writing a scientific case study

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• J Can Chiropr Assoc
• v.52(4); 2008 Dec

Guidelines to the writing of case studies

Dr. brian budgell.

* Département chiropratique, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, 3351, boul des Forges, Trois-Rivières, Qc, Canada G9A 5H7

Dr. Brian Budgell, DC, PhD, JCCA Editorial Board

• Introduction

Case studies are an invaluable record of the clinical practices of a profession. While case studies cannot provide specific guidance for the management of successive patients, they are a record of clinical interactions which help us to frame questions for more rigorously designed clinical studies. Case studies also provide valuable teaching material, demonstrating both classical and unusual presentations which may confront the practitioner. Quite obviously, since the overwhelming majority of clinical interactions occur in the field, not in teaching or research facilities, it falls to the field practitioner to record and pass on their experiences. However, field practitioners generally are not well-practised in writing for publication, and so may hesitate to embark on the task of carrying a case study to publication. These guidelines are intended to assist the relatively novice writer – practitioner or student – in efficiently navigating the relatively easy course to publication of a quality case study. Guidelines are not intended to be proscriptive, and so throughout this document we advise what authors “may” or “should” do, rather than what they “must” do. Authors may decide that the particular circumstances of their case study justify digression from our recommendations.

Additional and useful resources for chiropractic case studies include:

• Waalen JK. Single subject research designs. J Can Chirop Assoc 1991; 35(2):95–97.
• Gleberzon BJ. A peer-reviewer’s plea. J Can Chirop Assoc 2006; 50(2):107.
• Merritt L. Case reports: an important contribution to chiropractic literature. J Can Chiropr Assoc 2007; 51(2):72–74.

Portions of these guidelines were derived from Budgell B. Writing a biomedical research paper. Tokyo: Springer Japan KK, 2008.

General Instructions

This set of guidelines provides both instructions and a template for the writing of case reports for publication. You might want to skip forward and take a quick look at the template now, as we will be using it as the basis for your own case study later on. While the guidelines and template contain much detail, your finished case study should be only 500 to 1,500 words in length. Therefore, you will need to write efficiently and avoid unnecessarily flowery language.

These guidelines for the writing of case studies are designed to be consistent with the “Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals” referenced elsewhere in the JCCA instructions to authors.

After this brief introduction, the guidelines below will follow the headings of our template. Hence, it is possible to work section by section through the template to quickly produce a first draft of your study. To begin with, however, you must have a clear sense of the value of the study which you wish to describe. Therefore, before beginning to write the study itself, you should gather all of the materials relevant to the case – clinical notes, lab reports, x-rays etc. – and form a clear picture of the story that you wish to share with your profession. At the most superficial level, you may want to ask yourself “What is interesting about this case?” Keep your answer in mind as your write, because sometimes we become lost in our writing and forget the message that we want to convey.

Another important general rule for writing case studies is to stick to the facts. A case study should be a fairly modest description of what actually happened. Speculation about underlying mechanisms of the disease process or treatment should be restrained. Field practitioners and students are seldom well-prepared to discuss physiology or pathology. This is best left to experts in those fields. The thing of greatest value that you can provide to your colleagues is an honest record of clinical events.

Finally, remember that a case study is primarily a chronicle of a patient’s progress, not a story about chiropractic. Editorial or promotional remarks do not belong in a case study, no matter how great our enthusiasm. It is best to simply tell the story and let the outcome speak for itself. With these points in mind, let’s begin the process of writing the case study:

• Title: The title page will contain the full title of the article. Remember that many people may find our article by searching on the internet. They may have to decide, just by looking at the title, whether or not they want to access the full article. A title which is vague or non-specific may not attract their attention. Thus, our title should contain the phrase “case study,” “case report” or “case series” as is appropriate to the contents. The two most common formats of titles are nominal and compound. A nominal title is a single phrase, for example “A case study of hypertension which responded to spinal manipulation.” A compound title consists of two phrases in succession, for example “Response of hypertension to spinal manipulation: a case study.” Keep in mind that titles of articles in leading journals average between 8 and 9 words in length.
• Other contents for the title page should be as in the general JCCA instructions to authors. Remember that for a case study, we would not expect to have more than one or two authors. In order to be listed as an author, a person must have an intellectual stake in the writing – at the very least they must be able to explain and even defend the article. Someone who has only provided technical assistance, as valuable as that may be, may be acknowledged at the end of the article, but would not be listed as an author. Contact information – either home or institutional – should be provided for each author along with the authors’ academic qualifications. If there is more than one author, one author must be identified as the corresponding author – the person whom people should contact if they have questions or comments about the study.
• Key words: Provide key words under which the article will be listed. These are the words which would be used when searching for the article using a search engine such as Medline. When practical, we should choose key words from a standard list of keywords, such as MeSH (Medical subject headings). A copy of MeSH is available in most libraries. If we can’t access a copy and we want to make sure that our keywords are included in the MeSH library, we can visit this address: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/meshbrowser.cgi

A narrative abstract consists of a short version of the whole paper. There are no headings within the narrative abstract. The author simply tries to summarize the paper into a story which flows logically.

A structured abstract uses subheadings. Structured abstracts are becoming more popular for basic scientific and clinical studies, since they standardize the abstract and ensure that certain information is included. This is very useful for readers who search for articles on the internet. Often the abstract is displayed by a search engine, and on the basis of the abstract the reader will decide whether or not to download the full article (which may require payment of a fee). With a structured abstract, the reader is more likely to be given the information which they need to decide whether to go on to the full article, and so this style is encouraged. The JCCA recommends the use of structured abstracts for case studies.

Since they are summaries, both narrative and structured abstracts are easier to write once we have finished the rest of the article. We include a template for a structured abstract and encourage authors to make use of it. Our sub-headings will be:

• Introduction: This consists of one or two sentences to describe the context of the case and summarize the entire article.
• Case presentation: Several sentences describe the history and results of any examinations performed. The working diagnosis and management of the case are described.
• Management and Outcome: Simply describe the course of the patient’s complaint. Where possible, make reference to any outcome measures which you used to objectively demonstrate how the patient’s condition evolved through the course of management.
• Discussion: Synthesize the foregoing subsections and explain both correlations and apparent inconsistencies. If appropriate to the case, within one or two sentences describe the lessons to be learned.
• Introduction: At the beginning of these guidelines we suggested that we need to have a clear idea of what is particularly interesting about the case we want to describe. The introduction is where we convey this to the reader. It is useful to begin by placing the study in a historical or social context. If similar cases have been reported previously, we describe them briefly. If there is something especially challenging about the diagnosis or management of the condition that we are describing, now is our chance to bring that out. Each time we refer to a previous study, we cite the reference (usually at the end of the sentence). Our introduction doesn’t need to be more than a few paragraphs long, and our objective is to have the reader understand clearly, but in a general sense, why it is useful for them to be reading about this case.

The next step is to describe the results of our clinical examination. Again, we should write in an efficient narrative style, restricting ourselves to the relevant information. It is not necessary to include every detail in our clinical notes.

If we are using a named orthopedic or neurological test, it is best to both name and describe the test (since some people may know the test by a different name). Also, we should describe the actual results, since not all readers will have the same understanding of what constitutes a “positive” or “negative” result.

X-rays or other images are only helpful if they are clear enough to be easily reproduced and if they are accompanied by a legend. Be sure that any information that might identify a patient is removed before the image is submitted.

At this point, or at the beginning of the next section, we will want to present our working diagnosis or clinical impression of the patient.

It is useful for the reader to know how long the patient was under care and how many times they were treated. Additionally, we should be as specific as possible in describing the treatment that we used. It does not help the reader to simply say that the patient received “chiropractic care.” Exactly what treatment did we use? If we used spinal manipulation, it is best to name the technique, if a common name exists, and also to describe the manipulation. Remember that our case study may be read by people who are not familiar with spinal manipulation, and, even within chiropractic circles, nomenclature for technique is not well standardized.

We may want to include the patient’s own reports of improvement or worsening. However, whenever possible we should try to use a well-validated method of measuring their improvement. For case studies, it may be possible to use data from visual analogue scales (VAS) for pain, or a journal of medication usage.

It is useful to include in this section an indication of how and why treatment finished. Did we decide to terminate care, and if so, why? Did the patient withdraw from care or did we refer them to another practitioner?

• Discussion: In this section we may want to identify any questions that the case raises. It is not our duty to provide a complete physiological explanation for everything that we observed. This is usually impossible. Nor should we feel obligated to list or generate all of the possible hypotheses that might explain the course of the patient’s condition. If there is a well established item of physiology or pathology which illuminates the case, we certainly include it, but remember that we are writing what is primarily a clinical chronicle, not a basic scientific paper. Finally, we summarize the lessons learned from this case.
• Acknowledgments: If someone provided assistance with the preparation of the case study, we thank them briefly. It is neither necessary nor conventional to thank the patient (although we appreciate what they have taught us). It would generally be regarded as excessive and inappropriate to thank others, such as teachers or colleagues who did not directly participate in preparation of the paper.

A popular search engine for English-language references is Medline: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi

• Legends: If we used any tables, figures or photographs, they should be accompanied by a succinct explanation. A good rule for graphs is that they should contain sufficient information to be generally decipherable without reference to a legend.
• Tables, figures and photographs should be included at the end of the manuscript.
• Permissions: If any tables, figures or photographs, or substantial quotations, have been borrowed from other publications, we must include a letter of permission from the publisher. Also, if we use any photographs which might identify a patient, we will need their written permission.

In addition, patient consent to publish the case report is also required.

Running Header:

• Name, academic degrees and affiliation

Name, address and telephone number of corresponding author

Disclaimers

Statement that patient consent was obtained

Sources of financial support, if any

Key words: (limit of five)

Abstract: (maximum of 150 words)

• Case Presentation
• Management and Outcome

Introduction:

Provide a context for the case and describe any similar cases previously reported.

Case Presentation:

• Introductory sentence: e.g. This 25 year old female office worker presented for the treatment of recurrent headaches.
• Describe the essential nature of the complaint, including location, intensity and associated symptoms: e.g. Her headaches are primarily in the suboccipital region, bilaterally but worse on the right. Sometimes there is radiation towards the right temple. She describes the pain as having an intensity of up to 5 out of ten, accompanied by a feeling of tension in the back of the head. When the pain is particularly bad, she feels that her vision is blurred.
• Further development of history including details of time and circumstances of onset, and the evolution of the complaint: e.g. This problem began to develop three years ago when she commenced work as a data entry clerk. Her headaches have increased in frequency in the past year, now occurring three to four days per week.
• Describe relieving and aggravating factors, including responses to other treatment: e.g. The pain seems to be worse towards the end of the work day and is aggravated by stress. Aspirin provides some relieve. She has not sought any other treatment.
• Include other health history, if relevant: e.g. Otherwise the patient reports that she is in good health.
• Include family history, if relevant: e.g. There is no family history of headaches.
• Summarize the results of examination, which might include general observation and postural analysis, orthopedic exam, neurological exam and chiropractic examination (static and motion palpation): e.g. Examination revealed an otherwise fit-looking young woman with slight anterior carriage of the head. Cervical active ranges of motion were full and painless except for some slight restriction of left lateral bending and rotation of the head to the left. These motions were accompanied by discomfort in the right side of the neck. Cervical compression of the neck in the neutral position did not create discomfort. However, compression of the neck in right rotation and extension produced some right suboccipital pain. Cranial nerve examination was normal. Upper limb motor, sensory and reflex functions were normal. With the patient in the supine position, static palpation revealed tender trigger points bilaterally in the cervical musculature and right trapezius. Motion palpation revealed restrictions of right and left rotation in the upper cervical spine, and restriction of left lateral bending in the mid to lower cervical spine. Blood pressure was 110/70. Houle’s test (holding the neck in extension and rotation for 30 seconds) did not produce nystagmus or dizziness. There were no carotid bruits.
• The patient was diagnosed with cervicogenic headache due to chronic postural strain.

Management and Outcome:

• Describe as specifically as possible the treatment provided, including the nature of the treatment, and the frequency and duration of care: e.g. The patient undertook a course of treatment consisting of cervical and upper thoracic spinal manipulation three times per week for two weeks. Manipulation was accompanied by trigger point therapy to the paraspinal muscles and stretching of the upper trapezius. Additionally, advice was provided concerning maintenance of proper posture at work. The patient was also instructed in the use of a cervical pillow.
• If possible, refer to objective measures of the patient’s progress: e.g. The patient maintained a headache diary indicating that she had two headaches during the first week of care, and one headache the following week. Furthermore the intensity of her headaches declined throughout the course of treatment.
• Describe the resolution of care: e.g. Based on the patient’s reported progress during the first two weeks of care, she received an additional two treatments in each of the subsequent two weeks. During the last week of care she experienced no headaches and reported feeling generally more energetic than before commencing care. Following a total of four weeks of care (10 treatments) she was discharged.

Discussion:

Synthesize foregoing sections: e.g. The distinction between migraine and cervicogenic headache is not always clear. However, this case demonstrates several features …

Summarize the case and any lessons learned: e.g. This case demonstrates a classical presentation of cervicogenic headache which resolved quickly with a course of spinal manipulation, supportive soft-tissue therapy and postural advice.

References: (using Vancouver style) e.g.

1 Terret AGJ. Vertebrogenic hearing deficit, the spine and spinal manipulation therapy: a search to validate the DD Palmer/Harvey Lillard experience. Chiropr J Aust 2002; 32:14–26.

Legends: (tables, figures or images are numbered according to the order in which they appear in the text.) e.g.

Figure 1: Intensity of headaches as recorded on a visual analogue scale (vertical axis) versus time (horizontal axis) during the four weeks that the patient was under care. Treatment was given on days 1, 3, 5, 8, 10, 12, 15, 18, 22 and 25. Headache frequency and intensity is seen to fall over time.

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• Writing a case report...

Writing a case report in 10 steps

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• Peer review
• Victoria Stokes , foundation year 2 doctor, trauma and orthopaedics, Basildon Hospital ,
• Caroline Fertleman , paediatrics consultant, The Whittington Hospital NHS Trust
• victoria.stokes1{at}nhs.net

Victoria Stokes and Caroline Fertleman explain how to turn an interesting case or unusual presentation into an educational report

It is common practice in medicine that when we come across an interesting case with an unusual presentation or a surprise twist, we must tell the rest of the medical world. This is how we continue our lifelong learning and aid faster diagnosis and treatment for patients.

It usually falls to the junior to write up the case, so here are a few simple tips to get you started.

First steps

Begin by sitting down with your medical team to discuss the interesting aspects of the case and the learning points to highlight. Ideally, a registrar or middle grade will mentor you and give you guidance. Another junior doctor or medical student may also be keen to be involved. Allocate jobs to split the workload, set a deadline and work timeframe, and discuss the order in which the authors will be listed. All listed authors should contribute substantially, with the person doing most of the work put first and the guarantor (usually the most senior team member) at the end.

Getting consent

Gain permission and written consent to write up the case from the patient or parents, if your patient is a child, and keep a copy because you will need it later for submission to journals.

Information gathering

Gather all the information from the medical notes and the hospital’s electronic systems, including copies of blood results and imaging, as medical notes often disappear when the patient is discharged and are notoriously difficult to find again. Remember to anonymise the data according to your local hospital policy.

Write up the case emphasising the interesting points of the presentation, investigations leading to diagnosis, and management of the disease/pathology. Get input on the case from all members of the team, highlighting their involvement. Also include the prognosis of the patient, if known, as the reader will want to know the outcome.

Coming up with a title

Discuss a title with your supervisor and other members of the team, as this provides the focus for your article. The title should be concise and interesting but should also enable people to find it in medical literature search engines. Also think about how you will present your case study—for example, a poster presentation or scientific paper—and consider potential journals or conferences, as you may need to write in a particular style or format.

Background research

Research the disease/pathology that is the focus of your article and write a background paragraph or two, highlighting the relevance of your case report in relation to this. If you are struggling, seek the opinion of a specialist who may know of relevant articles or texts. Another good resource is your hospital library, where staff are often more than happy to help with literature searches.

How your case is different

Move on to explore how the case presented differently to the admitting team. Alternatively, if your report is focused on management, explore the difficulties the team came across and alternative options for treatment.

Finish by explaining why your case report adds to the medical literature and highlight any learning points.

Writing an abstract

The abstract should be no longer than 100-200 words and should highlight all your key points concisely. This can be harder than writing the full article and needs special care as it will be used to judge whether your case is accepted for presentation or publication.

Discuss with your supervisor or team about options for presenting or publishing your case report. At the very least, you should present your article locally within a departmental or team meeting or at a hospital grand round. Well done!

Competing interests: We have read and understood BMJ’s policy on declaration of interests and declare that we have no competing interests.

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Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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McCombes, S. (2023, November 20). What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved April 12, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/case-study/

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Writing A Scientific Case Study: Effective Guide 

Table of Contents

Scientific case studies are a critical tool used in scientific research to describe and analyze real-world situations and phenomena. These studies are essential in helping researchers understand the complexities of real-world situations and identify potential solutions to existing problems. A scientific case study involves an in-depth examination of a particular event, person, group, or wonder to determine the cause-and-effect relationships. If you’re wondering how to write a scientific case study , this guide is for you. Writing a scientific case study requires a systematic approach to ensure the analysis is accurate, precise, and objective. In this context, this article will guide you to write a scientific case study that can withstand rigorous scientific scrutiny.

What is a Scientific Case Study?

A scientific case study is a detailed and systematic examination of a specific phenomenon or event within a scientific framework . This examination method is useful in scientific research to provide insights into real-world situations and generate testable hypotheses. Scientific case studies are typically conducted systematically, using established scientific methods to collect and analyze data. They often involve observing a particular event or situation, collecting data through various modes (such as surveys, interviews, or experiments). And analyzing that data to identify patterns, relationships, or causal factors. Scientific case studies is useful in various fields, including biology, psychology, sociology, economics, and engineering. They can be used to investigate a range of phenomena. Such as the effects of new drug treatment, or the behavior of a particular species in its natural habitat. Overall, a scientific case study aims to provide a detailed understanding of a specific phenomenon while adhering to the rigorous standards of scientific research.

How to Write a Scientific Case Study

Writing a scientific case study involves thoroughly investigating a particular phenomenon or case and presenting the findings in a detailed, rigorous, and informative way. The following are tips for writing a scientific case study:

• Choose an appropriate case. Select a subject relevant to your research question or objective. The subject should be unique and exciting and have sufficient data for a thorough analysis.
• Gather data. Collect all the relevant data about the case. This may include interviews, surveys, observations, or other suitable data sources.
• Analyze the data. Once you have collected the data, analyze it using appropriate methods. This may include statistical analysis, content analysis, or any other relevant analytical technique.
• Develop a clear structure. A scientific case study should be well-structured. It should include an introduction, background information, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.
• Provide sufficient detail. Provide enough detail about the case study. Include the methods used, the results obtained, and any limitations or potential biases that may have impacted the investigation.
• Use appropriate language. Use scientific verbiage that is clear and concise. Avoid complex terminologies and jargon that may not be very clear to readers.
• Cite relevant sources. Make sure to cite all the relevant sources used in the case study. Including any previous research or literature that supports or contradicts your findings.
• Conclude. Finally, draw conclusions based on the case study’s findings. The evidence should support these conclusions and be relevant to the research question or objective.

Components of a Scientific Case Study

Overall, a scientific case study should be well-structured and thoroughly researched.

The abstract should summarize the entire case study, typically no longer than 250 words. It should provide a brief and straightforward summary of the research question, methods used, key findings, and conclusions. The abstract should be written last, as it summarizes the entire research.

Introduction

The introduction should offer background information to set the stage for the topic, including any relevant theories or previous research. It should also clearly state the research question or objective of the study. The introduction should be clear, brief, and captivating to the reader.

Literature review

The literature review should offer a thorough summary of previous research on the topic, including key findings and any gaps in the literature. It should also provide a critical literature analysis, highlighting any strengths or weaknesses in previous studies. The literature review should be organized logically, and any sources cited should be referenced appropriately.

The methods section should provide a clear and detailed description of the methods used in the case study. This should include information on the sampling method, data collection techniques, and data analysis procedures. The forms should be described in sufficient detail to allow for the replication of the study.

The results section should present the key findings of the case study, including any statistical analyses or other relevant data visualizations. The results should be presented clearly and concisely, using appropriate tables or figures to support the findings.

The discussion should interpret the results of the study, comparing them to previous research. And discussing any limitations or potential biases that may have affected the investigation. The debate should also explain the implications of the findings for the research question or objective and provide recommendations for future research.

The conclusion should summarize the essential findings and their implications, highlighting the main points of the case study. It should also provide recommendations for future research and briefly discuss any limitations or potential biases of the study.

The references should be properly formatted and include all sources cited in the case study. The references should be listed alphabetically, following a recognized citation style.

Appendices should include any supplementary materials that support the case study, such as raw data, additional tables or figures, or other relevant information. The appendices should be clearly labeled and organized logically.

Sample of a Scientific Case Study

Title : The Impact of Environmental Pollution on the Health of Residents Living near a Steel Manufacturing Plant

Introduction 

Environmental pollution is a growing global concern affecting both human and non-human life. This case study aims to investigate the impacts of pollution on the health of people living close to a steel manufacturing plant in XYZ. The study aims to explore the correlation between pollution levels and various health issues residents report.

A cross-sectional study was conducted among 500 residents within a 5 km radius of the steel plant. The study was carried out from January to June 2022. Participants were selected using stratified random sampling to ensure equal representation of gender and age groups. Data was collected through a structured questionnaire administered in person by trained research assistants. The questionnaire included questions about demographic information, health status, and exposure to pollution. Air quality data was also collected from the local environmental monitoring agency.

The air quality data showed high levels of particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide. The results showed a strong association between the levels of pollution and the incidence of respiratory diseases such as asthma and bronchitis. Participants living closer to the plant reported a higher incidence of these diseases. Additionally, there was a significant association between pollution levels, skin allergies, and eye irritation. Other health issues reported by participants included headaches, fatigue, and digestive problems.

The study proves that the steel manufacturing plant is a significant source of environmental pollution that adversely affects nearby residents’ health. The findings highlight the need for stricter regulations and more effective pollution control measures. This is to protect the health and welfare of people residing in industrial areas. The study also calls for further research to investigate the long-term effects of exposure to pollution on human health.

Final Words

Writing a scientific case study requires a systematic approach and attention to detail. Follow the guidelines in this article to ensure that your case study effectively communicates your findings to the scientific community. Remember to include all the necessary sections, use appropriate language, and provide ample supporting evidence. Doing so can contribute valuable knowledge to your field and potentially significantly impact scientific research. With practice and dedication, anyone can master the art of writing a scientific case study and become a valuable contributor to the scientific community. Now that you know how to write a scientific case study , it’s time to get started!

Abir Ghenaiet

Abir is a data analyst and researcher. Among her interests are artificial intelligence, machine learning, and natural language processing. As a humanitarian and educator, she actively supports women in tech and promotes diversity.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
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• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
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• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

Definition and Introduction

Case analysis is a problem-based teaching and learning method that involves critically analyzing complex scenarios within an organizational setting for the purpose of placing the student in a “real world” situation and applying reflection and critical thinking skills to contemplate appropriate solutions, decisions, or recommended courses of action. It is considered a more effective teaching technique than in-class role playing or simulation activities. The analytical process is often guided by questions provided by the instructor that ask students to contemplate relationships between the facts and critical incidents described in the case.

Cases generally include both descriptive and statistical elements and rely on students applying abductive reasoning to develop and argue for preferred or best outcomes [i.e., case scenarios rarely have a single correct or perfect answer based on the evidence provided]. Rather than emphasizing theories or concepts, case analysis assignments emphasize building a bridge of relevancy between abstract thinking and practical application and, by so doing, teaches the value of both within a specific area of professional practice.

Given this, the purpose of a case analysis paper is to present a structured and logically organized format for analyzing the case situation. It can be assigned to students individually or as a small group assignment and it may include an in-class presentation component. Case analysis is predominately taught in economics and business-related courses, but it is also a method of teaching and learning found in other applied social sciences disciplines, such as, social work, public relations, education, journalism, and public administration.

Ellet, William. The Case Study Handbook: A Student's Guide . Revised Edition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2018; Christoph Rasche and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Analysis . Writing Center, Baruch College; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

How to Approach Writing a Case Analysis Paper

The organization and structure of a case analysis paper can vary depending on the organizational setting, the situation, and how your professor wants you to approach the assignment. Nevertheless, preparing to write a case analysis paper involves several important steps. As Hawes notes, a case analysis assignment “...is useful in developing the ability to get to the heart of a problem, analyze it thoroughly, and to indicate the appropriate solution as well as how it should be implemented” [p.48]. This statement encapsulates how you should approach preparing to write a case analysis paper.

Before you begin to write your paper, consider the following analytical procedures:

• Review the case to get an overview of the situation . A case can be only a few pages in length, however, it is most often very lengthy and contains a significant amount of detailed background information and statistics, with multilayered descriptions of the scenario, the roles and behaviors of various stakeholder groups, and situational events. Therefore, a quick reading of the case will help you gain an overall sense of the situation and illuminate the types of issues and problems that you will need to address in your paper. If your professor has provided questions intended to help frame your analysis, use them to guide your initial reading of the case.
• Read the case thoroughly . After gaining a general overview of the case, carefully read the content again with the purpose of understanding key circumstances, events, and behaviors among stakeholder groups. Look for information or data that appears contradictory, extraneous, or misleading. At this point, you should be taking notes as you read because this will help you develop a general outline of your paper. The aim is to obtain a complete understanding of the situation so that you can begin contemplating tentative answers to any questions your professor has provided or, if they have not provided, developing answers to your own questions about the case scenario and its connection to the course readings,lectures, and class discussions.
• Determine key stakeholder groups, issues, and events and the relationships they all have to each other . As you analyze the content, pay particular attention to identifying individuals, groups, or organizations described in the case and identify evidence of any problems or issues of concern that impact the situation in a negative way. Other things to look for include identifying any assumptions being made by or about each stakeholder, potential biased explanations or actions, explicit demands or ultimatums , and the underlying concerns that motivate these behaviors among stakeholders. The goal at this stage is to develop a comprehensive understanding of the situational and behavioral dynamics of the case and the explicit and implicit consequences of each of these actions.
• Identify the core problems . The next step in most case analysis assignments is to discern what the core [i.e., most damaging, detrimental, injurious] problems are within the organizational setting and to determine their implications. The purpose at this stage of preparing to write your analysis paper is to distinguish between the symptoms of core problems and the core problems themselves and to decide which of these must be addressed immediately and which problems do not appear critical but may escalate over time. Identify evidence from the case to support your decisions by determining what information or data is essential to addressing the core problems and what information is not relevant or is misleading.
• Explore alternative solutions . As noted, case analysis scenarios rarely have only one correct answer. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that the process of analyzing the case and diagnosing core problems, while based on evidence, is a subjective process open to various avenues of interpretation. This means that you must consider alternative solutions or courses of action by critically examining strengths and weaknesses, risk factors, and the differences between short and long-term solutions. For each possible solution or course of action, consider the consequences they may have related to their implementation and how these recommendations might lead to new problems. Also, consider thinking about your recommended solutions or courses of action in relation to issues of fairness, equity, and inclusion.
• Decide on a final set of recommendations . The last stage in preparing to write a case analysis paper is to assert an opinion or viewpoint about the recommendations needed to help resolve the core problems as you see them and to make a persuasive argument for supporting this point of view. Prepare a clear rationale for your recommendations based on examining each element of your analysis. Anticipate possible obstacles that could derail their implementation. Consider any counter-arguments that could be made concerning the validity of your recommended actions. Finally, describe a set of criteria and measurable indicators that could be applied to evaluating the effectiveness of your implementation plan.

Use these steps as the framework for writing your paper. Remember that the more detailed you are in taking notes as you critically examine each element of the case, the more information you will have to draw from when you begin to write. This will save you time.

NOTE : If the process of preparing to write a case analysis paper is assigned as a student group project, consider having each member of the group analyze a specific element of the case, including drafting answers to the corresponding questions used by your professor to frame the analysis. This will help make the analytical process more efficient and ensure that the distribution of work is equitable. This can also facilitate who is responsible for drafting each part of the final case analysis paper and, if applicable, the in-class presentation.

Framework for Case Analysis . College of Management. University of Massachusetts; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Rasche, Christoph and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Study Analysis . University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center; Van Ness, Raymond K. A Guide to Case Analysis . School of Business. State University of New York, Albany; Writing a Case Analysis . Business School, University of New South Wales.

Structure and Writing Style

A case analysis paper should be detailed, concise, persuasive, clearly written, and professional in tone and in the use of language . As with other forms of college-level academic writing, declarative statements that convey information, provide a fact, or offer an explanation or any recommended courses of action should be based on evidence. If allowed by your professor, any external sources used to support your analysis, such as course readings, should be properly cited under a list of references. The organization and structure of case analysis papers can vary depending on your professor’s preferred format, but its structure generally follows the steps used for analyzing the case.

Introduction

The introduction should provide a succinct but thorough descriptive overview of the main facts, issues, and core problems of the case . The introduction should also include a brief summary of the most relevant details about the situation and organizational setting. This includes defining the theoretical framework or conceptual model on which any questions were used to frame your analysis.

Following the rules of most college-level research papers, the introduction should then inform the reader how the paper will be organized. This includes describing the major sections of the paper and the order in which they will be presented. Unless you are told to do so by your professor, you do not need to preview your final recommendations in the introduction. U nlike most college-level research papers , the introduction does not include a statement about the significance of your findings because a case analysis assignment does not involve contributing new knowledge about a research problem.

Background Analysis

Background analysis can vary depending on any guiding questions provided by your professor and the underlying concept or theory that the case is based upon. In general, however, this section of your paper should focus on:

• Providing an overarching analysis of problems identified from the case scenario, including identifying events that stakeholders find challenging or troublesome,
• Identifying assumptions made by each stakeholder and any apparent biases they may exhibit,
• Describing any demands or claims made by or forced upon key stakeholders, and
• Highlighting any issues of concern or complaints expressed by stakeholders in response to those demands or claims.

These aspects of the case are often in the form of behavioral responses expressed by individuals or groups within the organizational setting. However, note that problems in a case situation can also be reflected in data [or the lack thereof] and in the decision-making, operational, cultural, or institutional structure of the organization. Additionally, demands or claims can be either internal and external to the organization [e.g., a case analysis involving a president considering arms sales to Saudi Arabia could include managing internal demands from White House advisors as well as demands from members of Congress].

Throughout this section, present all relevant evidence from the case that supports your analysis. Do not simply claim there is a problem, an assumption, a demand, or a concern; tell the reader what part of the case informed how you identified these background elements.

Identification of Problems

In most case analysis assignments, there are problems, and then there are problems . Each problem can reflect a multitude of underlying symptoms that are detrimental to the interests of the organization. The purpose of identifying problems is to teach students how to differentiate between problems that vary in severity, impact, and relative importance. Given this, problems can be described in three general forms: those that must be addressed immediately, those that should be addressed but the impact is not severe, and those that do not require immediate attention and can be set aside for the time being.

All of the problems you identify from the case should be identified in this section of your paper, with a description based on evidence explaining the problem variances. If the assignment asks you to conduct research to further support your assessment of the problems, include this in your explanation. Remember to cite those sources in a list of references. Use specific evidence from the case and apply appropriate concepts, theories, and models discussed in class or in relevant course readings to highlight and explain the key problems [or problem] that you believe must be solved immediately and describe the underlying symptoms and why they are so critical.

Alternative Solutions

This section is where you provide specific, realistic, and evidence-based solutions to the problems you have identified and make recommendations about how to alleviate the underlying symptomatic conditions impacting the organizational setting. For each solution, you must explain why it was chosen and provide clear evidence to support your reasoning. This can include, for example, course readings and class discussions as well as research resources, such as, books, journal articles, research reports, or government documents. In some cases, your professor may encourage you to include personal, anecdotal experiences as evidence to support why you chose a particular solution or set of solutions. Using anecdotal evidence helps promote reflective thinking about the process of determining what qualifies as a core problem and relevant solution .

Throughout this part of the paper, keep in mind the entire array of problems that must be addressed and describe in detail the solutions that might be implemented to resolve these problems.

Recommended Courses of Action

In some case analysis assignments, your professor may ask you to combine the alternative solutions section with your recommended courses of action. However, it is important to know the difference between the two. A solution refers to the answer to a problem. A course of action refers to a procedure or deliberate sequence of activities adopted to proactively confront a situation, often in the context of accomplishing a goal. In this context, proposed courses of action are based on your analysis of alternative solutions. Your description and justification for pursuing each course of action should represent the overall plan for implementing your recommendations.

For each course of action, you need to explain the rationale for your recommendation in a way that confronts challenges, explains risks, and anticipates any counter-arguments from stakeholders. Do this by considering the strengths and weaknesses of each course of action framed in relation to how the action is expected to resolve the core problems presented, the possible ways the action may affect remaining problems, and how the recommended action will be perceived by each stakeholder.

In addition, you should describe the criteria needed to measure how well the implementation of these actions is working and explain which individuals or groups are responsible for ensuring your recommendations are successful. In addition, always consider the law of unintended consequences. Outline difficulties that may arise in implementing each course of action and describe how implementing the proposed courses of action [either individually or collectively] may lead to new problems [both large and small].

Throughout this section, you must consider the costs and benefits of recommending your courses of action in relation to uncertainties or missing information and the negative consequences of success.

The conclusion should be brief and introspective. Unlike a research paper, the conclusion in a case analysis paper does not include a summary of key findings and their significance, a statement about how the study contributed to existing knowledge, or indicate opportunities for future research.

Begin by synthesizing the core problems presented in the case and the relevance of your recommended solutions. This can include an explanation of what you have learned about the case in the context of your answers to the questions provided by your professor. The conclusion is also where you link what you learned from analyzing the case with the course readings or class discussions. This can further demonstrate your understanding of the relationships between the practical case situation and the theoretical and abstract content of assigned readings and other course content.

Problems to Avoid

The literature on case analysis assignments often includes examples of difficulties students have with applying methods of critical analysis and effectively reporting the results of their assessment of the situation. A common reason cited by scholars is that the application of this type of teaching and learning method is limited to applied fields of social and behavioral sciences and, as a result, writing a case analysis paper can be unfamiliar to most students entering college.

After you have drafted your paper, proofread the narrative flow and revise any of these common errors:

• Unnecessary detail in the background section . The background section should highlight the essential elements of the case based on your analysis. Focus on summarizing the facts and highlighting the key factors that become relevant in the other sections of the paper by eliminating any unnecessary information.
• Analysis relies too much on opinion . Your analysis is interpretive, but the narrative must be connected clearly to evidence from the case and any models and theories discussed in class or in course readings. Any positions or arguments you make should be supported by evidence.
• Analysis does not focus on the most important elements of the case . Your paper should provide a thorough overview of the case. However, the analysis should focus on providing evidence about what you identify are the key events, stakeholders, issues, and problems. Emphasize what you identify as the most critical aspects of the case to be developed throughout your analysis. Be thorough but succinct.
• Writing is too descriptive . A paper with too much descriptive information detracts from your analysis of the complexities of the case situation. Questions about what happened, where, when, and by whom should only be included as essential information leading to your examination of questions related to why, how, and for what purpose.
• Inadequate definition of a core problem and associated symptoms . A common error found in case analysis papers is recommending a solution or course of action without adequately defining or demonstrating that you understand the problem. Make sure you have clearly described the problem and its impact and scope within the organizational setting. Ensure that you have adequately described the root causes w hen describing the symptoms of the problem.
• Recommendations lack specificity . Identify any use of vague statements and indeterminate terminology, such as, “A particular experience” or “a large increase to the budget.” These statements cannot be measured and, as a result, there is no way to evaluate their successful implementation. Provide specific data and use direct language in describing recommended actions.
• Unrealistic, exaggerated, or unattainable recommendations . Review your recommendations to ensure that they are based on the situational facts of the case. Your recommended solutions and courses of action must be based on realistic assumptions and fit within the constraints of the situation. Also note that the case scenario has already happened, therefore, any speculation or arguments about what could have occurred if the circumstances were different should be revised or eliminated.

Bee, Lian Song et al. "Business Students' Perspectives on Case Method Coaching for Problem-Based Learning: Impacts on Student Engagement and Learning Performance in Higher Education." Education & Training 64 (2022): 416-432; The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Georgallis, Panikos and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching using Case-Based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Georgallis, Panikos, and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching Using Case-based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; .Dean,  Kathy Lund and Charles J. Fornaciari. "How to Create and Use Experiential Case-Based Exercises in a Management Classroom." Journal of Management Education 26 (October 2002): 586-603; Klebba, Joanne M. and Janet G. Hamilton. "Structured Case Analysis: Developing Critical Thinking Skills in a Marketing Case Course." Journal of Marketing Education 29 (August 2007): 132-137, 139; Klein, Norman. "The Case Discussion Method Revisited: Some Questions about Student Skills." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 30-32; Mukherjee, Arup. "Effective Use of In-Class Mini Case Analysis for Discovery Learning in an Undergraduate MIS Course." The Journal of Computer Information Systems 40 (Spring 2000): 15-23; Pessoa, Silviaet al. "Scaffolding the Case Analysis in an Organizational Behavior Course: Making Analytical Language Explicit." Journal of Management Education 46 (2022): 226-251: Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Schweitzer, Karen. "How to Write and Format a Business Case Study." ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-write-and-format-a-business-case-study-466324 (accessed December 5, 2022); Reddy, C. D. "Teaching Research Methodology: Everything's a Case." Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods 18 (December 2020): 178-188; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

Writing Tip

Ca se Study and Case Analysis Are Not the Same!

Confusion often exists between what it means to write a paper that uses a case study research design and writing a paper that analyzes a case; they are two different types of approaches to learning in the social and behavioral sciences. Professors as well as educational researchers contribute to this confusion because they often use the term "case study" when describing the subject of analysis for a case analysis paper. But you are not studying a case for the purpose of generating a comprehensive, multi-faceted understanding of a research problem. R ather, you are critically analyzing a specific scenario to argue logically for recommended solutions and courses of action that lead to optimal outcomes applicable to professional practice.

To avoid any confusion, here are twelve characteristics that delineate the differences between writing a paper using the case study research method and writing a case analysis paper:

• Case study is a method of in-depth research and rigorous inquiry ; case analysis is a reliable method of teaching and learning . A case study is a modality of research that investigates a phenomenon for the purpose of creating new knowledge, solving a problem, or testing a hypothesis using empirical evidence derived from the case being studied. Often, the results are used to generalize about a larger population or within a wider context. The writing adheres to the traditional standards of a scholarly research study. A case analysis is a pedagogical tool used to teach students how to reflect and think critically about a practical, real-life problem in an organizational setting.
• The researcher is responsible for identifying the case to study; a case analysis is assigned by your professor . As the researcher, you choose the case study to investigate in support of obtaining new knowledge and understanding about the research problem. The case in a case analysis assignment is almost always provided, and sometimes written, by your professor and either given to every student in class to analyze individually or to a small group of students, or students select a case to analyze from a predetermined list.
• A case study is indeterminate and boundless; a case analysis is predetermined and confined . A case study can be almost anything [see item 9 below] as long as it relates directly to examining the research problem. This relationship is the only limit to what a researcher can choose as the subject of their case study. The content of a case analysis is determined by your professor and its parameters are well-defined and limited to elucidating insights of practical value applied to practice.
• Case study is fact-based and describes actual events or situations; case analysis can be entirely fictional or adapted from an actual situation . The entire content of a case study must be grounded in reality to be a valid subject of investigation in an empirical research study. A case analysis only needs to set the stage for critically examining a situation in practice and, therefore, can be entirely fictional or adapted, all or in-part, from an actual situation.
• Research using a case study method must adhere to principles of intellectual honesty and academic integrity; a case analysis scenario can include misleading or false information . A case study paper must report research objectively and factually to ensure that any findings are understood to be logically correct and trustworthy. A case analysis scenario may include misleading or false information intended to deliberately distract from the central issues of the case. The purpose is to teach students how to sort through conflicting or useless information in order to come up with the preferred solution. Any use of misleading or false information in academic research is considered unethical.
• Case study is linked to a research problem; case analysis is linked to a practical situation or scenario . In the social sciences, the subject of an investigation is most often framed as a problem that must be researched in order to generate new knowledge leading to a solution. Case analysis narratives are grounded in real life scenarios for the purpose of examining the realities of decision-making behavior and processes within organizational settings. A case analysis assignments include a problem or set of problems to be analyzed. However, the goal is centered around the act of identifying and evaluating courses of action leading to best possible outcomes.
• The purpose of a case study is to create new knowledge through research; the purpose of a case analysis is to teach new understanding . Case studies are a choice of methodological design intended to create new knowledge about resolving a research problem. A case analysis is a mode of teaching and learning intended to create new understanding and an awareness of uncertainty applied to practice through acts of critical thinking and reflection.
• A case study seeks to identify the best possible solution to a research problem; case analysis can have an indeterminate set of solutions or outcomes . Your role in studying a case is to discover the most logical, evidence-based ways to address a research problem. A case analysis assignment rarely has a single correct answer because one of the goals is to force students to confront the real life dynamics of uncertainly, ambiguity, and missing or conflicting information within professional practice. Under these conditions, a perfect outcome or solution almost never exists.
• Case study is unbounded and relies on gathering external information; case analysis is a self-contained subject of analysis . The scope of a case study chosen as a method of research is bounded. However, the researcher is free to gather whatever information and data is necessary to investigate its relevance to understanding the research problem. For a case analysis assignment, your professor will often ask you to examine solutions or recommended courses of action based solely on facts and information from the case.
• Case study can be a person, place, object, issue, event, condition, or phenomenon; a case analysis is a carefully constructed synopsis of events, situations, and behaviors . The research problem dictates the type of case being studied and, therefore, the design can encompass almost anything tangible as long as it fulfills the objective of generating new knowledge and understanding. A case analysis is in the form of a narrative containing descriptions of facts, situations, processes, rules, and behaviors within a particular setting and under a specific set of circumstances.
• Case study can represent an open-ended subject of inquiry; a case analysis is a narrative about something that has happened in the past . A case study is not restricted by time and can encompass an event or issue with no temporal limit or end. For example, the current war in Ukraine can be used as a case study of how medical personnel help civilians during a large military conflict, even though circumstances around this event are still evolving. A case analysis can be used to elicit critical thinking about current or future situations in practice, but the case itself is a narrative about something finite and that has taken place in the past.
• Multiple case studies can be used in a research study; case analysis involves examining a single scenario . Case study research can use two or more cases to examine a problem, often for the purpose of conducting a comparative investigation intended to discover hidden relationships, document emerging trends, or determine variations among different examples. A case analysis assignment typically describes a stand-alone, self-contained situation and any comparisons among cases are conducted during in-class discussions and/or student presentations.

The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2017; Crowe, Sarah et al. “The Case Study Approach.” BMC Medical Research Methodology 11 (2011):  doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-11-100; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing; 1994.

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All You Wanted to Know About How to Write a Case Study

What do you study in your college? If you are a psychology, sociology, or anthropology student, we bet you might be familiar with what a case study is. This research method is used to study a certain person, group, or situation. In this guide from our dissertation writing service , you will learn how to write a case study professionally, from researching to citing sources properly. Also, we will explore different types of case studies and show you examples — so that you won’t have any other questions left.

What Is a Case Study?

A case study is a subcategory of research design which investigates problems and offers solutions. Case studies can range from academic research studies to corporate promotional tools trying to sell an idea—their scope is quite vast.

What Is the Difference Between a Research Paper and a Case Study?

While research papers turn the reader’s attention to a certain problem, case studies go even further. Case study guidelines require students to pay attention to details, examining issues closely and in-depth using different research methods. For example, case studies may be used to examine court cases if you study Law, or a patient's health history if you study Medicine. Case studies are also used in Marketing, which are thorough, empirically supported analysis of a good or service's performance. Well-designed case studies can be valuable for prospective customers as they can identify and solve the potential customers pain point.

Case studies involve a lot of storytelling – they usually examine particular cases for a person or a group of people. This method of research is very helpful, as it is very practical and can give a lot of hands-on information. Most commonly, the length of the case study is about 500-900 words, which is much less than the length of an average research paper.

The structure of a case study is very similar to storytelling. It has a protagonist or main character, which in your case is actually a problem you are trying to solve. You can use the system of 3 Acts to make it a compelling story. It should have an introduction, rising action, a climax where transformation occurs, falling action, and a solution.

Here is a rough formula for you to use in your case study:

Problem (Act I): > Solution (Act II) > Result (Act III) > Conclusion.

Types of Case Studies

The purpose of a case study is to provide detailed reports on an event, an institution, a place, future customers, or pretty much anything. There are a few common types of case study, but the type depends on the topic. The following are the most common domains where case studies are needed:

• Historical case studies are great to learn from. Historical events have a multitude of source info offering different perspectives. There are always modern parallels where these perspectives can be applied, compared, and thoroughly analyzed.
• Problem-oriented case studies are usually used for solving problems. These are often assigned as theoretical situations where you need to immerse yourself in the situation to examine it. Imagine you’re working for a startup and you’ve just noticed a significant flaw in your product’s design. Before taking it to the senior manager, you want to do a comprehensive study on the issue and provide solutions. On a greater scale, problem-oriented case studies are a vital part of relevant socio-economic discussions.
• Cumulative case studies collect information and offer comparisons. In business, case studies are often used to tell people about the value of a product.
• Critical case studies explore the causes and effects of a certain case.
• Illustrative case studies describe certain events, investigating outcomes and lessons learned.

Need a compelling case study? EssayPro has got you covered. Our experts are ready to provide you with detailed, insightful case studies that capture the essence of real-world scenarios. Elevate your academic work with our professional assistance.

Case Study Format

The case study format is typically made up of eight parts:

• Executive Summary. Explain what you will examine in the case study. Write an overview of the field you’re researching. Make a thesis statement and sum up the results of your observation in a maximum of 2 sentences.
• Background. Provide background information and the most relevant facts. Isolate the issues.
• Case Evaluation. Isolate the sections of the study you want to focus on. In it, explain why something is working or is not working.
• Proposed Solutions. Offer realistic ways to solve what isn’t working or how to improve its current condition. Explain why these solutions work by offering testable evidence.
• Conclusion. Summarize the main points from the case evaluations and proposed solutions. 6. Recommendations. Talk about the strategy that you should choose. Explain why this choice is the most appropriate.
• Implementation. Explain how to put the specific strategies into action.
• References. Provide all the citations.

How to Write a Case Study

Let's discover how to write a case study.

Setting Up the Research

When writing a case study, remember that research should always come first. Reading many different sources and analyzing other points of view will help you come up with more creative solutions. You can also conduct an actual interview to thoroughly investigate the customer story that you'll need for your case study. Including all of the necessary research, writing a case study may take some time. The research process involves doing the following:

• Define your objective. Explain the reason why you’re presenting your subject. Figure out where you will feature your case study; whether it is written, on video, shown as an infographic, streamed as a podcast, etc.
• Determine who will be the right candidate for your case study. Get permission, quotes, and other features that will make your case study effective. Get in touch with your candidate to see if they approve of being part of your work. Study that candidate’s situation and note down what caused it.
• Identify which various consequences could result from the situation. Follow these guidelines on how to start a case study: surf the net to find some general information you might find useful.
• Make a list of credible sources and examine them. Seek out important facts and highlight problems. Always write down your ideas and make sure to brainstorm.
• Focus on several key issues – why they exist, and how they impact your research subject. Think of several unique solutions. Draw from class discussions, readings, and personal experience. When writing a case study, focus on the best solution and explore it in depth. After having all your research in place, writing a case study will be easy. You may first want to check the rubric and criteria of your assignment for the correct case study structure.

Read Also: ' WHAT IS A CREDIBLE SOURCES ?'

Although your instructor might be looking at slightly different criteria, every case study rubric essentially has the same standards. Your professor will want you to exhibit 8 different outcomes:

• Correctly identify the concepts, theories, and practices in the discipline.
• Identify the relevant theories and principles associated with the particular study.
• Evaluate legal and ethical principles and apply them to your decision-making.
• Recognize the global importance and contribution of your case.
• Construct a coherent summary and explanation of the study.
• Demonstrate analytical and critical-thinking skills.
• Explain the interrelationships between the environment and nature.
• Integrate theory and practice of the discipline within the analysis.

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Case Study Outline

Let's look at the structure of an outline based on the issue of the alcoholic addiction of 30 people.

Introduction

• Statement of the issue: Alcoholism is a disease rather than a weakness of character.
• Presentation of the problem: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there.
• Explanation of the terms: In the past, alcoholism was commonly referred to as alcohol dependence or alcohol addiction. Alcoholism is now the more severe stage of this addiction in the disorder spectrum.
• Hypotheses: Drinking in excess can lead to the use of other drugs.
• Importance of your story: How the information you present can help people with their addictions.
• Background of the story: Include an explanation of why you chose this topic.
• Presentation of analysis and data: Describe the criteria for choosing 30 candidates, the structure of the interview, and the outcomes.
• Strong argument 1: ex. X% of candidates dealing with anxiety and depression...
• Strong argument 2: ex. X amount of people started drinking by their mid-teens.
• Strong argument 3: ex. X% of respondents’ parents had issues with alcohol.
• Concluding statement: I have researched if alcoholism is a disease and found out that…
• Recommendations: Ways and actions for preventing alcohol use.

Writing a Case Study Draft

After you’ve done your case study research and written the outline, it’s time to focus on the draft. In a draft, you have to develop and write your case study by using: the data which you collected throughout the research, interviews, and the analysis processes that were undertaken. Follow these rules for the draft:

• Your draft should contain at least 4 sections: an introduction; a body where you should include background information, an explanation of why you decided to do this case study, and a presentation of your main findings; a conclusion where you present data; and references.
• In the introduction, you should set the pace very clearly. You can even raise a question or quote someone you interviewed in the research phase. It must provide adequate background information on the topic. The background may include analyses of previous studies on your topic. Include the aim of your case here as well. Think of it as a thesis statement. The aim must describe the purpose of your work—presenting the issues that you want to tackle. Include background information, such as photos or videos you used when doing the research.
• Describe your unique research process, whether it was through interviews, observations, academic journals, etc. The next point includes providing the results of your research. Tell the audience what you found out. Why is this important, and what could be learned from it? Discuss the real implications of the problem and its significance in the world.
• Include quotes and data (such as findings, percentages, and awards). This will add a personal touch and better credibility to the case you present. Explain what results you find during your interviews in regards to the problem and how it developed. Also, write about solutions which have already been proposed by other people who have already written about this case.
• At the end of your case study, you should offer possible solutions, but don’t worry about solving them yourself.

Use Data to Illustrate Key Points in Your Case Study

Even though your case study is a story, it should be based on evidence. Use as much data as possible to illustrate your point. Without the right data, your case study may appear weak and the readers may not be able to relate to your issue as much as they should. Let's see the examples from essay writing service :

‍ With data: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there. Without data: A lot of people suffer from alcoholism in the United States.

Try to include as many credible sources as possible. You may have terms or sources that could be hard for other cultures to understand. If this is the case, you should include them in the appendix or Notes for the Instructor or Professor.

Finalizing the Draft: Checklist

After you finish drafting your case study, polish it up by answering these ‘ask yourself’ questions and think about how to end your case study:

• Check that you follow the correct case study format, also in regards to text formatting.
• Check that your work is consistent with its referencing and citation style.
• Micro-editing — check for grammar and spelling issues.
• Macro-editing — does ‘the big picture’ come across to the reader? Is there enough raw data, such as real-life examples or personal experiences? Have you made your data collection process completely transparent? Does your analysis provide a clear conclusion, allowing for further research and practice?

Problems to avoid:

• Overgeneralization – Do not go into further research that deviates from the main problem.
• Failure to Document Limitations – Just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study, you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis.
• Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications – Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings.

How to Create a Title Page and Cite a Case Study

Let's see how to create an awesome title page.

Your title page depends on the prescribed citation format. The title page should include:

• A title that attracts some attention and describes your study
• The title should have the words “case study” in it
• The title should range between 5-9 words in length
• Your name and contact information
• Your finished paper should be only 500 to 1,500 words in length.With this type of assignment, write effectively and avoid fluff

Here is a template for the APA and MLA format title page:

There are some cases when you need to cite someone else's study in your own one – therefore, you need to master how to cite a case study. A case study is like a research paper when it comes to citations. You can cite it like you cite a book, depending on what style you need.

Citation Example in MLA ‍ Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing, 2008. Print.

Citation Example in APA ‍ Hill, L., Khanna, T., & Stecker, E. A. (2008). HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing.

Citation Example in Chicago Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies.

Case Study Examples

To give you an idea of a professional case study example, we gathered and linked some below.

Eastman Kodak Case Study

Case Study Example: Audi Trains Mexican Autoworkers in Germany

To conclude, a case study is one of the best methods of getting an overview of what happened to a person, a group, or a situation in practice. It allows you to have an in-depth glance at the real-life problems that businesses, healthcare industry, criminal justice, etc. may face. This insight helps us look at such situations in a different light. This is because we see scenarios that we otherwise would not, without necessarily being there. If you need custom essays , try our research paper writing services .

Get Help Form Qualified Writers

Crafting a case study is not easy. You might want to write one of high quality, but you don’t have the time or expertise. If you’re having trouble with your case study, help with essay request - we'll help. EssayPro writers have read and written countless case studies and are experts in endless disciplines. Request essay writing, editing, or proofreading assistance from our custom case study writing service , and all of your worries will be gone.

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What Is A Case Study?

How to cite a case study in apa, how to write a case study, related articles.

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Your Step-By-Step Guide To Writing a Case Study

Creating a case study is both an art and a science. It requires making an in-depth exploration of your chosen subject in order to extract meaningful insights and understand the dynamics that more general surveys or statistical research might not uncover. At the same time, your case study also needs to be a compelling read to ensure those insights get attention from other people!

Unsurprisingly, the prospect of crafting an effective case study can be daunting. It calls for strategic planning, careful organization, and clear communication, all of which can be challenging even for experienced researchers. That's why we've created this step-by-step guide, which breaks the process down into manageable steps, demystifying the journey from defining your research question to sharing your findings. Whether you're a seasoned researcher or a first-timer, this guide aims to equip you with the necessary tools and tips to create a case study that's not just informative, but also engaging and impactful.

Are you ready to unlock the potential of case studies? Let's dive in!

What is a case study?

First, it's important to understand what a case study is – and what it isn't.

A case study is a thorough exploration of a specific subject or event over a certain time frame. Case studies are utilized in numerous fields, including sociology, psychology, education, anthropology, business, and the health sciences, and employ various research techniques to shed light on complex issues.

A case study does not provide absolute proof or conclusions that can be universally applied. Because it concentrates on one particular case or just a few cases, the findings might not apply to different contexts or subjects. Case studies also aren't ideal for determining cause-and-effect relationships as they do not use controlled conditions to separate and measure the impacts of different factors. Lastly, it must be said that a case study isn't just a random assortment of facts or observations; it necessitates a clear research question, a methodical approach to data collection and analysis, and a thoughtful interpretation of the results.

Getting started

Now that we've established the definition and purpose of a case study, let's explore the process by which one is created. You can produce a case study by following these nine steps:

1. Define the purpose of your case study

Before you start writing a case study, you need to define its purpose clearly. Ask yourself: What is the research question or problem you aim to solve? What insights are you looking to uncover? Your goals will guide your research design and influence your choice of case. This initial stage of introspection and clarification is crucial as it acts as a roadmap for your study.

2. Select the case to study

Once you've defined your research objective, the next step is to choose a suitable case that can help answer your research question. This might be a unique, critical, or representative instance. Unique cases offer the opportunity to observe and analyze a situation that is unusual or not well-understood. In contrast, a representative or typical case is often chosen because it represents other cases or a broader phenomenon.

In any case, be sure to justify your choice. Explain why the case is of interest and how it can contribute to the knowledge or understanding of the issue at hand. For instance, if you're studying the effects of corporate restructuring on employee morale, you might choose to focus on a company that recently underwent a significant restructure.

3. Conduct a thorough literature review

Performing a literature review involves a careful examination of relevant scholarly articles, books, and other sources related to your research question or problem. In the process, you identify gaps in the current knowledge and determine how your case study can address them. By critically examining existing research, you will not only gain a comprehensive understanding of your chosen topic but also be able to refine your research question or hypothesis, if necessary.

4. Choose a methodological approach

The methodological approach used in your case study will depend on your research objectives and the nature of the case. Methodologies that can be employed in case studies include qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods .

Qualitative methods are often used when the goal is to explore, understand, or interpret certain phenomena. These involve approaches like interviews, focus groups, or ethnography. Quantitative methods, on the other hand, are used when the goal is to test hypotheses or examine relationships between variables. Quantitative approaches often include experiments. Also, surveys may be either qualitative or quantitative depending on the question design.

You may choose to use a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods (mixed methods) if it suits your research objectives.

5. Collect and organize your data

Data collection should be systematic and organized to maintain the integrity and reliability of your research. You need to plan how you will record and store your data to ensure that it's accessible and usable.

If you're conducting interviews or observations, consider using recording devices (with participant consent) to capture the data accurately. In addition, you may want to transcribe the recorded material for easier analysis. If you're using documents or archival records, develop a system for coding and categorizing the data.

6. Analyze the data

Analysis involves interpreting your data to draw out meaningful insights; it is in this stage that your findings start to take shape. Depending on the nature of your data and your research question, you might use any of a variety of analysis methods. For qualitative data, you might employ thematic analysis to identify key themes or grounded theory to generate a new theoretical framework. For quantitative data, you might use statistical analysis to identify patterns or correlations.

Always be open to unexpected findings. Your initial hypotheses might not be supported, or you might uncover new insights that you hadn't initially considered. Remember that all data, whether they fit neatly into your analysis or not, provide valuable insights and contribute to the holistic understanding of your case.

7. Write the case study report

After analyzing the data, it's finally time to compose your case study. In terms of structure, a typical case study might consist of an introduction, background information, the collected data (results), analysis of that data, and the conclusion. Here's a brief breakdown of each section:

• Introduction: The introduction should be brief but engaging, providing a clear statement of the research question or problem, explaining why the case was chosen, and outlining what the case study will cover.
• Background: The background provides the context for your case. Describe the case, its history, and any relevant information that will help readers understand the situation.
• Results: This section should provide a comprehensive account of what you found, without interpretation or opinion. Present your findings in a clear, organized manner. Use visuals such as charts or graphs if they aid comprehension.
• Analysis: This section should provide your interpretations and arguments. Discuss the patterns, themes, or relationships you've identified in your data. Explain what these findings mean in relation to your research question.
• Conclusion: Finally, summarize the key insights from your case study along with their implications. Discuss the limitations of your study and propose avenues for future research.

8. Review and revise

The process of writing a case study doesn't actually end when the report is written; you also need to review your writing for coherence, clarity, and correctness. Don't underestimate the importance of this step! Make sure the information flows logically and that your arguments are well-supported. Check for any grammar or spelling errors. Having a peer or mentor review your work can be incredibly helpful as they provide a fresh perspective and can catch mistakes you might have missed.

9. Get approval if required

If your case study involves human subjects, you may need to obtain approval from an ethical review board. You'll also need to obtain informed consent from your subjects and ensure you respect their privacy and confidentiality throughout the research process. Always follow your institution's ethical guidelines and any other relevant legislation .

Practical tips for writing a compelling case study

Getting through all those steps can feel like a formidable challenge, but here are some practical tips to make the process more manageable:

Be systematic and organized

Given the importance of detail in case studies, it's vital to be systematic and organized from the get-go. This means keeping meticulous records of your data, your sources, and any changes to your research design. A good practice is to maintain a research journal or log where you can record your process, thoughts, and reflections.

In addition, use technology to your advantage. Digital tools like citation managers can help you keep track of your sources and make formatting references a breeze, while spreadsheet or database software can assist in managing and organizing your data. Developing a consistent system for labeling and storing information at the outset will save you time and effort later when you need to retrieve data for analysis.

Stay focused

One common pitfall in research and writing is loss of focus: getting sidetracked by interesting but ultimately irrelevant digressions, which can be very easy, especially when you're dealing with a rich and complex case. Always remember your research question and objectives, and let these guide your study at every step. It's perfectly acceptable – and in fact advisable – to delineate what your study will not cover. Setting clear boundaries can help you stay focused and manage the scope of your study effectively.

Use visual aids

Visual aids such as charts, diagrams, or photographs can greatly enhance your case study. They provide readers with a break from the monotony of text and can communicate complex data or relationships more easily. For instance, if you're presenting a lot of numerical data, consider using a chart or graph. If you're describing a process or sequence of events, portraying it in a flowchart or timeline might be useful. Remember, the goal is to aid comprehension, so make sure your visual aids are clear, well-labeled, and integrated into the text.

Include direct quotes

If your case study involves interviews, including direct quotes can add depth and a sense of the personal to your findings. They provide readers with a firsthand perspective and make your case study more engaging.

When using quotes, be sure to integrate them smoothly into your text. Provide enough context so readers understand the quote's relevance. Also, remember to adhere to ethical guidelines– always respect confidentiality and anonymity agreements.

Maintain ethical standards

Ethics is a fundamental consideration in all research, including case studies. Ensure you have proper consent from participants, respect their privacy, and accurately present your findings without manipulation.

Misrepresenting data or failing to respect participants' rights can lead to serious ethical violations. Always follow your institution's ethical guidelines and any other relevant legislation. If in doubt, seek advice from a supervisor or your institution's ethics committee.

Acknowledge limitations

Every research study has limitations, which could relate to the research design, data collection methods, or other aspects of the study. Being transparent about the limitations of your study can enhance its credibility; moreover, not only does identifying limitations demonstrate your critical thinking and honesty, but it also helps readers accurately interpret your findings.

Finally, acknowledging the limitations of your work helps to set the stage for further research. By identifying aspects that your study couldn't address, you provide other researchers with avenues for building on your findings.

Learn from examples

Before you start writing your case study, it can be helpful to review some published case studies in your field. Different fields may have different conventions, and familiarizing yourself with case studies in your own field can help guide your writing. Look at the structure, tone, and style. Pay attention to how the authors present and analyze data, and how they link their findings back to the research question. You can also learn a lot from the strengths and weaknesses of previously published works. However, remember to develop your own unique voice and perspective – don't just mimic what others have done.

Design for triangulation

Triangulation involves using multiple data sources or methods to gain a more comprehensive and balanced understanding of your research topic. By coming at your research question from multiple directions, such as by examining different datasets or using different methods, you can increase the validity of your results and gain more nuanced insights.

For example, if you're studying the impact of a new teaching method in a school, you might observe classes, interview teachers, and also survey students. Each method will provide a slightly different perspective, and together, they allow you to develop a more complete picture of the teaching method's impact.

Practice reflexivity

Reflexivity involves reflecting on how your assumptions, values, or experiences might influence your research process and interpretations. As a researcher, it's essential to be aware of your potential biases and how they might shape your study.

Consider keeping a reflexivity journal where you can note your thoughts, feelings, and reflections throughout the research process. This practice can help you stay aware of your biases and ensure your research is as objective and balanced as possible.

Write for your audience

Always make sure that your writing is on target for your intended audience. If you're writing for an academic audience, for example, you'll likely use a more formal tone and include more detailed methodological information. If you're writing for practitioners or a general audience, you might use a more accessible language and focus more on practical implications.

Remember to define any technical terms or jargon, and provide sufficient context so your readers can understand your research. The goal is to communicate your findings effectively, regardless of who your readers are.

Seek feedback

Feedback is valuable for improving your case study. Consider sharing drafts with your peers, mentors, or supervisors and asking for their input. Fresh eyes can provide different perspectives, catch errors, or suggest ways to strengthen your arguments.

Remember, feedback is not personal; it's about improving your work. Be open to critique and willing to revise your work based on the feedback you receive.

Writing a case study is a meticulous process that requires clear purpose, careful planning, systematic data collection, and thoughtful analysis. Although it can be time-consuming, the rich, detailed insights a well-executed case study can provide make this study design an invaluable tool in research.

By following this guide and adopting its practical tips, you will be well on your way to crafting a compelling case study that contributes meaningful insights to your chosen field. Good luck with your research journey!

Header image by Kateryna Hliznitsova .

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Why Write a Scientific Argument?

A scientific argument must persuade the reader that the evidence presented and the data cited are strong enough to support a theory, model, or proposed action. To "win" the argument, writers must make it easy for readers to understand their main points and the data that support them. Therefore, writing a scientific argument (also known as a scientific paper) can be thought of as a process for learning rather than a way of documenting what has been learned.

In producing a scientific paper, writers develop their own understanding of several interrelated concepts, write and refine precise descriptions of materials and processes that are involved, decide which material is irrelevant and should be left out, choose or develop figures that convey meaning most clearly and annotate them effectively, and build a body of evidence from which a solid conclusion follows. The ability to tap into rich sources of data, yet constrain the range of information ultimately used in making the argument is another skill that scientific writers develop. By laying out thought processes in an organized manner and producing a paper that follows the style and structure of established journals in the field, writers gain critical-thinking skills, develop communication skills, and generate a product that compares with those presented by practicing scientists.

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• Published: 09 April 2024

Anger is eliminated with the disposal of a paper written because of provocation

• Yuta Kanaya 1 &
• Nobuyuki Kawai   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0372-1703 2   nAff1  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  7490 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Human behaviour

Anger suppression is important in our daily life, as its failure can sometimes lead to the breaking down of relationships in families. Thus, effective strategies to suppress or neutralise anger have been examined. This study shows that physical disposal of a piece of paper containing one’s written thoughts on the cause of a provocative event neutralises anger, while holding the paper did not. In this study, participants wrote brief opinions about social problems and received a handwritten, insulting comment consisting of low evaluations about their composition from a confederate. Then, the participants wrote the cause and their thoughts about the provocative event. Half of the participants (disposal group) disposed of the paper in the trash can (Experiment 1) or in the shredder (Experiment 2), while the other half (retention group) kept it in a file on the desk. All the participants showed an increased subjective rating of anger after receiving the insulting feedback. However, the subjective anger for the disposal group decreased as low as the baseline period, while that of the retention group was still higher than that in the baseline period in both experiments. We propose this method as a powerful and simple way to eliminate anger.

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Experiment 1

Introduction.

The need to control anger has been of importance for a long time in human societies, as inferred by a philosopher in Imperium Romanum who had already explored how to cease being angry 1 . However, it can still be challenging to suppress anger effectively. Frequent, unregulated anger often leads to violence towards children 2 , which has become an increasingly prevalent issue. One study found that the global estimate for children experiencing any form of violence (physical, sexual, emotional, or a combination) in the past year is one billion children aged 2–17 years 3 . The number of child abuse cases in Japan has reportedly doubled in the past decade 4 . Children learn about appropriate emotional expression and behaviour from their parents 5 , and children who have been maltreated may lack the opportunity to learn how to regulate anger. Consequently, these maltreated children may have difficulty controlling their own anger 6 , recognising anger in others 7 , and tend to exhibit externalizing behaviour problems 8 . These studies suggest that parental anger regulation issues negatively affect children’s emotional competence. Therefore, an effective way of reducing anger has been examined throughout the years 9 .

However, simply attempting to suppress anger is usually not effective 10 . Both cognitive reappraisal and distraction (i.e., thinking about something other than provocative comments) could reduce anger; however, distraction could suppress anger only for a transient period of time 11 . Cognitive reappraisal refers to the reinterpretation or modification of the meaning of an unpleasant situation. Although reappraisal is considered as an effective way to reduce anger 12 , it requires greater cognitive effort 13 , 14 . Therefore, reappraisal under stressful situations which require cognitive load was not found to be effective in reducing anger as compared to non-stressful situations 15 . Self-distancing, which may be responsible for the anger-reducing effect of reappraisal 12 is also considered as an effective way to reduce anger. Nevertheless, self-distancing or reflection on one’s provocation from a distance is often not feasible, especially in the heat of the moment 13 .

Failure to reduce anger can lead an individual to think about a provocative event repeatedly. Such ruminations are often produced in a self-immersed, experiential manner 16 . Self-immersed experiential rumination can lead to reliving past provocative events 17 , thus maintaining or even increasing subjective anger and vascular responses 18 .

However, among the types of ruminations, writing down a provocation event does not always maintain or increase anger; instead, anger is suppressed depending on the way of writing. For instance, anger was suppressed when participants wrote down the anger-inducing event in a detached, informational, ‘cool’ manner. However, their anger was not suppressed (and was maintained or even increased) when they failed to write down the event in an analytical manner, and wrote it down in a ‘hot’ (emotional) manner 12 . Somewhat relevant here is the expressive writing technique 19 , which is frequently used in emotion-focused psychotherapy treatment 20 . It is believed to be effective in suppressing anger in clinical settings. However, only one experimental study using this technique has been conducted, wherein it was found that there was a significant likelihood of reduced anger when sentences about the emotion were written in the past tense 21 . These studies suggest that anger may be successfully suppressed if individuals are able to separate their internal experience of provocative events from their sense of self 22 . Healy et al. 23 reported that negative self-referential statements (‘my life is pointless’), when presented in a defused format (‘I am having a thought that my life is pointless’), could decrease the emotional discomfort related to that statement.

These previous studies emphasised the cognitive processes (such as goals or valuations) that occur almost entirely inside individuals’ heads 24 . However, if we look at the literature more broadly, studies on emotion regulation (a situated cognitive approach) have demonstrated successful emotion control through dynamic interplay between the person and the situation 24 , 25 . From this situated cognition perspective, people perceive their environment in terms of the possibilities for the kinds of actions that they would pursue. These functional features of the environment (affordances) do not solely exist inside an individual’s mind but instead have a physical reality that exists in the individual’s relationship with the environment. For instance, people frequently use physical substances to modify their moods. People may take a hot shower when they feel lonely 26 , 27 or hold a teddy bear when they feel afraid 28 . Such access to physical objects can significantly modify individuals’ ability to manage their emotions.

In this study, we developed a new anger reduction strategy inspired by the situated cognition approach to emotion regulation 24 . Relevant to this approach, the notion of a grounded procedure of separation 29 also assumes that mental representations and functions are grounded in one’s own experiences and interactions with physical reality. For instance, if people want to take revenge through permanent removal (e.g. hatred for ex), they may destroy a related entity such that it is no longer recognisable (burn, melt, or tear related). In a related study, Briñol et al. 30 reported that writing down negative thoughts about a Mediterranean diet on a piece of paper and disposing of the paper in a trash can result in lower negative (more positive) evaluations of the diet, compared to a group that kept the paper in a booklet. These attitude changes may derive from the cognitive fusion that people often fuse with physical objects, such as jewellery, cars, and family heirlooms 31 . Such fused objects are valued more and are less likely to be abandoned because doing so means losing a part of themselves 32 , 33 . Specifically, throwing an object associated with negative emotions (anger) may result in losing the negative emotions (anger). However, to the best of our knowledge, no study has tested whether the disposal of anger-written paper can reduce or even eliminate anger.

Previous studies from a situated cognitive approach to anger management have changed the external environment of the individual in anger. Tool (object) use has received scant attention in these situated cognition approaches to anger management, except for a few studies, such as hitting a punching bag 34 and playing a video game 35 . This study examined a method in which the disposal of a paper (object) on which participants wrote down their descriptions or thoughts about a provocative event could neutralise anger. Participants threw the anger-written paper into a trash box in Experiment 1, and put the paper into a shredder in Experiment 2. If the action of disposal is crucial to modifying emotions, anger would be reduced only in participants in Experiment 1 but not in Experiment 2, as predicted by the grounded separation procedure 29 . Nevertheless, if anger was modified by the meaning of disposal, the subjective ratings of anger would be eliminated in both experiments. The disposal of the paper with the written descriptions would remove the psychological existence of anger for the provoked participants along with the disposal of paper by the dynamic interactions with the object 24 . This simple method of eliminating anger could potentially contribute to effective parental anger management toward their children.

Materials and method

Participants.

A total of 57 students (women = 21, mean age = 21.11, SD  = 1.05) from a local university participated in this experiment. The data from seven participants were excluded from the final analysis because they correctly guessed the purpose of the experiment and they did not express induced anger by insult (subjective ratings of anger were lower or the same compared to those of the baseline), as was the case in a previous study 36 . Our final analysis included 50 participants (women = 16, mean age = 21.10, SD  = 1.08). A sample size of 50 participants was determined by G*Power 3.1.9.4 37 using the a priori procedure for repeated measures ANOVA, within (periods)—between (disposal and retention) interaction with the parameters of 95% power, an expected effect size of 0.25 (defined as a medium effect by Cohen 38 ), alpha level of 0.05, a within-subjects measurement correlation of 0.5, and a nonsphericity correction ε of 1. The calculation suggested a sample size of 22 participants in each group. Based on these analyses, we concluded that the sample size was appropriate for this study.

Angry feelings were assessed with five adjective items: angry, bothered, annoyed, hostile, and irritated. These adjectives were previously used as measures of self-reported anger 39 . In this study, each response scale ranged from 1 (not at all) to 6 (extremely). As was the case in a previous study on anger 40 , scores on these five adjectives were averaged to form an anger experience composite, which was the score used in the analysis (Cronbach’s α = 0.90). We also used Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) as a subjective scale to assess mainly negative feelings 38 . We used the Japanese version of the 6-point PANAS scale 41 .

In this experiment, participants' subjective emotional states were measured at three time points (baseline, post-provocation, and post-writing). The participants were told to write an essay on social problems (e.g., smoking in public) for which they would receive feedback from a doctoral student assessing the quality of the essay. They had seen the doctoral student before entering the experimental room. After the participants wrote the essay, they completed the PANAS and anger questionnaires for the baseline. The evaluation by the fictitious doctoral student was then provided to the participants. The evaluation included ratings of the essay on six characteristics using a 9-point scale (e.g. for intelligence, 1 = unintelligent, 9 = intelligent). All participants were given the following ratings: intelligence = 3, interest = 3, friendliness = 2, logic = 3, respectability = 4, and rationality = 3. Each essay was also provided with the following comment: ‘I cannot believe an educated person would think like this. I hope this person learns something while at the university’ 40 , 42 . All of these manipulations were successfully used in our previous study 40 . The participants were required to read the feedback ratings and comments silently for two minutes. Then, they filled out the subjective emotional questionnaires (PANAS and anger adjectives) for the post-provocation period.

Then, the participants were asked to write every thought of them on receiving the feedback and were given three minutes for this. The instruction was ‘Think about the event from your own perspective. Concentrate especially on the things that originally triggered the emotions and your reactions’. We added guide questions (‘Why were you feeling this way?’, ‘What made you feel this way?’) to induce analytical rumination. To allow the participants to write about their honest feelings, they were informed that the written paper would not be seen by anyone, including the experimenter. After writing, the participants were asked to review the sentences carefully for 30 s. For the retention group, the paper was turned over, put in a clear plastic folder, and placed on the right side of the desk. The participants in the disposal group rolled up the paper into a crumpled ball, stood up, threw the paper into the trash can held by the experimenter, and sat back in the chair. Finally, both groups of participants filled out the subjective emotional questionnaires (anger adjectives and PANAS) for the post-writing period. At the end of the experiment, all participants were debriefed and informed of the truth. They were also assured that the evaluations of their essays had been prepared in advance.

Data analyses

Angry feelings were analysed using a 2 (group: disposal or retention) × 3 (period: at baseline, post-provocation, and post-writing) ANOVA. All significance levels were set at p  < 0.05. We used the Greenhouse–Geisser correction when Mauchly’s test of sphericity was violated. When the interaction was significant, multiple comparisons using the Bonferroni correction method were used to assess the differences.

We also report Bayes factors (BFs) from the Bayesian repeated measures ANOVA in JASP 43 . For BFs, BF 10 values reflect the probability of an alternative relative to the null hypothesis. BFs greater than 3 indicate support for the hypotheses. A BF favouring the alternative over the null hypothesis (BF 10 ) offers strong evidence for the alternative hypothesis when it is over 10. Values less than 0.33 indicate support for the null hypothesis, and values between 0.33 and 3 indicate data insensitivity. We also reported 95% confidence intervals.

We aimed to examine (1) whether angry feelings resumed in the disposal group, and (2) whether angry feelings were different between the groups after the disposal or retention treatments. Our main interest was angry feelings, while we also verified PANAS scores using a 2 (group: disposal or retention) × 3 (period: at baseline, post-provocation, and post-writing) ANOVA.

Ethics statement

All participants were paid for their participation and had provided written informed consent in accordance with the procedures before participation. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Department of Cognitive and Psychological Sciences at Nagoya University (201104-C-02–02). All methods were carried out in accordance with the ethical guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki. All participants provided their written and informed consent prior to starting the study.

Anger experience

The left panel of Fig.  1 shows mean subjective ratings of anger for disposal and retention groups at three time points (baseline, post-provocation, and post-writing). Subjective ratings of anger of both groups increased at the post-provocation ( M disposal  = 3.34, SD  = 1.20, 95% CI [2.86, 3.82]; M retention  = 3.45, SD  = 1.11, 95% CI [3.00, 3.89]) from the baseline ( M disposal  = 1.59, SD  = 0.50, 95% CI [1.39, 1.79]; M retention  = 1.78, SD  = 0.71, 95% CI [1.50, 2.07]). Subjective ratings at the post-writing decreased from the post-provocation, however those of retention group were still higher than the baseline ( M retention  = 2.64, SD  = 0.95, 95% CI [2.26, 3.02]), while those of disposal group eliminated at the same level of the baseline ( M disposal  = 1.87, SD  = 0.71, 95% CI [1.59, 2.16]). A 2 (group: disposal or retention) × 3 (period: at baseline, post-provocation, and post-writing) mixed model analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed a significant main effect of period [ F (2, 96) = 73.36, p  < 0.001, partial η 2  = 0.60, BF 10  > 100], while a main effect of group was not significant [ F (1, 48) = 3.21, p  > 0.05, partial η 2  = 0.06, BF 10  = 0.66]. The interaction between group and period was significant [ F (2, 96) = 3.12, p  < 0.05, partial η 2  = 0.06, BF 10  = 1.17]. Multiple comparisons with the Bonferroni method revealed that the subjective anger was significantly higher at the post-provocation than those at the baseline ( p  < 0.05), indicating that a provocative manipulation was exerted. Subjective ratings of anger post-writing decreased significantly, compared to post-provocation ( p  < 0.05). Importantly, however, subjective ratings of retention group at the post-writing period were still significantly higher than those of the baseline period ( p  < 0.05), whereas those of disposal group at the post-writing period eliminated to levels of the baseline period ( p  > 0.05). Subjective ratings of disposal group at the post-writing period were significantly lower than those of retention group ( p  < 0.01).

Self-reported anger during Experiment 1 (left) and Experiment 2 (right). Significant differences emerged at the end of time due to experimental manipulations. Possible values for anger range from 1 to 6. Each vertical line illustrates the 95% confidence intervals for each group.

Negative and positive affect

The negative affect subscale of the PANAS at post-provocation ( M disposal  = 3.10, SD  = 1.00, 95% CI [2.70, 3.49]; M retention  = 3.06, SD  = 1.03, 95% CI [2.64, 3.47]) was higher than at baseline ( M disposal  = 2.45, SD  = 0.66, 95% CI [2.18, 2.71]; M retention  = 2.50, SD  = 0.84, 95% CI [2.16, 2.83]) and post-writing ( M disposal  = 2.06, SD  = 0.65, 95% CI [1.80, 2.32]; M retention  = 2.39, SD  = 0.88, 95% CI [2.04, 2.73]). The 95% CIs of the disposal group overlapped a little bit between post-provocation [2.70, 3.49] and baseline periods [2.18, 2.71], and those of the retention group overlapped between both the post-provocation [2.64, 3.47] and baseline [2.16, 2.83]. The 95% CIs for the post-writing means partially overlapped between the groups. A 2 (group) × 3 (period) mixed ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of period [ F (2, 96) = 28.64, p  < 0.001, partial η 2  = 0.37, BF 10  > 100]. However, the main effect of group [ F (1, 48) = 0.29, p  > 0.05, partial η 2  = 0.01, BF 10  = 0.32] and the interaction between group and period were not significant [ F (2, 96) = 1.35, p  > 0.05, partial η 2  = 0.03, BF 10  = 0.31]. Multiple comparisons with the Bonferroni method revealed that the subjective negative affect post-provocation was significantly higher than at baseline and post-writing ( ps  < 0.05).

The PANAS positive affect subscale showed little variation at three periods ( M disposal  = 2.33, SD  = 0.80, 95% CI [2.01, 2.65]; M retention  = 2.32, SD  = 0.75, 95% CI [2.01, 2.62]), post-provocation ( M disposal  = 2.44, SD  = 0.76, 95% CI [2.13, 2.75]; M retention  = 2.42, SD  = 0.89, 95% CI [2.06, 2.78]), and post-writing ( M disposal  = 2.38, SD  = 0.87, 95% CI [2.03, 2.73]; M retention  = 2.27, SD  = 0.83, 95% CI [1.93, 2.60]). A 2 × 3 mixed ANOVA revealed that neither main effects nor interaction was significant ( Fs  < 0.90, ps  > 0.41, BF 10 s < 0.14).

This study examined whether writing about the provocative event and disposing of the paper into a trash can would suppress anger. The provocation treatments evoked anger in both the groups similarly. Nevertheless, the retention group still showed significantly higher anger compared to levels at the baseline period, while the disposal group completely eliminated their anger after the disposal of the anger-written paper. These results suggest that the disposal of the paper containing ruminated anger into the trash can neutralise anger. Our interpretation is that the act of throwing the paper with ruminated anger into the trash can produces a feeling similar to the psychological existence (anger) being discarded, leading to anger elimination, since the psychological entity (anger) was disposed along with the physical object (anger-written paper).

One may argue that it was not the disposal itself but the physical distance played a critical role in reducing anger. Since the paper was distanced from participants in the disposal group, whereas the paper in the retention group was located by them. Nevertheless, Zhang et al. 44 showed that engaging in an avoidance action rather than creating physical distance was critical for reversing the perceived effect of negative thoughts. In their study (Experiment 5), participants in avoidance action conditions either threw the ball to the opposite corner of the room (creating physical distance between themselves and the ball), or pretended to throw the ball (creating no distance between themselves and the ball). Participants in the no-avoidance action condition either carried the ball to the opposite corner of the room and left it there (creating physical distance between the self and the ball without involving a throwing action) or held the ball in their non-dominant hand (creating no distance). Participants in both avoidance action conditions reversed the negative thoughts, while participants in both no-avoidance conditions did not. Avoidance actions were crucial in their study. Therefore, the physical distance would not contribute to reduce anger in this study. However, disposal action might be the key to neutralising anger in this study. Nevertheless, we assume that the meaning (i.e. interpretation) of disposal is more important than the action itself. Other studies have also suggested that the meaning of an action is critical for determining its impact, not the action itself 30 , 45 . This study could not exclude throwing action's potential contribution to neutralising anger. Thus, we conducted another experiment to exclude the potential contribution of the throwing action as much as possible, confirm the effectiveness of the disposal method, and explore the variation in this method.

Experiment 2

Experiment 1 indicated that the disposal of a piece of paper containing the description of an anger-inducing experience into the trash can neutralise anger. However, it was unclear what aspect of the paper’s disposal neutralised anger. Although we interpreted the meaning of the action as critical to neutralising anger, the physical distance between the participant and the paper or the action itself (i.e. embodied cognition) might have played a critical role. We set up the second experiment: (1) to replicate the results of Experiment 1; (2) to exclude the embodied explanation as much as possible; and (3) to explore another version of the disposal method using a shredder on the desk. In this experiment, we asked participants to put the paper containing anger into the shredder instead of throwing it into the trash can which was kept at some distance from the participants. We also made a small change to the retention group. Participants of retention group put the paper into a clear box on the desk, and the disposal group put the paper into the shredder. Thus, the distance between the participants and the paper and the type of action were matched between the two groups. If the sensorimotor experience of throwing the paper was critical to neutralise anger, we would not be able to replicate the results of Experiment 1. Nevertheless, if the meaning of the disposal of a physical entity plays a critical role in reducing anger, we anticipated obtaining similar results. In line with our prediction, the attitude changed when the paper was transferred to a box labelled ‘trash can’, which indicated mentally discarding it, compared to a box labelled ‘safety box’ 46 , suggesting that the perceived meaning of actions, and not the actions per se, influence attitude change. Hence, we designed a new study to confirm whether the perceived meaning of action eliminates anger. We predicted that putting the paper in a shredder would reduce negative emotions (anger), as compared to keeping the paper.

A total of 48 participants (women = 24, mean age = 26.81, SD  = 9.42) were participated through worker dispatching company and a local university. There was no overlap between the participants of the two experiments. This sample size was determined using G*Power 3.1.9.4 37 using the a priori procedure for repeated measures ANOVA, within (periods)–between (disposal and retention) interaction with the parameters of 95% power, an expected effect size of 0.25 (defined as a medium effect by Cohen 38 ), alpha level of 0.05, a within-participants measurement correlation of 0.5, and a nonsphericity correction ε of 1. The calculation suggested a sample size of 22 participants in each group. Based on these analyses, we concluded that the sample size was appropriate for this study. As in Experiment 1, the data of two participants were excluded from the final analysis because they correctly guessed the purpose of the experiment and did not express anger by insult (subjective ratings of anger were lower or the same as those at the baseline). Our final analysis included 46 participants (women = 23, mean age = 26.39, SD  = 9.14).

As in Experiment 1, angry feelings were assessed using five adjectives: angry, bothered, annoyed, hostile, and irritated. Responses ranged from 1 (not at all) to 6 (extremely). Scores on these five adjectives will be averaged to form an anger experience composite, which is the score used in the analyses. We also used the Japanese version of the 6-point PANAS scale as a subjective scale to assess mainly negative feelings 40 , 41 .

For the disposal group, a dustbin-type shredder (ACCO Brands Japan Corp, GSHA26MB) was used. This shredder (30 cm × 10 cm × 28 cm) cuts paper into pieces of 2 mm × 14 mm on putting the paper in from the top. The lower part of the shredder holds a transparent dustbin, so that the pieces of paper can be observed from the outside. For the retention group, a hand-made clear plastic box (23 cm × 5 cm × 30 cm) was used. Paper can be placed from the top, as with the shredder. Furthermore, as with the lower part of the shredder, the box is also transparent so that the paper in the box can be observed from the outside.

This experiment followed the same method used in Experiment 1 with slight changes. The words “while at university” were removed from the provocative comment (‘I cannot believe an educated person would think like this. I hope this person learns something while at university’ 40 , 42 , because non-students participated in this study. The second change was the method of disposing or retaining the paper containing a description of the anger-inducing experience. After participants wrote down provocative events in an analytical manner, a transparent box or a transparent shredder bin was placed on the desk in front of them (Fig.  2 ), before they were asked to review the sentences carefully for 30 s. Then, participants were required to put the paper into the box, with the frontside of the paper facing them. Participants in the disposal group watched as the paper was cut in the shredder for five seconds. Participants in the retention group were required to enclose the paper in a clear file folder and place it in a transparent box showing their written sentences. Then, they observed the paper carefully for five seconds. Subsequently, the box was turned back to show the blank side of the paper. All participants rated their anger and provided responses to the PANAS after these treatments.

Pictures of experimental manipulations in Experiment 2. The disposal group (left) put the paper into the shredder, while the retention group (right) put the paper into the transparent box.

The right panel of Fig.  1 shows the mean subjective anger ratings for the disposal and retention groups at the three time points (baseline, post-provocation, and post-writing). This pattern of results is similar to that of Experiment 1. Subjective ratings of anger in both groups increased after provocation ( M disposal  = 3.14, SD  = 1.38, 95% CI [2.56, 3.72]; M retention  = 3.24, SD  = 1.04, 95% CI [2.80, 3.67]) from baseline ( M disposal  = 1.57, SD  = 0.75, 95% CI [1.25, 1.88]; M retention  = 1.64, SD  = 0.59, 95% CI [1.40, 1.89]). Subjective ratings at post-writing decreased from post-provocation. However, those of the retention group were still higher than those of the baseline ( M retention  = 2.75, SD  = 1.05, 95% CI [2.31, 3.19]), while those of the disposal group were eliminated at the same level as the baseline ( M disposal  = 1.98, SD  = 0.87, 95% CI [1.62, 2.35]). Only a small overlap (0.04) was observed in the 95% CI for the mean post-writing scores between the groups. A 2 (group: disposal or retention) × 3 (period: at baseline, post-provocation, and post-writing) mixed model ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of period [ F (2, 88) = 56.93, p  < 0.001, partial η 2  = 0.56, BF 10  > 100], while the main effect of group was not significant [ F (1, 44) = 1.68, p  > 0.05, partial η 2  = 0.04, BF 10  = 0.46]. The interaction between group and period was significant [ F (2, 88) = 3.49, p  < 0.05, partial η 2  = 0.07, BF 10  = 1.62]. Multiple comparisons with the Bonferroni method revealed that subjective anger was significantly higher at post-provocation than baseline ( p  < 0.05), indicating that provocative manipulation was exerted. Subjective ratings of anger at post-writing decreased significantly compared to post-provocation ( p  < 0.05). However, the subjective ratings of the retention group in the post-writing period were still maintained at the same level of anger as those of the post-provocation period ( p  > 0.05). Contrastingly, those of the disposal group in the post-writing period were significantly lower than those of the post-provocation period ( p  < 0.05).

Additionally, as was the result of Experiment1, the subjective ratings of the retention group in the post-writing period were significantly higher than those of the baseline period ( p  < 0.05). Those of the disposal group in the post-writing period were eliminated to the baseline period ( p  > 0.05). The subjective ratings of the disposal group in the post-writing period were significantly lower than those of the retention group ( p  < 0.05).

The negative affect subscale of the PANAS at post-provocation ( M disposal  = 3.34, SD  = 1.09, 95% CI [2.88, 3.79]; M retention  = 3.35, SD  = 0.89, 95% CI [2.98, 3.73]) was higher than at baseline ( M disposal  = 2.60, SD  = 0.78, 95% CI [2.27, 2.93]; M retention  = 2.73, SD  = 0.92, 95% CI [2.34, 3.11]) and post-writing ( M disposal  = 2.45, SD  = 0.96, 95% CI [2.05, 2.85]; M retention  = 2.57, SD  = 0.87, 95% CI [2.20, 2.93]). The 95% CIs of the disposal group overlapped a little bit between post-provocation [2.88, 3.79] and baseline periods [2.27, 2.93], and those of the retention group overlapped between both the post-provocation [2.98, 3.73] and baseline [2.34, 3.11]. A 2 (group) × 3 (period) mixed ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of period [ F (2, 88) = 20.19, p  < 0.01, partial η 2  = 0.68, BF 10  > 100]. However, the main effect of the group [ F (1, 44) = 0.15, p  > 0.05, partial η 2  = 0.06, BF 10  = 0.33] and the interaction between group and period were not significant [ F (2, 88) = 1.35, p  > 0.05, partial η 2  = 0.05, BF 10  = 0.13]. Multiple comparisons with the Bonferroni method revealed that the subjective negative affect post-provocation was significantly higher than at baseline and post-writing ( ps  < 0.05).

The positive affect subscale of the PANAS showed little variation at the three-time points ( M disposal  = 2.88, SD  = 1.03, 95% CI [2.44, 3.31]; M retention  = 2.57, SD  = 0.89), 95% CI [2.19, 2.94], post-provocation ( M disposal  = 2.49, SD  = 0.86, 95% CI [2.13, 2.85]; M retention  = 2.51, SD  = 0.94, 95% CI [2.12, 2.90]), and post-writing ( M disposal  = 2.49, SD  = 0.97, 95% CI [2.08, 2.89]; M retention  = 2.64, SD  = 1.02, 95% CI [2.21, 3.06]). A 2 × 3 mixed ANOVA revealed that neither the main effects nor interaction were significant ( Fs  < 2.28, ps  > 0.11, BF 10 s < 0.70).

The results were essentially the same as those of Experiment 1. The disposal group significantly reduced their anger after disposing of the anger-written paper into the shredder. The retention group showed significantly higher anger than the baseline period and disposal group. These results suggest that the results in Experiment 1 could be attributed neither to the physical distance between the participant and the paper nor to the action itself (i.e. embodied cognition). Specifically, Experiment 2 replicated the results of Experiment 1 and excluded the embodied explanation (the sensorimotor experience of throwing the paper) because the action of the disposal group was quite similar to that of the retention group in Experiment 2. The distance between participant and paper was the same in both groups, as the transparent box and shredder were placed on the desk.

General discussion

This study aimed to determine whether the disposal of anger-written papers could eliminate or at least reduce subjective anger. Disposal manipulation eliminated anger, either by throwing the paper into a trash can or placing it into the shredder. We propose that this anger reduction method is quite effective, so the subjective ratings of anger resumed as much as the baseline levels. We believe that this method can be used in daily life and especially for populations characterised by extreme levels of anger and aggression in their home. The use of this method may potentially contribute to emotion socialization, as parents are the primary model for their children.

These results indicate that the sensorimotor experience of throwing paper plays a small role in reducing subjective anger 44 . Instead, the meaning (interpretation) of disposal plays a critical role. These results are consistent with other studies which showed that the meaning of disposal was critical for determining its impact, not the action itself 30 , 45 . However, these results are partially inconsistent with those reported by Zhang et al. 44 . Their experiment tested whether certain behaviors could lower the perceived likelihood of bad luck, as is often the case with jinxes. Participants who threw a ball believed that a jinxed-negative outcome was less likely than those who held the ball. They demonstrated that engaging in an avoidant action rather than creating physical distance was critical for reversing the perceived effect of the jinx. The results of Experiment 1 in this study are consistent with their results. However, we demonstrated that neither avoidance action nor physical distance was crucial in reducing subjective anger.

Our results may be related to the phenomenon of ‘backward magical contagion’ 47 , which is the belief that actions taken on an object (e.g. hair) associated with an individual can affect the individuals themselves. Rozin et al. 48 discovered that individuals experience strong negative emotions when their personal objects are possessed by negative others (such as rapists or enemies). However, these emotions are reduced when the objects are destroyed, such as throwing them in a septic tank or burning them. The phenomenon of ‘magical contagion’ or ‘celebrity contagion’ refers to the belief that the ‘essence’ of an individual can be transferred to their possessions. This backward magical contagion operates in a reversed process, where manipulating an object associated with a person is thought to impact the individuals themselves. The current study's findings may be explained by the concept of backward magical contagion, which posits that negative emotions can be transferred from others to an individual through their possessions. This study did not involve the direct mediation of other individuals. The neutralization of subjective anger through the disposal of an object may be achieved by recognizing that the physical entity, such as a piece of paper, has been diminished, thus causing the original emotion to also disappear.

At least, however, some limitations regarding this disposal method should be addressed in future studies. First, the findings of this study are based on the assumption that participants identified their subjective anger with the paper. Thus, subjective anger had gone with the anger-written paper after its disposal. The participants were asked to review the sentences carefully for 30 s to enhance this identification between thought and paper. It is not clear whether this review process is necessary for identification.

Another limitation is that we did not test a digital device, such as a word processor or smartphone, but used only papers. We believe the present disposal method can be generalised to a digital device, whereas empirical data are limited only by physical entities, papers, trash cans, or shredders. Suppose the disposal method is proven to be effective in digital devices. In that case, it will be adopted in various situations, such as business meetings or daily conversations in schools, by writing and disposing of with a smartphone.

Furthermore, although the disposal method had a more significant effect so that the subjective ratings of anger were eliminated as much as the baseline levels, the effectiveness of this method was not directly compared to other anger reduction methods, such as self-distancing. Other methods may be as effective or even more effective than the present disposal method. Personality traits may modulate the effects of anger suppression, although this has not been examined in the techniques used in this or in other studies. Individuals with high (versus low) levels of trait anger tended to experience lapses in effortful control when exposed to anger-relevant stimuli 49 , 50 . As mentioned above, although cognitive reappraisal (the reinterpretation of the meaning of an unpleasant event) is considered an effective way to reduce anger 12 , it requires more significant cognitive effort 13 , 14 . Self-distancing is not feasible, particularly during the heat of the moment 13 . Conversely, the disposal method with low cognitive effort used in this study may be more effective for individuals with lower levels of trait self-control than for those with high trait self-control. Future research should examine whether personality traits moderate the relationship between the disposal method and the expected outcomes.

Individuals with higher levels of trait anger tended to have prolonged experiences of induced state anger 51 . However, experimental research on anger regulation strategies has predominantly emphasized the effectiveness of immediate control 10 , 11 , 12 , neglecting to investigate whether these strategies are equally effective in managing anger that persists over time. However, in everyday life, it is not always feasible to implement anger regulation strategies immediately after anger arises. Therefore, to ascertain its practical utility in real-world settings, it is imperative to examine whether the effectiveness of the disposal method varies with the duration of anger.

Moreover, it should be tested whether the disposal method can suppress subjective anger even if participants write down a provocation event in an experiential manner rather than in the analytic rumination manner used in this study. Previous studies suggest that anger rumination can maintain 52 or even increase 53 the original level of anger when participants wrote down a provocation event in an experiential rumination manner. As it may not be easy to write down analytically, especially in the heat of the moment, the disposal method will gain further strength if it is valid by experiential rumination.

It should be mentioned that although provocation was effective in both the subjective anger score and the PANAS negative score, the revealed emotion regulation strategy in this study seemed specific to anger (as no significant interaction effect for the PANAS negative score was observed). Kubo et al. 40 reported that the increase in the state of anger relevant to approach motivation (aggression) by provocation (measured using the STAXI and asymmetry of prefrontal brain activity) was reduced by an apology comment. However, an increase in the subjective scores of negative emotion (assessed using the PANAS) remained unchanged, regardless of the presence or absence of an apology comment. They proposed anger as not a unitary process but one that comprises multiple independent components (subjective anger and negative feelings). If the anger scale used in this study reflects the approach motivation component of anger as well as the STAXI, the disposal method appears to specifically suppress the components of anger’s approach motivation (aggression) and can be used to reduce aggression as a clinical technique.

Despite these limitations, this is the first study to be designed and used to conveniently eliminate subjective anger by interacting with physical entities. It offers a cost-effective and easy-to-use method to reduce anger by rumination about the provocative event, which otherwise lasts longer. Anyone with a pen and piece of paper can use this method. Suppose one maintains a diary or a personal log. In that case, they can write down a provocative event on the day on the memo pad, and throwing it into the trash can eliminate the provocative event. This action may help neutralize the negative emotions associated with the event, potentially protecting the children’s emotional socialization.

This study presents a new and convenient method for eliminating subjective anger. This method offers a cost-effective way to eliminate anger in various situations, including business meetings, childcare, and clinical applications. The building blocks of this method (e.g. applying it to a digital device or creating a specific application) could be useful in various daily situations as well as behavioural therapies. In particular, for someone who has difficulty suppressing their anger in their homes.

Data availability

The datasets used and analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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This study was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers 21K18552 and 21H04421, by Aoyama Gakuin University grant for ‘Projection Science,’ and by JST SPRING, Grant Number JPMJSP2125.

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Nobuyuki Kawai

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Yuta Kanaya

Academy of Emerging Science, Chubu University, Kasugai City, 487-8501, Japan

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N.K.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing-Original draft preparation, Writing-Reviewing and Editing, Supervision, Validation. Y.K.: Data collection and curation, Writing-Original draft preparation Visualization, Investigation.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Writing a Case Study

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Reading Research Effectively
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Bibliography

The term case study refers to both a method of analysis and a specific research design for examining a problem, both of which are used in most circumstances to generalize across populations. This tab focuses on the latter--how to design and organize a research paper in the social sciences that analyzes a specific case.

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or among more than two subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in this writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a single case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• Does the case represent an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• Does the case provide important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• Does the case challenge and offer a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in practice. A case may offer you an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to the study a case in order to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• Does the case provide an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings in order to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• Does the case offer a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for exploratory research that points to a need for further examination of the research problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of Uganda. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a particular village can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community throughout rural regions of east Africa. The case could also point to the need for scholars to apply feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation.

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work. In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What was I studying? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why was this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the research problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would include summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to study the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in the context of explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular subject of analysis to study and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that frames your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; c) what were the consequences of the event.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experience he or she has had that provides an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of his/her experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using him or her as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, cultural, economic, political, etc.], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, why study Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research reveals Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks from overseas reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should be linked to the findings from the literature review. Be sure to cite any prior studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for investigating the research problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is more common to combine a description of the findings with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps to support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings It is important to remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations for the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and needs for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1)  restate the main argument supported by the findings from the analysis of your case; 2) clearly state the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place for you to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in and your professor's preferences, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented applied to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were on social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood differently than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis.

Case Studies . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical (context-dependent) knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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Write angry thoughts down and shred them, Japan study advises

When you next see red, don't snap at your colleagues or scream into a pillow—writing down your feelings, then shredding or throwing them away is an effective way to calm down, a Japanese study has found.

"We expected that our method would suppress anger to some extent," said Nobuyuki Kawai, lead author of the study published this week in the journal Scientific Reports .

"However, we were amazed that anger was eliminated almost entirely," said Kawai, a cognitive science professor at Nagoya University.

Around 100 students took part in an experiment where they were asked to write brief opinions on social issues , such as whether smoking in public should be outlawed.

The researchers told them that a doctoral student at Nagoya University would evaluate their writing.

But regardless of what the participants wrote, the evaluators scored them low on intelligence, interest, friendliness, logic and rationality.

They also received insulting feedback, which said, "I cannot believe an educated person would think like this. I hope this person learns something while at university."

The students then wrote down their feelings, and half of them—"the disposal group"—shredded the paper or threw it away, while the other half—"the retention group"—put it in a clear folder or a transparent box.

All the participants "showed an increased subjective rating of anger" after being insulted, the study said.

But while the anger of the retention group remained high, "the subjective anger for the disposal group decreased" to the point of being neutralized.

The researchers argued that their findings could be used as a form of ad-hoc anger management.

"Controlling anger at home and in the workplace can reduce negative consequences in our jobs and personal lives ," they said.

Journal information: Scientific Reports

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Title: a pathway to efficient simulations of charge density waves in transition metal dichalcogenides: a case study for tise2.

Abstract: Charge density waves (CDWs) in transition metal dichalcogenides are the subject of growing scientific interest due to their rich interplay with exotic phases of matter and their potential technological applications. Here, using density functional theory with advanced meta-generalized gradient approximations (meta-GGAs) and linear response time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT) with state-of-the-art exchange-correlation kernels, we investigate the electronic, vibrational, and optical properties in 1T-TiSe2 with and without CDW. In both bulk and monolayer TiSe2, the electronic bands and phonon dispersions in either normal (semi-metallic) or CDW (semiconducting) phase are described well via meta-GGAs, which separate the valence and conduction bands just as HSE06 does but with significantly more computational feasibility. Instead of the underestimated gap with standard exchange-correlation approximations and the overestimated gap with screened hybrid functional HSE06, the band gap of the monolayer TiSe2 CDW phase calculated by the meta-GGA MVS (151 meV) is consistent with the angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES) gap of 153 meV measured at 10 K. In addition, the gap of bulk TiSe2 CDW phase reaches 67 meV within the TASK approximation, close to the ARPES gap of 82 meV. Regarding excitations of many-body nature, for bulk TiSe2 in normal and CDW phases, the experimentally observed humps of electron energy loss spectroscopy and plasmon peak are successfully reproduced in TDDFT, without an obvious kernel dependence. To unleash the full scientific and technological potential of CDWs in transition metal dichalcogenides, the chemical doping, heterostructure engineering, and pump-probe techniques are needed. Our study opens the door to simulating these complexities in CDW compounds from first principles by revealing meta-GGAs as an accurate low-cost alternative to HSE06.

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