 29 and May 11

U.S. ships under the command of Commodore Bowman H. McCalla were deployed to enforce the blockade at Cienfuegos, Cuba. He was also tasked with cutting the communication cables at Cienfuegos that linked Cuba to Spain.

On the morning of April 29, 1898, McCalla, commanding the Marblehead , arrived off Cienfuegos along with the gunboats Nashville and Eagle to enforce the blockade and a short battle ensued: 

• The Nashville intercepted and captured the Argonauto , which was carrying mail, military supplies, and some Spanish troops.
• The Galicia , accompanied by two small gunboats and protected by batteries on the shore, engaged in a firefight with the Eagle . 
• When the Marblehead arrived, the Galicia retreated further into the harbor, ending the brief naval battle.

On May 11, 1898, McCalla returned for the cable-cutting operation, this time with additional support from the ships Windom and Saturn .

The Nashville and the Marblehead moved close to the shore to provide protective fire. A group of around 50 men, led by Lieutenant Cameron M. Winslow, loaded onto boats and sailed to shore.

The ships bombarded the shore while Winslow and his men located two large cables and one small cable. They managed to cut the two large cables. However, they were under heavy fire from Spanish forces and were unable to completely sever the third cable. The third cable was the communication line between Cuba and Jamaica and remained in operation throughout the course of the short war.

Battle of Guantánamo Bay — June 9–17

Guantánamo is on the southeast coast, 45 miles east of Santiago. At the start of the war, there was a garrison of nearly 6,000 Spanish troops at Guantánamo, under the command of General Félix Pareja Mesa. The Spaniards expected the Americans to attempt a landing at Guantánamo, so Mesa had his men build extensive defensive works around the town.

On May 28, Secretary of the Navy John Davis Long decided to send an expedition to take control of Guantánamo. He wanted to control Guantánamo for several reasons:

• A Spanish fleet under the command of Rear Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete was at Santiago.
• He wanted to have a safe harbor that would protect U.S. ships from hurricanes.
• He wanted a port that had access to coal for U.S. ships.

Long instructed Commodore Winfield Scott Schley to take control of Guantánamo, and American forces were deployed and moved into position, taking action on June 7:

• The 1st Marine Battalion departed from Key West, Florida, bound for Guantánamo. 
• The Marblehead and Yankee , led by Commander McCalla, entered Guantánamo Bay on June 7. They forced the Spanish to evacuate fortifications at the bay’s entrance, pushing the Sandoval further into the bay, and disembarked a small group of marines. The Marines successfully destroyed the cable station before returning to their ships.

On June 9, McCalla returned to Guantánamo in preparation for the arrival of the 1st Marine Battalion. The following day, his ships bombarded Spanish positions guarding the harbor. 

Soon after, Lieutenant Colonel Robert W. Huntington and the 1st Marine Battalion landed on the east side of the outer harbor, accompanied by the battleship Oregon . The Marines established Camp McCalla.

The battle started on June 11 when the Spanish fired upon the camp. On June 12, the Americans were joined by roughly 60 Cuban insurgents. 

A smaller battle took place at Cuzco Hill on June 14. American forces, assisted by U.S. naval gunfire, forced the Spanish to retreat from the eastern coast of the lower bay on June 15. 

Following Cuzco Hill, Lieutenant Colonel Robert W. Huntington sent an expedition that included Americans and Cuban insurgents to attack a well that supplied Spanish troops with water. With support from the Dolphin , Huntington’s men successfully destroyed the well and captured around 20 Spanish soldiers.

On June 15, Rear Admiral William T. Sampson ordered the Texas , Marblehead, and Suwanee to bombard Spanish positions along the shore and eliminate a small fort. The fort was destroyed in about 30 minutes. The ships also cleared a minefield that had been laid by the Sandoval .

The main hostilities ended on June 17. General Mesa, concerned about a potential U.S. land offensive from Guantánamo Bay, proceeded to reinforce the interior defenses of the island.

Guantánamo Bay became a crucial base for fuelling and resupply activities and played an important role as a launching point for the invasion of Puerto Rico. 

Major General Nelson A. Miles departed from Guantánamo Bay for Puerto Rico on July 21. On July 25, Guantánamo officially surrendered. The Marines occupied Guantánamo until August 5.

• The Battle of Guantánamo Bay was documented by journalist Stephen Crane for McClure’s Magazine .
• The Battle of Guantánamo Bay was the first significant land battle of the war. 

Landing at Daiquiri — June 22

The first U.S. ground troops landed in Cuba at Daiquirí, a village on the southeast coast, 16 miles east of Santiago, on June 22.

Major General William R. Shafter, commander of the 5th Corps, intended to land his expedition at Daiquiri, march seven miles to Siboney, and then head northwest toward El Caney and Santiago. 

At 9:40 a.m. on June 22, five American battleships, under the command of Captain Caspar F. Goodrich, started to bombard Spanish defenses. However, the Spanish had evacuated and there was no return fire.

30 minutes later, the division of Brigadier General Henry W. Lawton started their landing. By nightfall, there were 6,000 American troops on the beach. 

However, many of the captains of the transport ships refused to pull closer than a half mile to the beach, believing the beach was still defended and the Spanish were waiting to launch an attack. The troops were forced to wade to shore, which led to the loss of equipment and supplies. 

The Americans also discovered the Spanish had destroyed the railroad to Santiago, meaning they would have to move the entire expedition over a road that ran along the coast. Shafter instructed Lawton to advance along this road and seize Siboney. 

Unfortunately, by the time Lawton’s division left the beachhead, it was too late to make the trip to Siboney. That night, the troops set up camp on the road. They expected a Spanish counterattack, but it did not happen.

The next morning, Lawton’s division advanced to Siboney, which was also deserted. General Shafter promptly designated Sibony as the primary headquarters for the assault on the city.

Battle of Las Guásimas — June 24

Las Guásimas, approximately three miles from Siboney, sat at the intersection of a narrow footpath and the El Camino Real Road leading to Santiago. Las Guásimas had been deserted by its inhabitants by June 1898, but it had an elevated ridge that provided the Spanish with a strong defensive position.

The 5th Corps started its primary march towards Santiago, departing from the Daiquirí landing site. Simultaneously, on the same day, General Lawton’s division started its advance toward Siboney with instructions to stop any potential Spanish assault along El Camino Real Road.

Lawton found Siboney abandoned and informed Shafter, who responded with an order for the Americans to proceed to Santiago. However, Shafter addressed the orders to the senior office on-site, instead of directly to Lawton.

The senior officer in Lawton’s force was Major General Joseph Wheeler, a former Confederate who had been appointed by President McKinley to lead the only cavalry division in the expedition. The orders were delivered to Wheeler, while Lawton was reporting to Shafter.

Wheeler was eager to engage the Spanish and was happy to take advantage of the fact the orders were addressed to the senior officer. He decided to take a small contingent that included U.S. troops and Cuban insurgents and move toward the Spanish forces that were on the ridge at Las Guásimas, under the command of Brigadier General Antero Rubín Homet.

Frustrated, Lawton tried to communicate with Shafter and stop Wheeler’s attack, but he was unable to and Wheeler moved out on the 24th. As Wheeler moved toward Las Guásimas, Homet received an order from General Arsenio Linares, the Spanish commander in Santiago, to withdraw to Santiago.

Wheeler might have known about the Spanish withdrawal, likely obtained through intelligence provided by Cuban revolutionaries under the command of General Demetrio Castillo. Wheeler’s force included the 1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry, famously known as the Rough Riders.

American forces arrived at Las Guásimas and artillery batteries opened fire but were quickly silenced by heavy fire from the Spanish, forcing the attack to proceed without artillery support. 

Brigadier General Samuel B. M. Young divided his brigade into two columns, with the 1st and 10th Regular Cavalry Regiments under his direct command on the right flank, and the Rough Riders, led by Colonel Leonard Wood and Lieutenant Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, on the left.

Wood ordered Roosevelt to execute a flanking maneuver behind the Spanish defenses. Supported by covering fire from Young’s brigade, the Rough Riders moved forward. Roosevelt led from the left, Wood assumed command in the center, and Wheeler commanded the right. In the midst of the intense battle, Wheeler is said to have shouted, “Advance — our adversaries appear to be in retreat.”

After two hours of fighting, General Rubín decided to follow his instructions and ordered his men to withdraw to Santiago, allowing the Americans to occupy the town and heights. Although it was a victory for the Americans, it did slow the advance toward Santiago.

Naval Blockade

While American and Cuban forces pushed across the island to Santiago, the navy trapped the Spanish fleet in Santiago Bay, while the army crossed through the dense jungle terrain from the coast to San Juan Heights, overlooking the city of Santiago.

American Forces Advance on Santiago

Following the victory at Las Guásimas, General Shafter intended to capture Santiago by taking control of the high ground east of the city, specifically San Juan Heights, which included San Juan Hill and Kettle Hill.

On July 1, American forces attacked Spanish forces at El Caney and San Juan Hill. The American forces included Cuban allies, regiments from the Buffalo Soldiers, and Theodore Roosevelt and his Rough Riders. First Lieutenant John J. Pershing led the 10th Cavalry Unit.

Battle of El Caney — July 1

General Henry W. Lawton led the 5th US Division, comprised of nearly 7,000 men, in an attack on 600 Spanish troops at El Caney. 

At El Caney, the Spanish had constructed six blockhouses made of earth and wood to the north and west of the village. To the southeast, on a hill, stood the old stone Spanish fort, El Viso, which had a commanding view of the entire area. Brigadier General Joaquín Vara del Rey y Rubio led 520 troops defending El Caney.

Before dawn on July 1, Lawton’s division positioned itself for the attack, with the expectation that once El Caney was secured, they would then join the main American offensive on San Juan Heights, located six miles to the southwest.

The battle started when artillery batteries under the command of Captain Allyn Capron opened fire on the Spanish. However, the bombardment had little impact on the Spanish defenses. Meanwhile, Lawton’s three brigades formed the American Line and prepared to attack: 

• Brigadier General William Ludlow and his brigade held the left flank.
• Brigadier General Adna R. Chaffee and his brigade were in the center.
• Colonel Evan Miles commanded the brigade on the right. 

Unfortunately, there was confusion along the line, and none of them were prepared to move forward at the scheduled time, leading to a disorganized, uncoordinated advance. The American advance stalled about a half mile from the Spanish line.

Around noon, the fighting started to subside. After Lawton called up reinforcements from the brigade of Brigadier General John C. Bates, the Americans resumed the attack. 

Although General Rubio was killed in the attack, the Spanish forces continued to fight and maintain their positions. Lawton responded by ordering artillery to fire on the El Viso, which allowed the Americans to breach the walls and overwhelm the garrison.

When the Spanish ran out of ammunition, they were forced to retreat to Santiago. Around 8:00 that night, Lawton moved out and marched toward Santiago.

San Juan Hill and Kettle Hill — July 1

To protect Santiago, General Arsenio Linares, the Spanish commander, created a defensive line. The most formidable part of this line was positioned on San Juan Heights. Approximately 500 troops, backed by two artillery pieces, were positioned between Kettle Hill and San Juan Hill, which were about 400 yards apart.

At San Juan Heights, Shafter’s strategy called for:

• Brigadier General Jacob Ford Kent and his division to attack San Juan Hill
• Major General Joseph Wheeler and his cavalry division to attack Kettle Hill. When Wheeler fell ill, Brigadier General Samuel S. Sumner replaced him.

The original plan called for Lawton to quickly capture El Caney, in two hours or less, and then join the assault on San Juan Heights. Kent and Sumner took their positions at El Pozo and waited for Lawton. While waiting, they received heavy fire from Spanish forces on the heights.

The Americans attacked San Juan Hill first, starting at 8:00 a.m. with an artillery bombardment from batteries under the command of Captain George Grimes. However, the bombardment was ineffective and was forced to stop due to heavy fire from Spanish batteries.

At 9:00, three brigades of Kent’s troops moved forward, under the command of Brigadier General Hamilton S. Hawkins, Colonel E. P. Pearson, and Colonel Charles A. Wikoff. The remaining units moved into position.

The Spanish batteries continued to fire on the Americans, even as they advanced. Some of the Americans panicked and fled due to the intense fire, which was partially directed by an observation balloon hovering over the battlefield. The well-coordinated Spanish defenses led to a delay in orders to attack San Juan Hill and Kettle Hill.

By 1:00, the officers were tired of waiting and ordered their men to advance on both hills, under a heavy covering fire that was provided by a battery of Gatling Guns commanded by Lieutenant John D. Parker.

As the American forces advanced, they were exposed to heavy Spanish rifle fire in an area known as “Hell’s Pocket,” with little cover except for the tall jungle grass. The Americans split into two groups and rushed up both hills.

Theodore Roosevelt, riding his horse, led the way as his Rough Riders and the Buffalo Soldiers charged up Kettle Hill and assaulted the Spanish line. The Spanish fled from the hill and took refuge in blockhouses, which were also captured by the Americans. 

With the hill under their control, the Americans on Kettle Hill joined the Gatling guns in firing at the Spanish positions on San Juan Hill. By the time the Americans reached the top of the hill, the Spanish forces were retreating. The Americans dug in and established defensive positions, anticipating a Spanish counterattack.

Battle of Santiago de Cuba — July 3

Realizing U.S. forces were on the verge of capturing Santiago, the Spanish fleet tried to break out of the harbor on July 3. Led by Admiral Pascual Cervera’s flagship, the Infanta Maria Theresa , the fleet moved out of the harbor. The American fleet attacked and destroyed the Spanish fleet. The battle lasted for four hours and all six Spanish ships were either lost or scuttled.

Capitulation of Santiago — July 16–17

Cuba’s Governor, General Ramón Blanco y Erenas agreed to terms of surrender on July 16, and it went into effect on July 17. The provisions of the capitulation surrendered the garrison at Santiago to the U.S., along with Guantánamo and six more military outposts in eastern Cuba.

American Forces Withdraw

In the aftermath of the capitulation, more than 1,600 Spanish troops were taken captive and held at Camp Long. They stayed there until mid-September. According to most accounts, they were treated well by the Americans before they were returned to Spain.

Soon after, Yellow Fever spread through the American ranks, rendering an estimated 75% of the men unfit for service.

American troops started leaving Cuba on August 7. Some of the Buffalo Soldiers remained on the island to provide support for the Cuban insurgents.

Hostilities officially ended on August 12.

Fitzhugh Lee, the former Confederate General, was part of the occupation force that remained in Cuba, and he served as the military Governor of Havana and Pinar del Río until April 1899.

The Spanish American War Ends with the 1898 Treaty of Paris

Spain sued for peace, and negotiations led to an agreement that was signed in Paris on December 10, 1898. The treaty was ratified by the U.S. Senate on February 6, 1899.

In the agreement, Spain ceded the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam to the U.S. Prior to the war, Congress had agreed to the Teller Amendment, which prohibited the U.S. from annexing Cuba. As a result, Cuba was granted its independence, however, the U.S. continued to be involved in the formation of the government and the subsequent Platt Amendment authorized the U.S. to intervene in Cuban affairs.

Spanish American War Significance

The Spanish American War is important to United States history for the role it played in helping the United States free Cuba and other territories from Spain. This is despite criticism from William Jennings Bryan and Mark Twain, who opposed the war and the acquisition of overseas territories, which was viewed as American imperialism and an expansion of Manifest Destiny . The war helped Theodore Roosevelt rise to prominence, and the performance of the Buffalos Soldiers proved they were as capable as their white counterparts.

Spanish American War APUSH

Use the following links and videos to study the Spanish American War, Theodore Roosevelt, and the Monroe Doctrine for the AP US History Exam. Also, be sure to look at our Guide to the AP US History Exam .

Spanish American War Definition APUSH

The Spanish American War for APUSH is defined as a conflict fought between Spain and the United States in 1898. The war was sparked by the sinking of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor and the desire of the U.S. to expand its influence in the Caribbean and Pacific. The U.S. quickly defeated Spain and as a result, Spain lost control of Cuba, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.

Spanish American War Video for APUSH Notes

This video from Heimler’s History covers the Spanish American War, which is part of APUSH Unit 7.

• Written by Randal Rust

• New Visions Social Studies Curriculum
• Curriculum Development Team
• Content Contributors
• Getting Started: Baseline Assessments
• Getting Started: Resources to Enhance Instruction
• Getting Started: Instructional Routines
• Unit 9.1: Global 1 Introduction
• Unit 9.2: The First Civilizations
• Unit 9.3: Classical Civilizations
• Unit 9.4: Political Powers and Achievements
• Unit 9.5: Social and Cultural Growth and Conflict
• Unit 9.6: Ottoman and Ming Pre-1600
• Unit 9.7: Transformation of Western Europe and Russia
• Unit 9.8: Africa and the Americas Pre-1600
• Unit 9.9: Interactions and Disruptions
• Unit 10.0: Global 2 Introduction
• Unit 10.1: The World in 1750 C.E.
• Unit 10.2: Enlightenment, Revolution, and Nationalism
• Unit 10.3: Industrial Revolution
• Unit 10.4: Imperialism
• Unit 10.5: World Wars
• Unit 10.6: Cold War Era
• Unit 10.7: Decolonization and Nationalism
• Unit 10.8: Cultural Traditions and Modernization
• Unit 10.9: Globalization and the Changing Environment
• Unit 10.10: Human Rights Violations
• Unit 11.0: US History Introduction
• Unit 11.1: Colonial Foundations
• Unit 11.2: American Revolution
• Unit 11.3A: Building a Nation
• Unit 11.03B: Sectionalism & the Civil War
• Unit 11.4: Reconstruction
• Unit 11.5: Gilded Age and Progressive Era

Unit 11.6: Rise of American Power

• Unit 11.7: Prosperity and Depression
• Unit 11.8: World War II
• Unit 11.9: Cold War
• Unit 11.10: Domestic Change
• Resources: Regents Prep: Global 2 Exam
• Regents Prep: Framework USH Exam: Regents Prep: US Exam
• Find Resources

Rise of American Power

Causes of the spanish american war, using evidence: why did america invade cuba and declare war on spain.

U.S. History

US Overseas Expansion: Causes of the Spanish American War

Students will use evidence from the documents to analyze why America invaded Cuba in 1898. 

Teacher Feedback

Please comment below with questions, feedback, suggestions, or descriptions of your experience using this resource with students.

If you found an error in the resource, please let us know so we can correct it by filling out this form . 

The Spanish American War Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Reasons and Background of the War

Consequences.

The Spanish American War started in 1898, and the reason of this conflict was the liberation of Cuba. The war started after Spain’s rejection of the American request for the resolution of the Cuban struggle for independence. The expansionist sentiment within the US government, and the imperialistic moods of American political tradition motivated the government to work out the plan for separating Cuba from Spain (The annexation plan also included Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam).

The starting point of the conflict was the revolution in Cuba. After that events the US government sent in the warship USS Maine, which revealed the immense political interest of the United States in that region. The American tabloids accused Spain of the oppression in the Spanish colonies.

Originally, the Spanish-American War was started for a great deal of reasons. It is emphasized that the most important reasons are treatment of the Cuban people by the Spanish government, yellow journalism, business interests and the fact that the United States government wished to flex its muscles as a world power (Post, 1999). The starting point of the conflict was the sinking of US battleship Maine in Havana harbor February 15, 1898. The US claimed that Spanish government is guilty for this sinking, however, it has not been proven. The United States were not prepared for this war, and according to logic the war should be lost by US troops. There was shortage in everything except volunteers, as the agitation, held by yellow journalism, was immense.

While congress was convening and accepting the resolutions which supported Cuban independence, Senator Henry M. Teller of Colorado offered the amendment which was aimed at ensuring that the United States is not wishing to set up the permanent control over Cuba after the cessation of hostilities from Spain. The Amendment was accepted, however, the resolution required immediate Spanish withdrawal, and it included the point, that the US president is capable to use the military forces in the volumes, he considers sufficient to help Cuba achieve independence from Spain. President McKinley signed this resolution, and ultimatum was sent by diplomatic mail to Spain on April 20, 1898. Spanish government decided to terminate the diplomatic relations with the USA, and announced war in three days after sending the ultimatum.

This war is regarded as the starting point of American entry on the world political and diplomatic arena as the independent State. Since that the United States has entered numerous treaties, conventions and agreements, and participated in the great deal of conflicts. Spain was no longer the imperial power. This defeat was the reason of national disaster because of the kinship of peninsular Spaniards with Cuba, which was considered as another province of Spain, but not a colony (Rosenfeld, 2000). Few territories stayed under Spanish overseas control.

From cultural and social perspective, the war originated the appearing of new generation, which was the basis of the renaissance of the Spanish culture. The financial benefits for Spain were enormous. The capitals, which were held by Cuban capitalists was brought back to Spain, and invested into Spanish industry.

The political consequences were serious. It reasoned the weakening of king’s power of Alfonso XII.

• Post, C. J. (1999). The Little War of Private Post: The Spanish-American War Seen up Close . Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
• Rosenfeld, H. (2000). Diary of a Dirty Little War: The Spanish-American War of 1898 . Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
• Revitalization of Old Havana, Cuba
• Principal Causes and Consequences of the Spanish-American War
• Battleship Potemkin: An Important Contribution to World Cinema
• California Culture During the Gold Rush
• “Columbian Exchange” by Alfred Crosby
• Major Problems in American History
• Social Factors in the US History: Respect for Human Rights, Racial Equality, and Religious Freedom
• Major Fires in the US: Issue Review
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2021, November 14). The Spanish American War. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-spanish-american-war/

"The Spanish American War." IvyPanda , 14 Nov. 2021, ivypanda.com/essays/the-spanish-american-war/.

IvyPanda . (2021) 'The Spanish American War'. 14 November.

IvyPanda . 2021. "The Spanish American War." November 14, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-spanish-american-war/.

1. IvyPanda . "The Spanish American War." November 14, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-spanish-american-war/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "The Spanish American War." November 14, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-spanish-american-war/.

Home — Essay Samples — War — The Spanish American War

Essays on The Spanish American War

The spanish american war and its long term effects on us, the main causes and factors of the spanish american war, made-to-order essay as fast as you need it.

Each essay is customized to cater to your unique preferences

+ experts online

The Role of Spanish American War in American International Trade

The english defeat of the spanish armada in the anglo-spanish war, american involvement in imperialism and wars: spanish, world war, impact of spanish american war, let us write you an essay from scratch.

• 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
• Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

Relevant topics

• Vietnam War
• Atomic Bomb
• Nuclear Weapon
• Syrian Civil War
• Israeli Palestinian Conflict
• Treaty of Versailles

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free

• History Classics
• Your Profile
• Find History on Facebook (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on Twitter (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on YouTube (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on Instagram (Opens in a new window)
• Find History on TikTok (Opens in a new window)
• This Day In History
• History Podcasts
• History Vault

Did Yellow Journalism Fuel the Outbreak of the Spanish American War?

By: Lesley Kennedy

Updated: August 22, 2019 | Original: August 21, 2019

The Spanish American War , while dominating the media, also fueled the United States’ first media wars in the era of yellow journalism. Newspapers at the time screamed outrage, with headlines including, “Who Destroyed the Maine? $50,000 Reward,” “Spanish Treachery” and “Invasion!”

But while many newspapers in the late 19th century shifted to more of a tabloid style, the notion that their headlines played a major part in starting the war is often overblown, according to W. Joseph Campbell , a professor of communication at American University in Washington, D.C.

“No serious historian of the Spanish American War period embraces the notion that the yellow press of [ William Randolph] Hearst and [Joseph] Pulitzer fomented or brought on the war with Spain in 1898,” he says.

“Newspapers, after all, did not create the real policy differences between the United States and Spain over Spain's harsh colonial rule of Cuba.”

Newspapers Shift to Feature Bold Headlines and Illustrations

The media scene at the end of the 19th century was robust and highly competitive. It was also experimental, says Campbell. Most newspapers at the time had been typographically bland, with narrow columns and headlines and few illustrations. Then, starting in 1897, half-tone photographs were incorporated into daily issues.

According to Campbell, yellow journalism, in turn, was a distinct genre that featured bold typography, multicolumn headlines, generous and imaginative illustrations, as well as “a keen taste for self-promotion, and an inclination to take an activist role in news reporting.”

In fact, the term "yellow journalism" was born from a rivalry between the two newspaper giants of the era: Joseph Pulitzer’s New York World and William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal. Starting in 1895, Pulitzer printed a comic strip featuring a boy in a yellow nightshirt, entitled the “Yellow Kid.” Hearst then poached the cartoon’s creator and ran the strip in his newspaper. A critic at the  New York Press, in an effort to shame the newspapers' sensationalistic approach, coined the term "Yellow-Kid Journalism" after the cartoon. The term was then shortened to "Yellow Journalism." 

“It was said of Hearst that he wanted New York American readers to look at page one and say, ‘Gee whiz,’ to turn to page two and exclaim, ‘Holy Moses,’ and then at page three, shout ‘God Almighty!’” writes Edwin Diamond in his book, Behind the Times .

That sort of attention-grabbing was evident in the media’s coverage of the Spanish American War. But while the era’s newspapers may have heightened public calls for U.S. entry into the conflict, there were multiple political factors that led to the war’s outbreak.

“Newspapers did not cause the Cuban rebellion that began in 1895 and was a precursor to the Spanish American War,” says Campbell. “And there is no evidence that the administration of President William McKinley turned to the yellow press for foreign policy guidance.”

“But this notion lives on because, like most media myths, it makes for a delicious tale, one readily retold,” Campbell says. “It also strips away complexity and offers an easy-to-grasp, if badly misleading, explanation about why the country went to war in 1898.”

The myth also survives, Campbell says, because it purports the power of the news media at its most malignant. “That is, the media at their worst can lead the country into a war it otherwise would not have fought,” he says.

Sinking of U.S.S. Maine Bring Tensions to a Head

According to the U.S. Office of the Historian , tensions had been brewing in the long-held Spanish colony of Cuba off and on for much of the 19th century, intensifying in the 1890s, with many Americans calling on Spain to withdraw.

“Hearst and Pulitzer devoted more and more attention to the Cuban struggle for independence, at times accentuating the harshness of Spanish rule or the nobility of the revolutionaries, and occasionally printing rousing stories that proved to be false,” the office states. “This sort of coverage, complete with bold headlines and creative drawings of events, sold a lot of papers for both publishers.”

Things came to a head in Cuba on February 15, 1898, with the sinking of the USS Maine in Havana harbor.

“Sober observers and an initial report by the colonial government of Cuba concluded that the explosion had occurred on board, but Hearst and Pulitzer, who had for several years been selling papers by fanning anti-Spanish public opinion in the United States, published rumors of plots to sink the ship,” the Office of the Historian reports. “... By early May, the Spanish American War had begun .”

Despite intense newspaper coverage of the strife, the office agrees that while yellow journalism showed the media could capture attention and influence public reaction, it did not cause the war.

“In spite of Hearst’s often quoted statement—’You furnish the pictures, I’ll provide the war!’—other factors played a greater role in leading to the outbreak of war,” the office states. “The papers did not create anti-Spanish sentiments out of thin air, nor did the publishers fabricate the events to which the U.S. public and politicians reacted so strongly.”

The office further points out that influential figures like Theodore Roosevelt had been leading a drive for U.S. expansion overseas. And that push had been gaining strength since the 1880s.

In the meantime, newspapers’ active voice in the buildup to the war spun forward a shift in the medium.

“Out of yellow journalism’s excess came a fine new model of newspapering,” Geneva Overholser writes in the forward of David Spencer’s book, The Yellow Journalism: The Press and America , “and Pulitzer’s name is now linked with the best work the craft can produce.” 

HISTORY Vault

Stream thousands of hours of acclaimed series, probing documentaries and captivating specials commercial-free in HISTORY Vault

Sign up for Inside History

Get HISTORY’s most fascinating stories delivered to your inbox three times a week.

By submitting your information, you agree to receive emails from HISTORY and A+E Networks. You can opt out at any time. You must be 16 years or older and a resident of the United States.

More details : Privacy Notice | Terms of Use | Contact Us