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Assignment of Contract

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What is an assignment of contract.

An assignment of contract is a legal term that describes the process that occurs when the original party (assignor) transfers their rights and obligations under their contract to a third party (assignee). When an assignment of contract happens, the original party is relieved of their contractual duties, and their role is replaced by the approved incoming party.

How Does Assignment of Contract Work?

An assignment of contract is simpler than you might think.

The process starts with an existing contract party who wishes to transfer their contractual obligations to a new party.

When this occurs, the existing contract party must first confirm that an assignment of contract is permissible under the legally binding agreement . Some contracts prohibit assignments of contract altogether, and some require the other parties of the agreement to agree to the transfer. However, the general rule is that contracts are freely assignable unless there is an explicit provision that says otherwise.

In other cases, some contracts allow an assignment of contract without any formal notification to other contract parties. If this is the case, once the existing contract party decides to reassign his duties, he must create a “Letter of Assignment ” to notify any other contract signers of the change.

The Letter of Assignment must include details about who is to take over the contractual obligations of the exiting party and when the transfer will take place. If the assignment is valid, the assignor is not required to obtain the consent or signature of the other parties to the original contract for the valid assignment to take place.

Check out this article to learn more about how assigning a contract works.

Contract Assignment Examples

Contract assignments are great tools for contract parties to use when they wish to transfer their commitments to a third party. Here are some examples of contract assignments to help you better understand them:

Anna signs a contract with a local trash company that entitles her to have her trash picked up twice a week. A year later, the trash company transferred her contract to a new trash service provider. This contract assignment effectively makes Anna’s contract now with the new service provider.

Hasina enters a contract with a national phone company for cell phone service. The company goes into bankruptcy and needs to close its doors but decides to transfer all current contracts to another provider who agrees to honor the same rates and level of service. The contract assignment is completed, and Hasina now has a contract with the new phone company as a result.

Here is an article where you can find out more about contract assignments.

Assignment of Contract in Real Estate

Assignment of contract is also used in real estate to make money without going the well-known routes of buying and flipping houses. When real estate LLC investors use an assignment of contract, they can make money off properties without ever actually buying them by instead opting to transfer real estate contracts .

This process is called real estate wholesaling.

Real Estate Wholesaling

Real estate wholesaling consists of locating deals on houses that you don’t plan to buy but instead plan to enter a contract to reassign the house to another buyer and pocket the profit.

The process is simple: real estate wholesalers negotiate purchase contracts with sellers. Then, they present these contracts to buyers who pay them an assignment fee for transferring the contract.

This process works because a real estate purchase agreement does not come with the obligation to buy a property. Instead, it sets forth certain purchasing parameters that must be fulfilled by the buyer of the property. In a nutshell, whoever signs the purchase contract has the right to buy the property, but those rights can usually be transferred by means of an assignment of contract.

This means that as long as the buyer who’s involved in the assignment of contract agrees with the purchasing terms, they can legally take over the contract.

But how do real estate wholesalers find these properties?

It is easier than you might think. Here are a few examples of ways that wholesalers find cheap houses to turn a profit on:

Direct mailers
Place newspaper ads
Make posts in online forums
Social media posts

The key to finding the perfect home for an assignment of contract is to locate sellers that are looking to get rid of their properties quickly. This might be a family who is looking to relocate for a job opportunity or someone who needs to make repairs on a home but can’t afford it. Either way, the quicker the wholesaler can close the deal, the better.

Once a property is located, wholesalers immediately go to work getting the details ironed out about how the sale will work. Transparency is key when it comes to wholesaling. This means that when a wholesaler intends to use an assignment of contract to transfer the rights to another person, they are always upfront about during the preliminary phases of the sale.

In addition to this practice just being good business, it makes sure the process goes as smoothly as possible later down the line. Wholesalers are clear in their intent and make sure buyers know that the contract could be transferred to another buyer before the closing date arrives.

After their offer is accepted and warranties are determined, wholesalers move to complete a title search . Title searches ensure that sellers have the right to enter into a purchase agreement on the property. They do this by searching for any outstanding tax payments, liens , or other roadblocks that could prevent the sale from going through.

Wholesalers also often work with experienced real estate lawyers who ensure that all of the legal paperwork is forthcoming and will stand up in court. Lawyers can also assist in the contract negotiation process if needed but often don’t come in until the final stages.

If the title search comes back clear and the real estate lawyer gives the green light, the wholesaler will immediately move to locate an entity to transfer the rights to buy.

One of the most attractive advantages of real estate wholesaling is that very little money is needed to get started. The process of finding a seller, negotiating a price, and performing a title search is an extremely cheap process that almost anyone can do.

On the other hand, it is not always a positive experience. It can be hard for wholesalers to find sellers who will agree to sell their homes for less than the market value. Even when they do, there is always a chance that the transferred buyer will back out of the sale, which leaves wholesalers obligated to either purchase the property themselves or scramble to find a new person to complete an assignment of contract with.

Learn more about assignment of contract in real estate by checking out this article .

Who Handles Assignment of Contract?

The best person to handle an assignment of contract is an attorney. Since these are detailed legal documents that deal with thousands of dollars, it is never a bad idea to have a professional on your side. If you need help with an assignment of contract or signing a business contract , post a project on ContractsCounsel. There, you can connect with attorneys who know everything there is to know about assignment of contract amendment and can walk you through the whole process.

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Assignments: The Basic Law

The assignment of a right or obligation is a common contractual event under the law and the right to assign (or prohibition against assignments) is found in the majority of agreements, leases and business structural documents created in the United States.

As with many terms commonly used, people are familiar with the term but often are not aware or fully aware of what the terms entail. The concept of assignment of rights and obligations is one of those simple concepts with wide ranging ramifications in the contractual and business context and the law imposes severe restrictions on the validity and effect of assignment in many instances. Clear contractual provisions concerning assignments and rights should be in every document and structure created and this article will outline why such drafting is essential for the creation of appropriate and effective contracts and structures.

The reader should first read the article on Limited Liability Entities in the United States and Contracts since the information in those articles will be assumed in this article.

Basic Definitions and Concepts:

An assignment is the transfer of rights held by one party called the “assignor” to another party called the “assignee.” The legal nature of the assignment and the contractual terms of the agreement between the parties determines some additional rights and liabilities that accompany the assignment. The assignment of rights under a contract usually completely transfers the rights to the assignee to receive the benefits accruing under the contract. Ordinarily, the term assignment is limited to the transfer of rights that are intangible, like contractual rights and rights connected with property. Merchants Service Co. v. Small Claims Court , 35 Cal. 2d 109, 113-114 (Cal. 1950).

An assignment will generally be permitted under the law unless there is an express prohibition against assignment in the underlying contract or lease. Where assignments are permitted, the assignor need not consult the other party to the contract but may merely assign the rights at that time. However, an assignment cannot have any adverse effect on the duties of the other party to the contract, nor can it diminish the chance of the other party receiving complete performance. The assignor normally remains liable unless there is an agreement to the contrary by the other party to the contract.

The effect of a valid assignment is to remove privity between the assignor and the obligor and create privity between the obligor and the assignee. Privity is usually defined as a direct and immediate contractual relationship. See Merchants case above.

Further, for the assignment to be effective in most jurisdictions, it must occur in the present. One does not normally assign a future right; the assignment vests immediate rights and obligations.

No specific language is required to create an assignment so long as the assignor makes clear his/her intent to assign identified contractual rights to the assignee. Since expensive litigation can erupt from ambiguous or vague language, obtaining the correct verbiage is vital. An agreement must manifest the intent to transfer rights and can either be oral or in writing and the rights assigned must be certain.

Note that an assignment of an interest is the transfer of some identifiable property, claim, or right from the assignor to the assignee. The assignment operates to transfer to the assignee all of the rights, title, or interest of the assignor in the thing assigned. A transfer of all rights, title, and interests conveys everything that the assignor owned in the thing assigned and the assignee stands in the shoes of the assignor. Knott v. McDonald’s Corp ., 985 F. Supp. 1222 (N.D. Cal. 1997)

The parties must intend to effectuate an assignment at the time of the transfer, although no particular language or procedure is necessary. As long ago as the case of National Reserve Co. v. Metropolitan Trust Co ., 17 Cal. 2d 827 (Cal. 1941), the court held that in determining what rights or interests pass under an assignment, the intention of the parties as manifested in the instrument is controlling.

The intent of the parties to an assignment is a question of fact to be derived not only from the instrument executed by the parties but also from the surrounding circumstances. When there is no writing to evidence the intention to transfer some identifiable property, claim, or right, it is necessary to scrutinize the surrounding circumstances and parties’ acts to ascertain their intentions. Strosberg v. Brauvin Realty Servs., 295 Ill. App. 3d 17 (Ill. App. Ct. 1st Dist. 1998)

The general rule applicable to assignments of choses in action is that an assignment, unless there is a contract to the contrary, carries with it all securities held by the assignor as collateral to the claim and all rights incidental thereto and vests in the assignee the equitable title to such collateral securities and incidental rights. An unqualified assignment of a contract or chose in action, however, with no indication of the intent of the parties, vests in the assignee the assigned contract or chose and all rights and remedies incidental thereto.

More examples: In Strosberg v. Brauvin Realty Servs ., 295 Ill. App. 3d 17 (Ill. App. Ct. 1st Dist. 1998), the court held that the assignee of a party to a subordination agreement is entitled to the benefits and is subject to the burdens of the agreement. In Florida E. C. R. Co. v. Eno , 99 Fla. 887 (Fla. 1930), the court held that the mere assignment of all sums due in and of itself creates no different or other liability of the owner to the assignee than that which existed from the owner to the assignor.

And note that even though an assignment vests in the assignee all rights, remedies, and contingent benefits which are incidental to the thing assigned, those which are personal to the assignor and for his sole benefit are not assigned. Rasp v. Hidden Valley Lake, Inc ., 519 N.E.2d 153, 158 (Ind. Ct. App. 1988). Thus, if the underlying agreement provides that a service can only be provided to X, X cannot assign that right to Y.

Novation Compared to Assignment:

Although the difference between a novation and an assignment may appear narrow, it is an essential one. “Novation is a act whereby one party transfers all its obligations and benefits under a contract to a third party.” In a novation, a third party successfully substitutes the original party as a party to the contract. “When a contract is novated, the other contracting party must be left in the same position he was in prior to the novation being made.”

A sublease is the transfer when a tenant retains some right of reentry onto the leased premises. However, if the tenant transfers the entire leasehold estate, retaining no right of reentry or other reversionary interest, then the transfer is an assignment. The assignor is normally also removed from liability to the landlord only if the landlord consents or allowed that right in the lease. In a sublease, the original tenant is not released from the obligations of the original lease.

Equitable Assignments:

An equitable assignment is one in which one has a future interest and is not valid at law but valid in a court of equity. In National Bank of Republic v. United Sec. Life Ins. & Trust Co. , 17 App. D.C. 112 (D.C. Cir. 1900), the court held that to constitute an equitable assignment of a chose in action, the following has to occur generally: anything said written or done, in pursuance of an agreement and for valuable consideration, or in consideration of an antecedent debt, to place a chose in action or fund out of the control of the owner, and appropriate it to or in favor of another person, amounts to an equitable assignment. Thus, an agreement, between a debtor and a creditor, that the debt shall be paid out of a specific fund going to the debtor may operate as an equitable assignment.

In Egyptian Navigation Co. v. Baker Invs. Corp. , 2008 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 30804 (S.D.N.Y. Apr. 14, 2008), the court stated that an equitable assignment occurs under English law when an assignor, with an intent to transfer his/her right to a chose in action, informs the assignee about the right so transferred.

An executory agreement or a declaration of trust are also equitable assignments if unenforceable as assignments by a court of law but enforceable by a court of equity exercising sound discretion according to the circumstances of the case. Since California combines courts of equity and courts of law, the same court would hear arguments as to whether an equitable assignment had occurred. Quite often, such relief is granted to avoid fraud or unjust enrichment.

Note that obtaining an assignment through fraudulent means invalidates the assignment. Fraud destroys the validity of everything into which it enters. It vitiates the most solemn contracts, documents, and even judgments. Walker v. Rich , 79 Cal. App. 139 (Cal. App. 1926). If an assignment is made with the fraudulent intent to delay, hinder, and defraud creditors, then it is void as fraudulent in fact. See our article on Transfers to Defraud Creditors .

But note that the motives that prompted an assignor to make the transfer will be considered as immaterial and will constitute no defense to an action by the assignee, if an assignment is considered as valid in all other respects.

Enforceability of Assignments:

Whether a right under a contract is capable of being transferred is determined by the law of the place where the contract was entered into. The validity and effect of an assignment is determined by the law of the place of assignment. The validity of an assignment of a contractual right is governed by the law of the state with the most significant relationship to the assignment and the parties.

In some jurisdictions, the traditional conflict of laws rules governing assignments has been rejected and the law of the place having the most significant contacts with the assignment applies. In Downs v. American Mut. Liability Ins. Co ., 14 N.Y.2d 266 (N.Y. 1964), a wife and her husband separated and the wife obtained a judgment of separation from the husband in New York. The judgment required the husband to pay a certain yearly sum to the wife. The husband assigned 50 percent of his future salary, wages, and earnings to the wife. The agreement authorized the employer to make such payments to the wife.

After the husband moved from New York, the wife learned that he was employed by an employer in Massachusetts. She sent the proper notice and demanded payment under the agreement. The employer refused and the wife brought an action for enforcement. The court observed that Massachusetts did not prohibit assignment of the husband’s wages. Moreover, Massachusetts law was not controlling because New York had the most significant relationship with the assignment. Therefore, the court ruled in favor of the wife.

Therefore, the validity of an assignment is determined by looking to the law of the forum with the most significant relationship to the assignment itself. To determine the applicable law of assignments, the court must look to the law of the state which is most significantly related to the principal issue before it.

Assignment of Contractual Rights:

Generally, the law allows the assignment of a contractual right unless the substitution of rights would materially change the duty of the obligor, materially increase the burden or risk imposed on the obligor by the contract, materially impair the chance of obtaining return performance, or materially reduce the value of the performance to the obligor. Restat 2d of Contracts, § 317(2)(a). This presumes that the underlying agreement is silent on the right to assign.

If the contract specifically precludes assignment, the contractual right is not assignable. Whether a contract is assignable is a matter of contractual intent and one must look to the language used by the parties to discern that intent.

In the absence of an express provision to the contrary, the rights and duties under a bilateral executory contract that does not involve personal skill, trust, or confidence may be assigned without the consent of the other party. But note that an assignment is invalid if it would materially alter the other party’s duties and responsibilities. Once an assignment is effective, the assignee stands in the shoes of the assignor and assumes all of assignor’s rights. Hence, after a valid assignment, the assignor’s right to performance is extinguished, transferred to assignee, and the assignee possesses the same rights, benefits, and remedies assignor once possessed. Robert Lamb Hart Planners & Architects v. Evergreen, Ltd. , 787 F. Supp. 753 (S.D. Ohio 1992).

On the other hand, an assignee’s right against the obligor is subject to “all of the limitations of the assignor’s right, all defenses thereto, and all set-offs and counterclaims which would have been available against the assignor had there been no assignment, provided that these defenses and set-offs are based on facts existing at the time of the assignment.” See Robert Lamb , case, above.

The power of the contract to restrict assignment is broad. Usually, contractual provisions that restrict assignment of the contract without the consent of the obligor are valid and enforceable, even when there is statutory authorization for the assignment. The restriction of the power to assign is often ineffective unless the restriction is expressly and precisely stated. Anti-assignment clauses are effective only if they contain clear, unambiguous language of prohibition. Anti-assignment clauses protect only the obligor and do not affect the transaction between the assignee and assignor.

Usually, a prohibition against the assignment of a contract does not prevent an assignment of the right to receive payments due, unless circumstances indicate the contrary. Moreover, the contracting parties cannot, by a mere non-assignment provision, prevent the effectual alienation of the right to money which becomes due under the contract.

A contract provision prohibiting or restricting an assignment may be waived, or a party may so act as to be estopped from objecting to the assignment, such as by effectively ratifying the assignment. The power to void an assignment made in violation of an anti-assignment clause may be waived either before or after the assignment. See our article on Contracts.

Noncompete Clauses and Assignments:

Of critical import to most buyers of businesses is the ability to ensure that key employees of the business being purchased cannot start a competing company. Some states strictly limit such clauses, some do allow them. California does restrict noncompete clauses, only allowing them under certain circumstances. A common question in those states that do allow them is whether such rights can be assigned to a new party, such as the buyer of the buyer.

A covenant not to compete, also called a non-competitive clause, is a formal agreement prohibiting one party from performing similar work or business within a designated area for a specified amount of time. This type of clause is generally included in contracts between employer and employee and contracts between buyer and seller of a business.

Many workers sign a covenant not to compete as part of the paperwork required for employment. It may be a separate document similar to a non-disclosure agreement, or buried within a number of other clauses in a contract. A covenant not to compete is generally legal and enforceable, although there are some exceptions and restrictions.

Whenever a company recruits skilled employees, it invests a significant amount of time and training. For example, it often takes years before a research chemist or a design engineer develops a workable knowledge of a company’s product line, including trade secrets and highly sensitive information. Once an employee gains this knowledge and experience, however, all sorts of things can happen. The employee could work for the company until retirement, accept a better offer from a competing company or start up his or her own business.

A covenant not to compete may cover a number of potential issues between employers and former employees. Many companies spend years developing a local base of customers or clients. It is important that this customer base not fall into the hands of local competitors. When an employee signs a covenant not to compete, he or she usually agrees not to use insider knowledge of the company’s customer base to disadvantage the company. The covenant not to compete often defines a broad geographical area considered off-limits to former employees, possibly tens or hundreds of miles.

Another area of concern covered by a covenant not to compete is a potential ‘brain drain’. Some high-level former employees may seek to recruit others from the same company to create new competition. Retention of employees, especially those with unique skills or proprietary knowledge, is vital for most companies, so a covenant not to compete may spell out definite restrictions on the hiring or recruiting of employees.

A covenant not to compete may also define a specific amount of time before a former employee can seek employment in a similar field. Many companies offer a substantial severance package to make sure former employees are financially solvent until the terms of the covenant not to compete have been met.

Because the use of a covenant not to compete can be controversial, a handful of states, including California, have largely banned this type of contractual language. The legal enforcement of these agreements falls on individual states, and many have sided with the employee during arbitration or litigation. A covenant not to compete must be reasonable and specific, with defined time periods and coverage areas. If the agreement gives the company too much power over former employees or is ambiguous, state courts may declare it to be overbroad and therefore unenforceable. In such case, the employee would be free to pursue any employment opportunity, including working for a direct competitor or starting up a new company of his or her own.

It has been held that an employee’s covenant not to compete is assignable where one business is transferred to another, that a merger does not constitute an assignment of a covenant not to compete, and that a covenant not to compete is enforceable by a successor to the employer where the assignment does not create an added burden of employment or other disadvantage to the employee. However, in some states such as Hawaii, it has also been held that a covenant not to compete is not assignable and under various statutes for various reasons that such covenants are not enforceable against an employee by a successor to the employer. Hawaii v. Gannett Pac. Corp. , 99 F. Supp. 2d 1241 (D. Haw. 1999)

It is vital to obtain the relevant law of the applicable state before drafting or attempting to enforce assignment rights in this particular area.

Conclusion:

In the current business world of fast changing structures, agreements, employees and projects, the ability to assign rights and obligations is essential to allow flexibility and adjustment to new situations. Conversely, the ability to hold a contracting party into the deal may be essential for the future of a party. Thus, the law of assignments and the restriction on same is a critical aspect of every agreement and every structure. This basic provision is often glanced at by the contracting parties, or scribbled into the deal at the last minute but can easily become the most vital part of the transaction.

As an example, one client of ours came into the office outraged that his co venturer on a sizable exporting agreement, who had excellent connections in Brazil, had elected to pursue another venture instead and assigned the agreement to a party unknown to our client and without the business contacts our client considered vital. When we examined the handwritten agreement our client had drafted in a restaurant in Sao Paolo, we discovered there was no restriction on assignment whatsoever…our client had not even considered that right when drafting the agreement after a full day of work.

One choses who one does business with carefully…to ensure that one’s choice remains the party on the other side of the contract, one must master the ability to negotiate proper assignment provisions.

Founded in 1939, our law firm combines the ability to represent clients in domestic or international matters with the personal interaction with clients that is traditional to a long established law firm.

14.1 Assignment of Contract Rights

Learning objectives.

Understand what an assignment is and how it is made.
Recognize the effect of the assignment.
Know when assignments are not allowed.
Understand the concept of assignor’s warranties.

The Concept of a Contract Assignment

Contracts create rights and duties. By an assignment The passing or delivering by one person to another of the right to a contract benefit. , an obligee One to whom an obligation is owed. (one who has the right to receive a contract benefit) transfers a right to receive a contract benefit owed by the obligor One who owes an obligation. (the one who has a duty to perform) to a third person ( assignee One to whom the right to receive benefit of a contract is passed or delivered. ); the obligee then becomes an assignor One who agrees to allow another to receive the benefit of a contract. (one who makes an assignment).

The Restatement (Second) of Contracts defines an assignment of a right as “a manifestation of the assignor’s intention to transfer it by virtue of which the assignor’s right to performance by the obligor is extinguished in whole or in part and the assignee acquires the right to such performance.” Restatement (Second) of Contracts, Section 317(1). The one who makes the assignment is both an obligee and a transferor. The assignee acquires the right to receive the contractual obligations of the promisor, who is referred to as the obligor (see Figure 14.1 "Assignment of Rights" ). The assignor may assign any right unless (1) doing so would materially change the obligation of the obligor, materially burden him, increase his risk, or otherwise diminish the value to him of the original contract; (2) statute or public policy forbids the assignment; or (3) the contract itself precludes assignment. The common law of contracts and Articles 2 and 9 of the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) govern assignments. Assignments are an important part of business financing, such as factoring. A factor A person who pays money to receive another’s executory contractual benefits. is one who purchases the right to receive income from another.

Figure 14.1 Assignment of Rights

Method of Assignment

Manifesting assent.

To effect an assignment, the assignor must make known his intention to transfer the rights to the third person. The assignor’s intention must be that the assignment is effective without need of any further action or any further manifestation of intention to make the assignment. In other words, the assignor must intend and understand himself to be making the assignment then and there; he is not promising to make the assignment sometime in the future.

Under the UCC, any assignments of rights in excess of $5,000 must be in writing, but otherwise, assignments can be oral and consideration is not required: the assignor could assign the right to the assignee for nothing (not likely in commercial transactions, of course). Mrs. Franklin has the right to receive $750 a month from the sale of a house she formerly owned; she assigns the right to receive the money to her son Jason, as a gift. The assignment is good, though such a gratuitous assignment is usually revocable, which is not the case where consideration has been paid for an assignment.

Acceptance and Revocation

For the assignment to become effective, the assignee must manifest his acceptance under most circumstances. This is done automatically when, as is usually the case, the assignee has given consideration for the assignment (i.e., there is a contract between the assignor and the assignee in which the assignment is the assignor’s consideration), and then the assignment is not revocable without the assignee’s consent. Problems of acceptance normally arise only when the assignor intends the assignment as a gift. Then, for the assignment to be irrevocable, either the assignee must manifest his acceptance or the assignor must notify the assignee in writing of the assignment.

Notice to the obligor is not required, but an obligor who renders performance to the assignor without notice of the assignment (that performance of the contract is to be rendered now to the assignee) is discharged. Obviously, the assignor cannot then keep the consideration he has received; he owes it to the assignee. But if notice is given to the obligor and she performs to the assignor anyway, the assignee can recover from either the obligor or the assignee, so the obligor could have to perform twice, as in Exercise 2 at the chapter’s end, Aldana v. Colonial Palms Plaza . Of course, an obligor who receives notice of the assignment from the assignee will want to be sure the assignment has really occurred. After all, anybody could waltz up to the obligor and say, “I’m the assignee of your contract with the bank. From now on, pay me the $500 a month, not the bank.” The obligor is entitled to verification of the assignment.

Effect of Assignment

General rule.

An assignment of rights effectively makes the assignee stand in the shoes of An assignee takes no greater rights than his assignor had. the assignor. He gains all the rights against the obligor that the assignor had, but no more. An obligor who could avoid the assignor’s attempt to enforce the rights could avoid a similar attempt by the assignee. Likewise, under UCC Section 9-318(1), the assignee of an account is subject to all terms of the contract between the debtor and the creditor-assignor. Suppose Dealer sells a car to Buyer on a contract where Buyer is to pay $300 per month and the car is warranted for 50,000 miles. If the car goes on the fritz before then and Dealer won’t fix it, Buyer could fix it for, say, $250 and deduct that $250 from the amount owed Dealer on the next installment (called a setoff). Now, if Dealer assigns the contract to Assignee, Assignee stands in Dealer’s shoes, and Buyer could likewise deduct the $250 from payment to Assignee.

The “shoe rule” does not apply to two types of assignments. First, it is inapplicable to the sale of a negotiable instrument to a holder in due course (covered in detail Chapter 23 "Negotiation of Commercial Paper" ). Second, the rule may be waived: under the UCC and at common law, the obligor may agree in the original contract not to raise defenses against the assignee that could have been raised against the assignor. Uniform Commercial Code, Section 9-206. While a waiver of defenses Surrender by a party of legal rights otherwise available to him or her. makes the assignment more marketable from the assignee’s point of view, it is a situation fraught with peril to an obligor, who may sign a contract without understanding the full import of the waiver. Under the waiver rule, for example, a farmer who buys a tractor on credit and discovers later that it does not work would still be required to pay a credit company that purchased the contract; his defense that the merchandise was shoddy would be unavailing (he would, as used to be said, be “having to pay on a dead horse”).

For that reason, there are various rules that limit both the holder in due course and the waiver rule. Certain defenses, the so-called real defenses (infancy, duress, and fraud in the execution, among others), may always be asserted. Also, the waiver clause in the contract must have been presented in good faith, and if the assignee has actual notice of a defense that the buyer or lessee could raise, then the waiver is ineffective. Moreover, in consumer transactions, the UCC’s rule is subject to state laws that protect consumers (people buying things used primarily for personal, family, or household purposes), and many states, by statute or court decision, have made waivers of defenses ineffective in such consumer transactions A contract for household or domestic purposes, not commercial purposes. . Federal Trade Commission regulations also affect the ability of many sellers to pass on rights to assignees free of defenses that buyers could raise against them. Because of these various limitations on the holder in due course and on waivers, the “shoe rule” will not govern in consumer transactions and, if there are real defenses or the assignee does not act in good faith, in business transactions as well.

When Assignments Are Not Allowed

The general rule—as previously noted—is that most contract rights are assignable. But there are exceptions. Five of them are noted here.

Material Change in Duties of the Obligor

When an assignment has the effect of materially changing the duties that the obligor must perform, it is ineffective. Changing the party to whom the obligor must make a payment is not a material change of duty that will defeat an assignment, since that, of course, is the purpose behind most assignments. Nor will a minor change in the duties the obligor must perform defeat the assignment.

Several residents in the town of Centerville sign up on an annual basis with the Centerville Times to receive their morning paper. A customer who is moving out of town may assign his right to receive the paper to someone else within the delivery route. As long as the assignee pays for the paper, the assignment is effective; the only relationship the obligor has to the assignee is a routine delivery in exchange for payment. Obligors can consent in the original contract, however, to a subsequent assignment of duties. Here is a clause from the World Team Tennis League contract: “It is mutually agreed that the Club shall have the right to sell, assign, trade and transfer this contract to another Club in the League, and the Player agrees to accept and be bound by such sale, exchange, assignment or transfer and to faithfully perform and carry out his or her obligations under this contract as if it had been entered into by the Player and such other Club.” Consent is not necessary when the contract does not involve a personal relationship.

Assignment of Personal Rights

When it matters to the obligor who receives the benefit of his duty to perform under the contract, then the receipt of the benefit is a personal right The right or duty of a particular person to perform or receive contract duties or benefits; cannot be assigned. that cannot be assigned. For example, a student seeking to earn pocket money during the school year signs up to do research work for a professor she admires and with whom she is friendly. The professor assigns the contract to one of his colleagues with whom the student does not get along. The assignment is ineffective because it matters to the student (the obligor) who the person of the assignee is. An insurance company provides auto insurance covering Mohammed Kareem, a sixty-five-year-old man who drives very carefully. Kareem cannot assign the contract to his seventeen-year-old grandson because it matters to the insurance company who the person of its insured is. Tenants usually cannot assign (sublet) their tenancies without the landlord’s permission because it matters to the landlord who the person of their tenant is. Section 14.4.1 "Nonassignable Rights" , Nassau Hotel Co. v. Barnett & Barse Corp. , is an example of the nonassignability of a personal right.

Assignment Forbidden by Statute or Public Policy

Various federal and state laws prohibit or regulate some contract assignment. The assignment of future wages is regulated by state and federal law to protect people from improvidently denying themselves future income because of immediate present financial difficulties. And even in the absence of statute, public policy might prohibit some assignments.

Contracts That Prohibit Assignment

Assignability of contract rights is useful, and prohibitions against it are not generally favored. Many contracts contain general language that prohibits assignment of rights or of “the contract.” Both the Restatement and UCC Section 2-210(3) declare that in the absence of any contrary circumstances, a provision in the agreement that prohibits assigning “the contract” bars “only the delegation to the assignee of the assignor’s performance.” Restatement (Second) of Contracts, Section 322. In other words, unless the contract specifically prohibits assignment of any of its terms, a party is free to assign anything except his or her own duties.

Even if a contractual provision explicitly prohibits it, a right to damages for breach of the whole contract is assignable under UCC Section 2-210(2) in contracts for goods. Likewise, UCC Section 9-318(4) invalidates any contract provision that prohibits assigning sums already due or to become due. Indeed, in some states, at common law, a clause specifically prohibiting assignment will fail. For example, the buyer and the seller agree to the sale of land and to a provision barring assignment of the rights under the contract. The buyer pays the full price, but the seller refuses to convey. The buyer then assigns to her friend the right to obtain title to the land from the seller. The latter’s objection that the contract precludes such an assignment will fall on deaf ears in some states; the assignment is effective, and the friend may sue for the title.

Future Contracts

The law distinguishes between assigning future rights under an existing contract and assigning rights that will arise from a future contract. Rights contingent on a future event can be assigned in exactly the same manner as existing rights, as long as the contingent rights are already incorporated in a contract. Ben has a long-standing deal with his neighbor, Mrs. Robinson, to keep the latter’s walk clear of snow at twenty dollars a snowfall. Ben is saving his money for a new printer, but when he is eighty dollars shy of the purchase price, he becomes impatient and cajoles a friend into loaning him the balance. In return, Ben assigns his friend the earnings from the next four snowfalls. The assignment is effective. However, a right that will arise from a future contract cannot be the subject of a present assignment.

Partial Assignments

An assignor may assign part of a contractual right, but only if the obligor can perform that part of his contractual obligation separately from the remainder of his obligation. Assignment of part of a payment due is always enforceable. However, if the obligor objects, neither the assignor nor the assignee may sue him unless both are party to the suit. Mrs. Robinson owes Ben one hundred dollars. Ben assigns fifty dollars of that sum to his friend. Mrs. Robinson is perplexed by this assignment and refuses to pay until the situation is explained to her satisfaction. The friend brings suit against Mrs. Robinson. The court cannot hear the case unless Ben is also a party to the suit. This ensures all parties to the dispute are present at once and avoids multiple lawsuits.

Successive Assignments

It may happen that an assignor assigns the same interest twice (see Figure 14.2 "Successive Assignments" ). With certain exceptions, the first assignee takes precedence over any subsequent assignee. One obvious exception is when the first assignment is ineffective or revocable. A subsequent assignment has the effect of revoking a prior assignment that is ineffective or revocable. Another exception: if in good faith the subsequent assignee gives consideration for the assignment and has no knowledge of the prior assignment, he takes precedence whenever he obtains payment from, performance from, or a judgment against the obligor, or whenever he receives some tangible evidence from the assignor that the right has been assigned (e.g., a bank deposit book or an insurance policy).

Some states follow the different English rule: the first assignee to give notice to the obligor has priority, regardless of the order in which the assignments were made. Furthermore, if the assignment falls within the filing requirements of UCC Article 9 (see Chapter 28 "Secured Transactions and Suretyship" ), the first assignee to file will prevail.

Figure 14.2 Successive Assignments

Assignor’s Warranties

An assignor has legal responsibilities in making assignments. He cannot blithely assign the same interests pell-mell and escape liability. Unless the contract explicitly states to the contrary, a person who assigns a right for value makes certain assignor’s warranties Promises, express or implied, made by an assignor to the assignee about the merits of the assignment. to the assignee: that he will not upset the assignment, that he has the right to make it, and that there are no defenses that will defeat it. However, the assignor does not guarantee payment; assignment does not by itself amount to a warranty that the obligor is solvent or will perform as agreed in the original contract. Mrs. Robinson owes Ben fifty dollars. Ben assigns this sum to his friend. Before the friend collects, Ben releases Mrs. Robinson from her obligation. The friend may sue Ben for the fifty dollars. Or again, if Ben represents to his friend that Mrs. Robinson owes him (Ben) fifty dollars and assigns his friend that amount, but in fact Mrs. Robinson does not owe Ben that much, then Ben has breached his assignor’s warranty. The assignor’s warranties may be express or implied.

Key Takeaway

Generally, it is OK for an obligee to assign the right to receive contractual performance from the obligor to a third party. The effect of the assignment is to make the assignee stand in the shoes of the assignor, taking all the latter’s rights and all the defenses against nonperformance that the obligor might raise against the assignor. But the obligor may agree in advance to waive defenses against the assignee, unless such waiver is prohibited by law.

There are some exceptions to the rule that contract rights are assignable. Some, such as personal rights, are not circumstances where the obligor’s duties would materially change, cases where assignability is forbidden by statute or public policy, or, with some limits, cases where the contract itself prohibits assignment. Partial assignments and successive assignments can happen, and rules govern the resolution of problems arising from them.

When the assignor makes the assignment, that person makes certain warranties, express or implied, to the assignee, basically to the effect that the assignment is good and the assignor knows of no reason why the assignee will not get performance from the obligor.

If Able makes a valid assignment to Baker of his contract to receive monthly rental payments from Tenant, how is Baker’s right different from what Able’s was?
Able made a valid assignment to Baker of his contract to receive monthly purchase payments from Carr, who bought an automobile from Able. The car had a 180-day warranty, but the car malfunctioned within that time. Able had quit the auto business entirely. May Carr withhold payments from Baker to offset the cost of needed repairs?
Assume in the case in Exercise 2 that Baker knew Able was selling defective cars just before his (Able’s) withdrawal from the auto business. How, if at all, does that change Baker’s rights?
Why are leases generally not assignable? Why are insurance contracts not assignable?

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Assigning a contract

Make your Letter assigning a contract

Answer a few questions. We'll take care of the rest. Get help from our Letter assigning a contract FAQs .

What does ‘assigning’ mean?

There may be situations where one party wishes to leave a contract and transfer their role to a new, incoming party. Transferring a contract from one party to another is known as ‘assigning’ a contract or ‘an assignment’ of the contract, in England and Wales and ‘assignation’ of a contract in Scotland.

Check the contract first

A contract will usually contain provisions concerning assignment . The contract may:

prevent any assignment

allow an assignment but only by agreement between the parties

allow either party to assign to any new (third) party whenever they wish

If the contract is silent on the subject, it is better to obtain the agreement of the existing parties before assignment takes place and a new party is introduced.

Who is involved?

An assignment ends one party’s involvement in the contract and transfers all of their contractual rights, benefits and interests to a new party .

How does the assignment take place?

Unless an assignment is prohibited in a contract, the outgoing party may assign their rights to the incoming (third) party without the consent of the other party to the agreement. A Letter of assignment can be used to affect the assignment and is signed by the outgoing party and the incoming party.

It contains special provisions to transfer all of the rights and benefits under the contract to the incoming party.

However, in practice, the assignor will usually subcontract , or delegate, their obligations under the contract to the assignee. This means that the assignee will assume the performance of the contract with effect from the assignment, and the assignor will ask to be indemnified against any breach or failure to perform the contract by the assignee.

The signed Letter of assignment is sent to all existing parties. Stakeholders, such as banks or customers, are also notified of the change.

What is the difference between assigning and novating a contract?

A novation agreement transfers both the benefits and the obligations of a contract to a third party. In contrast, an assignment does not transfer the burden of a contract . This means the outgoing party remains liable for any past liabilities incurred before the assignment.

For more information, read Novating a contract .

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The key English contract law cases of 2020

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It has been a most unusual year. In response to the global pandemic, the Cabinet Office issued Guidance in the summer, encouraging contractual parties to act “responsibly and fairly” in the performance and enforcement of their contracts.

In a similar vein, the British Institute of International and Comparative Law (“ BIICL ”) has published three Concept Notes, the first of which noted that a plethora of disputes from the pandemic would be destructive to good contractual outcomes and the effective operation of markets. However, the BIICL also recognised that there are some cases which do require the involvement of the courts.

Inevitably then, there have been disputes which have made it to the courts this year: some which started before the pandemic hit; some borne of the pandemic itself (notably, the recent insurance business interruption case, which you can read about here 1 , and a case concerning material adverse effect clauses, which you can read about here ); and others that presumably just could not be resolved consensually. What can we learn from the decisions in these disputes? In this briefing we review this year’s important contract cases and consider what commercial parties can learn from them.

1. At the time of writing, we note that the Supreme Court heard a leapfrog appeal from the decision of the High Court from 16-19 November 2020. The judgment is pending.

Implied duties of good faith: plead at your peril.

Last year we noted that the law was still in a state of flux. One year on, is it any clearer when a contract will be subject to an implied duty of good faith? It’s fair to say the law still “has not yet reached a stage of settled clarity” ( Cathay Pacific Airways Ltd v Lufthansa [2020] EWHC 1789 ) with a continuing split between the two visions of this duty, namely:

that there is a class of “relational contracts” that are subject to a duty of good faith as a matter of law ( Essex County Council v UBB Waste (Essex) Ltd [2020] EWHC 1581 ), or
that such a duty will only arise where the strict tests for the implication of terms in fact are satisfied ( Taqa Bratani Ltd & Ors v Rockrose UKCS8 LLC [2020] EWHC 58 ).

Around these central themes, there have been various clarifications to the law. For example, in Morley v Royal Bank of Scotland Plc [2020] EWHC 88 (Ch) the High Court rejected a borrower’s argument that the bank had an implied duty to act in good faith towards it under a loan agreement. The Court held that this was not a relational contract of any kind but an ordinary loan facility agreement. The bank’s decision to call in the loan was the exercise of a contractual right, not a discretion (subject to the Braganza duty). The bank’s power to obtain a revaluation of the charged assets and its power to charge a default interest rate were discretions which had to be exercised for purposes connected to the bank’s commercial interests and not so as to vex the borrower maliciously (following Property Alliance Group Ltd v Royal Bank of Scotland plc [2018] EWCA Civ 355 ). On the facts, they had been exercised properly.

Similarly, the courts continue to treat references to good faith in some clauses as evidence that a wider overarching duty of good faith should not be implied into the agreement (see Russell v Cartwright [2020] EWHC 41 (Ch) ).

Perhaps most important is the nature of any duty of good faith. While this is sometimes described in broad terms, for example to “adhere to the spirit of the contract, to observe reasonable commercial standards of fair dealing, to be faithful to the agreed common purpose, and to act consistently with the justified expectations of [the other party]” ( CPC Group Ltd v Qatari Diar Real Estate Investment Company [2010] EWHC 1535 ), the courts have recently made it very clear that the assertion that a party has not acted in good faith is a serious allegation.

In Essex County Council v UBB Waste (No. 3) [2020] EWHC 2387 (TCC) the courts suggested this was, put colloquially, an allegation of “sharp practice” . To make such an allegation without proper foundation was out of the norm and justified an order for costs on an indemnity basis.

What does this mean for you?

Good faith is still an evolving area in English law. Until we have greater clarity, it is worth considering whether your contract might be classified as “relational” or whether a duty of good faith might arise under the rules for the implication of terms in fact. In either case, you might want to address the matter expressly. Finally, allegations of a breach of good faith are serious and should not be made without foundation, so plead at your peril.

Excusing liability

In times of crisis, contractual parties may have even greater reason to examine those parts of their contracts which may exclude or limit liability or offer defences to breach (such as force majeure provisions).

Force majeure and a variety of limitations

A recent dispute concerning the 2011 riots in London put all of these provisions under the spotlight. The High Court found that a warehouse operator had failed to use reasonable skill and care to protect the contents of the warehouse (CDs and DVDs), which were destroyed by fire during the riots. Could the operator rely on any contractual terms to excuse or limit its liability?

It was not able to rely on the force majeure clause since the fire was not a circumstance “beyond [its] reasonable control” . The Court found that, if it had acted reasonably, it could and should have prevented the fire.

Since the claims (for loss of profits, business interruption costs and increased cost of working, suffered as a result of the fire) were all direct (in that they were exactly the type of loss that one would expect to result from the breach), the clause excluding liability for “indirect and consequential loss” did not apply. A cap on liability for damage to goods was no protection either as the claims were not for damage to the goods themselves. However, an overall – aggregate – cap on all liability (of £5 million) was effective.

What does this mean for you? These types of clauses are very topical in the current uncertain times and always need to be drafted carefully. This case reminds us that the position of commercial parties will depend upon the exact terms of the contracts, applied to the facts of the situation.

Where can you read more? See 2 Entertain Video Ltd & Ors v Sony DADC Europe Ltd [2020] EWHC 972 (TCC) .

Indirect and consequential loss

Another recent case highlights just how useful an exclusion of “indirect and consequential loss” could have been, if only it had been included.

A contractor terminated a construction contract for breach by its employer (on the basis that the latter had failed to provide a prepared site for the water treatment plant that was to be built). The Board of the Privy Council held that the contractor was entitled to recover, as damages for breach, the loss of profits that it would have made under an operation and maintenance contract for the same plant had it been built. These losses were not too remote (and fell within the second limb of Hadley v Baxendale [1854] EWHC Exch J70) as they were within the reasonable contemplation of the parties to the construction contract when that contract was entered into (on the same day as the operation and maintenance agreement).

What does this mean for you? When entering into related contracts, it is vital to consider the exact relationship between them, including the consequences of a termination, breach or force majeure scenario arising under one of them and the knock-on effects this might have. Exclusion of liability under a related contract might be achieved by an exclusion of indirect and consequential loss (depending upon the specific drafting) or expressly.

Where can you read more? See AG of the Virgin Islands v GWA [2020] UKPC 18 .

Loss of goodwill

It is also relatively common to see clauses exclude liability for “loss of goodwill”. The Court of Appeal decided that, in a commercial context, the ordinary legal meaning of “goodwill” was the good name and public reputation of the business concerned. If a contract intends the term to have an unusual or technical meaning (such as the accounting concept of goodwill) then that should be spelt out expressly.

This decision highlights how important it is to agree the meaning of (and clearly define) terms in agreements, particularly where something different from the ordinary legal meaning is intended.

Where can you read more? See Primus International v Triumph Controls [2020] EWCA Civ 1228 .

What is a reasonable condition of consent (and what is not)?

In a recent decision, the High Court considered the case law on contractual consent provisions, which often state that one party “shall not unreasonably withhold consent” to whatever is being requested.

If we call the party asking for consent, Party A; and the party being asked to give consent, Party B, the Court found that the authorities drew the following distinction:

while it may be legitimate for Party B to impose a condition to protect or compensate it for the impairment of a benefit it enjoys under the contract which would result from giving consent,
that is completely different to imposing a condition which would impair a right which Party A currently enjoys under the contract.

The contract was for the onshore pipeline transportation of hydrocarbons produced in the North Sea. The producer (Party A in our analogy) requested consent to amend its estimated production profile for transportation for the period from January 2021 to December 2040. The pipeline owner (Party B) stated that it was only willing to consent to the amendment if Party A agreed to an increase in the tariff payable under the agreement. Contractually, Party B was not entitled to “unreasonably withhold” its consent to the amendment. Was Party B therefore acting contractually or non-contractually by seeking to impose a tariff rise as a condition to giving consent?

The Court found that Party A was both entitled and obliged to tender its hydrocarbons for transportation at the contractual tariff for the duration of the agreement, which would continue until terminated on one of the contractual bases set out in the agreement. The terms did not limit that entitlement and obligation to the period up to 2020. In those circumstances, it would be inconsistent with the terms and scheme of the agreement if Party B was entitled to make its consent to the amendment conditional on a fundamental revision of the parties’ bargain in the form of a new tariff. Party B was acting non-contractually.

This decision clarifies that a condition might be reasonable as a prerequisite to giving consent (e.g. to make up for something lost by the consenting party as a result of the change). However, a party cannot use a consent request as an opportunity to renegotiate terms or impose an unrelated change on the other party. It may be preferable to make this clear in the drafting of any relevant provision, by stating that consent cannot be unreasonably withheld or delayed, or made subject to additional conditions.

Where can you read more? See Apache North Sea v INEOS FPS Limited [2020] EWHC 2081 (Comm) .

How will the Courts determine the law applicable to an arbitration clause?

The Supreme Court recently provided the answer to this question in a landmark decision.

An arbitration clause is generally regarded as legally distinct from the main agreement in which it is contained (and the Rome I Regulation excludes arbitration and choice of court clauses from its scope). In England, therefore, common law conflict of laws rules apply to determine the law applicable to the arbitration agreement. Under those rules that will be: (i) the law expressly or impliedly chosen by the parties; or (ii) in the absence of such choice, the law “most closely connected” to the arbitration agreement.

Where the parties have not specified the law applicable to the arbitration agreement, but they have chosen the law to govern the contract as a whole, this choice will generally also apply to the arbitration agreement, rather than the law of the seat of the arbitration (as the Court of Appeal had held). But where the parties have made no choice of law to govern the arbitration agreement, either specifically or by choosing the governing law of the contract, the closest connection test will, in general, lead to the arbitration agreement being governed by the law of the seat of arbitration.

The potential for issues regarding what the applicable law of an arbitration clause is arise most frequently where the law governing the main contract and the place of the seat do not “match”. To remove the room for debate, parties, where the seat of arbitration is in England and the law of the contract is not English, therefore frequently consider using an express choice of law to govern the arbitration clause. Often, this is in favour of the law governing the main contract (the benefits of consistency with that law being something touched upon by the Supreme Court in its judgment). That approach should not change. The Supreme Court’s clarification of this area is welcome but is a general interpretative approach. Therefore, in such cases, an express designation still carries the value of some increased certainty (it will, of course, always be necessary to ensure the clause is properly drafted and works under the chosen law).

Where can you read more? See Enka Insaat Ve Sanayi AS (Respondent) v OOO Insurance Company Chubb (Appellant) [2020] UKSC 38 , and, for our ArbitrationLinks coverage see here .

What stays and what goes in assignment and novation?

The High Court held that an assignment by a contractor to an employer of “ the subcontract ” was an assignment of both (a) accrued rights, and (b) future rights under the subcontract. This meant that when the employer claimed damages in the sum of £133 million from the contractor, the contractor was left without a contractual right to seek a direct remedy from the subcontractor (in principle, it would be able to claim contribution from the subcontractor under the Civil Liability (Contribution) Act 1978, but this would have to be considered, alongside the effect of any relevant limitation or exclusion provisions, at full trial). The Court also held that the assignment did not amount to a novation, so that the contractor’s obligations under the subcontract had not been transferred to the employer.

It’s imperative to think – in advance and before agreeing to do so – what the possible effects of a transfer of rights might be, so that you are not left without a clear remedy, should that be needed. The decision also contains a handy summary of some of the key aspects of assignment and novation:

Assignment:

Subject to any express restrictions, a party to a contract can assign the benefit of a contract without the consent of the other party to the contract.
The burden of a contract (the obligations under it) cannot be assigned but the principle of conditional benefit can apply so as to impose on the contractual assignee a positive obligation where such obligation is inextricably linked to the benefit assigned.
In the absence of any clear contrary intention, reference to assignment of the contract by the parties is understood to mean assignment of the benefit of both accrued and future rights.
It is possible to assign future rights only, but clear words are needed for that.
Novation occurs when the original contract between A and B is extinguished and replaced by the creation of a new contract between A and C.
Novation requires the consent of all parties to the original and new contract. Consent can be given in the original contract, but clear words are needed.
The terms of the new contract must be sufficiently certain to be enforceable.
In every case the court must construe the contractual arrangements to give effect to the expressed intentions of the parties, using the established rules of construction.

Where can you read more? See Energy Works (Hull) Limited v MW High Tech Projects UK Limited and another [2020] EWHC 2537 (TCC) .

Notices: the devil in the detail

A share purchase agreement provided that the sellers would pay the buyer an amount equal to any tax liability which arose in certain circumstances, provided that, when making a claim, the buyer provided written notice stating “ in reasonable detail ” the matter which gave rise to the claim, the nature of such claim and (so far as reasonably practical) the amount claimed. The buyer gave notice of a claim to the sellers, referring to an investigation begun by the relevant tax authorities and gave a chronology of key milestones. Was this enough?

The High Court noted that the “reasonable detail” requirement amounted to an obligation to provide sufficient information so that the sellers, acting reasonably, knew what matter gave rise to the claim as well as the nature of the claim and, if reasonably practical, the amount. On the facts, the notice was insufficient. It contained no indication of the relevant facts, events or circumstances giving rise to the claim. Reference to the tax investigation was insufficient, and did not import all the tax authority’s comments and allegations, even if they were known to the sellers’ representatives. There had to be some indication of how the claim arose out of the facts identified.

Requirements to provide details usually mean that more, rather than less, should be included. It might help to consider what the purpose of the notification is and what it is that the recipient will need to know in order to respond or take a matter forward.

Where can you read more? See Dodika Ltd & Ors v United Luck Group Holdings [2020] EWHC 2101 (Comm) .

Waiver by election: understanding the boundaries

Rights can sometimes be lost by waiver by election: where a party has alternative, inconsistent rights, has knowledge of the facts which give rise to them and acts in a way which is only consistent with its having chosen to rely on one of them, it will be taken to have waived the other right ( Kammins Ballrooms Co Ltd v Zenith Investments (Torquay) Ltd [1971] AC 850 ). This explains why a party who communicates unequivocally an intention to continue with performance thereby loses the right to terminate a contract (instead, it is taken to have affirmed the contract).

A recent decision of the Privy Council is an important, and topical, illustration of the boundaries of the concept of waiver by election and highlights that it isn’t always applicable.

The parties entered into a fuel supply agreement against the backdrop of a potential closure of a refinery which supplied petroleum to the seller. The seller had a specific contractual right in a “Performance Relief” clause (effectively, a force majeure clause) to withhold, reduce or suspend deliveries to the extent it thought fit where necessitated by, amongst other things, the closure of the refinery.

When the refinery gave notice to the seller that it was closing, the seller notified the buyer but carried on supplying fuel, purchased and shipped from elsewhere while negotiations took place between the parties (as the seller sought a price increase to offset its higher costs). When these negotiations broke down, the seller sought to rely on the clause. The buyer argued that the seller’s rights had been “exhausted” after the seller had continued making deliveries. The Board of the Privy Council disagreed: waiver by election did not apply here. The seller’s right to claim performance relief did not present the seller with a binary, all-or-nothing choice between, on the one hand, putting an end to all the parties’ obligations or, on the other hand, treating all those obligations as still binding. Instead, it had a range of options: at one end of the scale, the seller might merely delay a delivery of fuel; at the other extreme, the seller might decide to cease all further deliveries under the contract, as eventually happened.

In situations where a party is faced with deciding whether to exercise a contractual right or not, whether taking one course of action will constitute a “waiver” of its other right(s) will ultimately turn on whether the rights are truly inconsistent with each other. Parties who want to make it clear that any action they are taking is to be without prejudice to their other rights should say so expressly, in writing. It should also be kept in mind that in these types of situations, estoppel can be relevant – for example, if the seller had unequivocally represented it would not withhold deliveries under the supply agreement despite the closure of the refinery, it might have lost its right to performance relief by waiver by estoppel. There was no argument, however, that this was so in this case.

Where can you read more? See Delta Petroleum v BVI Electricity Corporation [2020] UKPC 23 .

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Assignment is a legal term whereby an individual, the “assignor,” transfers rights, property, or other benefits to another known as the “ assignee .” This concept is used in both contract and property law. The term can refer to either the act of transfer or the rights /property/benefits being transferred.

Contract Law

Under contract law, assignment of a contract is both: (1) an assignment of rights; and (2) a delegation of duties , in the absence of evidence otherwise. For example, if A contracts with B to teach B guitar for $50, A can assign this contract to C. That is, this assignment is both: (1) an assignment of A’s rights under the contract to the $50; and (2) a delegation of A’s duty to teach guitar to C. In this example, A is both the “assignor” and the “delegee” who d elegates the duties to another (C), C is known as the “ obligor ” who must perform the obligations to the assignee , and B is the “ assignee ” who is owed duties and is liable to the “ obligor ”.

(1) Assignment of Rights/Duties Under Contract Law

There are a few notable rules regarding assignments under contract law. First, if an individual has not yet secured the contract to perform duties to another, he/she cannot assign his/her future right to an assignee . That is, if A has not yet contracted with B to teach B guitar, A cannot assign his/her rights to C. Second, rights cannot be assigned when they materially change the obligor ’s duty and rights. Third, the obligor can sue the assignee directly if the assignee does not pay him/her. Following the previous example, this means that C ( obligor ) can sue B ( assignee ) if C teaches guitar to B, but B does not pay C $50 in return.

(2) Delegation of Duties

If the promised performance requires a rare genius or skill, then the delegee cannot delegate it to the obligor. It can only be delegated if the promised performance is more commonplace. Further, an obligee can sue if the assignee does not perform. However, the delegee is secondarily liable unless there has been an express release of the delegee. That is, if B does want C to teach guitar but C refuses to, then B can sue C. If C still refuses to perform, then B can compel A to fulfill the duties under secondary liability.

Lastly, a related concept is novation , which is when a new obligor substitutes and releases an old obligor. If novation occurs, then the original obligor’s duties are wiped out. However, novation requires an original obligee’s consent .

Property Law

Under property law, assignment typically arises in landlord-tenant situations. For example, A might be renting from landlord B but wants to another party (C) to take over the property. In this scenario, A might be able to choose between assigning and subleasing the property to C. If assigning , A would be giving C the entire balance of the term, with no reversion to anyone whereas if subleasing , A would be giving C for a limited period of the remaining term. Significantly, under assignment C would have privity of estate with the landlord while under a sublease, C would not.

[Last updated in May of 2020 by the Wex Definitions Team ]

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Contracting under English law - the key principles

Form of contract under english law.

It is advisable to have a written contract to ensure clarity, however there is no legal requirement for a commercial contract to be in writing – it is still enforceable if it isn’t written down, although of course much harder to evidence what has been agreed and there is a greater chance that terms you do not want will be implied into the contract. A contract is only properly formed when there is an offer, acceptance of that offer, intention to create legal relations and consideration between the parties.

General requirements for English law contracts

In most contracts, parties are free to contract on the terms that they agree. It is always advisable to have a clear operative part to your contract, setting out clear performance and payment obligations, limitations and exclusions, detailing how risk is apportioned between the parties and the limits of liability of one party to another party as well as termination rights. Certain “boilerplate” clauses are important (e.g. non-assignment of rights and which law and jurisdiction the agreement will be subject to) so these clauses should not be ignored.

Key provisions required for certain English law contracts

There are some important exceptions to the rights of parties to freely choose the content and form of their contracts. These include, but are not limited to:

Contracts with certain agents:

The Commercial Agents (Council Directive) Regulations 1993 impose specific requirements on certain types of agency contracts which include the requirement to have certain specific topics covered in your contract.

Contracts with consumers:

There is a raft of rules governing dealings with consumers. These include the Consumer Rights Act 2015 (CRA) and the Consumer Contracts (Information, Cancellation and Additional Charges) Regulations 2013. Both acts prescribe certain specific provisions that cannot be derogated from in your contracts with consumers as well as listing specific and general practices that are prohibited.

Implied terms in contracts:

The UK courts can imply certain terms into contracts, certain types of contracts have terms implied into them (e.g. sale of goods contracts and agency contracts) as a matter of law and certain types of relationship (e.g. lawyer and client) create specific implied obligations.

Provisions applicable to all contracts:

General rules under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999, the Late Payments of Commercial Debts (Interest) Act 1998, Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 (UCTA), and General Data Protection Regulations will prescribe certain specific or general requirements and/or prohibitions into all contracts.

Certain specific specialist areas in regulated sectors (e.g. chemicals or construction) will have specific requirements and should be checked by relevant specialist advisers.

Changing or ending English law contracts

A contract can be varied, amended or updated, if both parties recognise the need for this. Often a variation clause in the contract is used stating that the contract can be amended if both parties agree to it in writing.

Commercial contracts should be drafted with express clauses relating to termination.

If you are considering terminating an English law contract, it’s important to check the whole contract to understand the correct termination procedure and requirements for successfully giving notice (and having that termination notice accepted by the other party). If the terminating party fails to give valid notice, then it’s possible that the party who wanted to terminate could continue to be contractually bound and that party may have committed a ‘repudiatory breach’ of the contract.

Time periods for English law contracts

A commercial contract can be expressed to be for a fixed term (with automatic termination at the end of this period), an initial fixed term (requiring notice of termination at some point after expiry of that term), on subscription (a fixed period which automatically renews for consecutive fixed periods unless terminated) or of no fixed term (which can be terminated at any time by giving notice).

A ‘cooling off period’ (a time during which a person can withdraw from a binding contract without any serious penalties) does not apply automatically in business-to-business commercial contracts. As a result, any rights to cancel or return goods should be clearly set out in the contract. In certain types of business-to-consumer contracts, however, a “cooling off period” is required, allowing the consumer the right to return goods and/or cancel contracts.

For more information about how Burges Salmon can help, please contact Helen Scott-Lawler.

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Practical Law

If a contract is silent on assignment does the law imply that the assignment can only take place with consent?

Practical law resource id a-014-2191 (approx. 3 pages).

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14.1: Assignment of Contract Rights

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Understand what an assignment is and how it is made.
Recognize the effect of the assignment.
Know when assignments are not allowed.
Understand the concept of assignor’s warranties.

The Concept of a Contract Assignment

Contracts create rights and duties. By an assignment , an obligee (one who has the right to receive a contract benefit) transfers a right to receive a contract benefit owed by the obligor (the one who has a duty to perform) to a third person ( assignee ); the obligee then becomes an assignor (one who makes an assignment).

The Restatement (Second) of Contracts defines an assignment of a right as “a manifestation of the assignor’s intention to transfer it by virtue of which the assignor’s right to performance by the obligor is extinguished in whole or in part and the assignee acquires the right to such performance.”Restatement (Second) of Contracts, Section 317(1). The one who makes the assignment is both an obligee and a transferor. The assignee acquires the right to receive the contractual obligations of the promisor, who is referred to as the obligor (see Figure 14.1 "Assignment of Rights" ). The assignor may assign any right unless (1) doing so would materially change the obligation of the obligor, materially burden him, increase his risk, or otherwise diminish the value to him of the original contract; (2) statute or public policy forbids the assignment; or (3) the contract itself precludes assignment. The common law of contracts and Articles 2 and 9 of the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) govern assignments. Assignments are an important part of business financing, such as factoring. A factor is one who purchases the right to receive income from another.

Figure 14.1 Assignment of Rights

Method of Assignment

Manifesting assent.

Acceptance and Revocation

Effect of Assignment

General rule.

An assignment of rights effectively makes the assignee stand in the shoes of the assignor. He gains all the rights against the obligor that the assignor had, but no more. An obligor who could avoid the assignor’s attempt to enforce the rights could avoid a similar attempt by the assignee. Likewise, under UCC Section 9-318(1), the assignee of an account is subject to all terms of the contract between the debtor and the creditor-assignor. Suppose Dealer sells a car to Buyer on a contract where Buyer is to pay $300 per month and the car is warranted for 50,000 miles. If the car goes on the fritz before then and Dealer won’t fix it, Buyer could fix it for, say, $250 and deduct that $250 from the amount owed Dealer on the next installment (called a setoff). Now, if Dealer assigns the contract to Assignee, Assignee stands in Dealer’s shoes, and Buyer could likewise deduct the $250 from payment to Assignee.

The “shoe rule” does not apply to two types of assignments. First, it is inapplicable to the sale of a negotiable instrument to a holder in due course. Second, the rule may be waived: under the UCC and at common law, the obligor may agree in the original contract not to raise defenses against the assignee that could have been raised against the assignor.Uniform Commercial Code, Section 9-206. While a waiver of defenses makes the assignment more marketable from the assignee’s point of view, it is a situation fraught with peril to an obligor, who may sign a contract without understanding the full import of the waiver. Under the waiver rule, for example, a farmer who buys a tractor on credit and discovers later that it does not work would still be required to pay a credit company that purchased the contract; his defense that the merchandise was shoddy would be unavailing (he would, as used to be said, be “having to pay on a dead horse”).

For that reason, there are various rules that limit both the holder in due course and the waiver rule. Certain defenses, the so-called real defenses (infancy, duress, and fraud in the execution, among others), may always be asserted. Also, the waiver clause in the contract must have been presented in good faith, and if the assignee has actual notice of a defense that the buyer or lessee could raise, then the waiver is ineffective. Moreover, in consumer transactions, the UCC’s rule is subject to state laws that protect consumers (people buying things used primarily for personal, family, or household purposes), and many states, by statute or court decision, have made waivers of defenses ineffective in such consumer transactions . Federal Trade Commission regulations also affect the ability of many sellers to pass on rights to assignees free of defenses that buyers could raise against them. Because of these various limitations on the holder in due course and on waivers, the “shoe rule” will not govern in consumer transactions and, if there are real defenses or the assignee does not act in good faith, in business transactions as well.

When Assignments Are Not Allowed

The general rule—as previously noted—is that most contract rights are assignable. But there are exceptions. Five of them are noted here.

Material Change in Duties of the Obligor

Assignment of Personal Rights

When it matters to the obligor who receives the benefit of his duty to perform under the contract, then the receipt of the benefit is a personal right that cannot be assigned. For example, a student seeking to earn pocket money during the school year signs up to do research work for a professor she admires and with whom she is friendly. The professor assigns the contract to one of his colleagues with whom the student does not get along. The assignment is ineffective because it matters to the student (the obligor) who the person of the assignee is. An insurance company provides auto insurance covering Mohammed Kareem, a sixty-five-year-old man who drives very carefully. Kareem cannot assign the contract to his seventeen-year-old grandson because it matters to the insurance company who the person of its insured is. Tenants usually cannot assign (sublet) their tenancies without the landlord’s permission because it matters to the landlord who the person of their tenant is. Section 14.4.1 "Nonassignable Rights" , Nassau Hotel Co. v. Barnett & Barse Corp. , is an example of the nonassignability of a personal right.

Assignment Forbidden by Statute or Public Policy

Contracts That Prohibit Assignment

Assignability of contract rights is useful, and prohibitions against it are not generally favored. Many contracts contain general language that prohibits assignment of rights or of “the contract.” Both the Restatement and UCC Section 2-210(3) declare that in the absence of any contrary circumstances, a provision in the agreement that prohibits assigning “the contract” bars “only the delegation to the assignee of the assignor’s performance.”Restatement (Second) of Contracts, Section 322. In other words, unless the contract specifically prohibits assignment of any of its terms, a party is free to assign anything except his or her own duties.

Future Contracts

Partial Assignments

Successive Assignments

Some states follow the different English rule: the first assignee to give notice to the obligor has priority, regardless of the order in which the assignments were made. Furthermore, if the assignment falls within the filing requirements of UCC Article 9 (see Chapter 22 "Secured Transactions and Suretyship" ), the first assignee to file will prevail.

Figure 14.2 Successive Assignments

Assignor’s Warranties

An assignor has legal responsibilities in making assignments. He cannot blithely assign the same interests pell-mell and escape liability. Unless the contract explicitly states to the contrary, a person who assigns a right for value makes certain assignor’s warranties to the assignee: that he will not upset the assignment, that he has the right to make it, and that there are no defenses that will defeat it. However, the assignor does not guarantee payment; assignment does not by itself amount to a warranty that the obligor is solvent or will perform as agreed in the original contract. Mrs. Robinson owes Ben fifty dollars. Ben assigns this sum to his friend. Before the friend collects, Ben releases Mrs. Robinson from her obligation. The friend may sue Ben for the fifty dollars. Or again, if Ben represents to his friend that Mrs. Robinson owes him (Ben) fifty dollars and assigns his friend that amount, but in fact Mrs. Robinson does not owe Ben that much, then Ben has breached his assignor’s warranty. The assignor’s warranties may be express or implied.

KEY TAKEAWAY

If Able makes a valid assignment to Baker of his contract to receive monthly rental payments from Tenant, how is Baker’s right different from what Able’s was?
Able made a valid assignment to Baker of his contract to receive monthly purchase payments from Carr, who bought an automobile from Able. The car had a 180-day warranty, but the car malfunctioned within that time. Able had quit the auto business entirely. May Carr withhold payments from Baker to offset the cost of needed repairs?
Assume in the case in Exercise 2 that Baker knew Able was selling defective cars just before his (Able’s) withdrawal from the auto business. How, if at all, does that change Baker’s rights?
Why are leases generally not assignable? Why are insurance contracts not assignable?

Arbitration agreements

Global | Publication | October 2014

Introduction

The “group of companies” doctrine, universal succession, rights of third parties in the united kingdom, rights of third parties in hong kong, shareholder disputes.

There are instances where parties have been bound by arbitration agreements to which they were not originally party. We give an overview of some of the more common scenarios and examples including the ‘group of companies’ doctrine, assignment, universal succession and rights of third parties statutory provisions.

The usual rule is that only parties who have executed an arbitration agreement are bound to resolve their disputes by way of arbitration. Arbitration is a consensual process and the arbitration agreement acts to waive a party’s right to invoke the jurisdiction of otherwise competent courts in favour of arbitration.

But there are cases where parties have been allowed recourse to or have been bound by arbitration agreements to which they were not originally party. Even in the context of an arbitration agreement, it is not always the case that the concepts of separate legal personality of corporate entities and privity of contract are sacrosanct.

As a general rule, the English courts have shown great reluctance to lift the corporate veil (i.e. to treat two related separate corporate entities as one legal entity) unless exceptional circumstances exist.

One rare example was the 1978 decision in Roussel-Uclaf v GD Searle & Co Limited and GD Searle & Co in which a stay of court proceedings in favour of arbitration was granted under section 1 of the Arbitration Act concerning a subsidiary company whose parent was party to an arbitration agreement. In 2008 this decision was overturned in City of London v Sancheti by the English Court of Appeal, which held that Roussel-Uclaf was wrongly decided.

In some other jurisdictions the corporate veil has been lifted in the arbitration context in what has become known as the ‘group of companies’ doctrine following the ICC decision in Dow Chemical v Isover Saint Gobain , which was subsequently approved by the Paris Court of Appeal. A feature of the claim in that case was that the third party parent company effectively and individually participated in the conclusion, performance and termination of the relevant contract containing the arbitration agreement.

The doctrine has been applied in cases involving arbitrations in Singapore, Egypt, Brazil and Switzerland.

The group of companies doctrine is seen to have no place in English law. This was confirmed in Peterson Farms Inc v C&M Farming Ltd, in which the English High Court was asked to consider an application to set aside an ICC tribunal’s award. The tribunal had decided it did have jurisdiction, by application of the group of companies doctrine. Langley J in his judgment held: ‘English law treats the issue as one subject to the chosen proper law of the Agreement and that excludes the doctrine which forms no part of English law.’;

The benefit of contracts may be assigned for various reasons as security for loans, as part of a corporate restructuring or acquisition or in settlement of a claim. A common question that arises is whether the assignee thereby becomes bound by an arbitration clause contained in the contract and what rights are assigned to them as they were not an original contracting party.

The Court of Appeal case of Shayler v Woolf established that arbitration agreements and agreements containing arbitration agreements were capable of assignment. Section 82(2) of the English Arbitration Act 1996 provides that references to a party to an arbitration agreement include any persons ‘claiming under or through a party to the agreement’, which allows an assignee to pursue a claim under an assigned arbitration agreement.

In some civil law jurisdictions, it is common for mergers and reorganisations to take place by means of universal succession which results in the full assignment of all assets, rights and liabilities from one entity to another entity by operation of law. This may be carried out without requiring the participation of the transferor entity’s creditors or counterparties.

Whilst universal succession cannot occur under English law, English law does recognise the effect of merger by universal succession with respect to foreign companies domiciled in jurisdictions that apply the concept. In Eurosteel Ltd v Stinnes AG , the High Court considered what the effect of a merger of a German party by universal succession would be on arbitration proceedings that were current at the time. It was upheld that as a matter of English law, all matters relating to the rights and obligations of a new merged company were governed by the law of the country of domicile and, if the law of the domicile clothed the new company with the rights and liabilities of the old company, that part of the status of the new company should be recognised by the English court.

The Contract (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 abolished the long-standing doctrine of privity of contract (that only a party to a contract can enforce its terms). Under the Act, a third party can enforce a term of the contract if the contract provides that the third party can do so (section 1(a)), or if the term provides a benefit to the third party (section 1(b)).

Section 8 of the Act makes limited provision for arbitration agreements to have a binding effect upon third party claims. A third party is required to bring a claim by way of arbitration to enforce the obligations owed to it by a party to the contract. However, where the third party is a defendant it is entitled to elect whether to submit to the jurisdiction of an arbitration tribunal or that of the court. The application of the Act to third parties in the context of contracts containing arbitration provisions was confirmed in Nisshin Shipping Co Ltd v Cleaves & Co Ltd and others.

Ironically, it is now quite common for commercial contracts in the UK to exclude the applicability of the Act. Several other common law jurisdictions, including Australia, New Zealand and Singapore, have introduced similar legislation restricting the ambit of the doctrine of privity of contract.

In Hong Kong, the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Bill was gazetted on February 28, 2014 and will be introduced into the Legislative Council this year. It is proposed that if a third party and the promisor have a dispute regarding the enforcement of a term in a contract, the third party is to be treated as a party to the arbitration agreement for the purposes of the Arbitration Ordinance (Cap 609), unless the third party is not intended to be so treated according to the contract (section 12 of the Bill).

In Fulham Football Club (1987) Ltd v Richards the English Court of Appeal confirmed that the unfair prejudice remedy for shareholders is not an unalienable statutory right and that shareholders and companies themselves can agree to refer disputes which might otherwise support unfair prejudice petitions to arbitration provided that third parties are not bound by the award and that the relief sought is of a type that an arbitrator can grant. The Court of Appeal upheld the lower court’s decision that the unfair prejudice proceeding should be stayed in favour of arbitration.

An interesting feature of the case was that the arbitration agreement in question was not contained in a shareholder agreement to which the shareholder was a party but was included in the Football Association rules which applied to the club by virtue of its membership of the league.

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Litigation and disputes
Alternative dispute resolution (ADR)
International arbitration

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Assignment of Contract Rights

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Understand what an assignment is and how it is made.
Recognize the effect of the assignment.
Know when assignments are not allowed.
Understand the concept of assignor’s warranties.
The Concept of a Contract Assignment
Method of Assignment
Effect of Assignment
When Assignments Are Not Allowed
Partial Assignments
Successive Assignments
Assignor’s Warranties
Learning Objectives LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Functions of the Law
Law and Politics KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Legal Positivism: Law as Sovereign Command
Natural Law The Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of America
Other Schools of Legal Thought KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Law: The Moral Minimums in a Democratic Society
The Common Law: Property, Torts, and Contracts
State Courts and the Domain of State Law
Civil versus Criminal Cases
Substance versus Procedure KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Constitutions
Statutes and Treaties in Congress
Delegating Legislative Powers: Rules by Administrative Agencies
State Statutes and Agencies: Other Codified Law
Judicial Decisions: The Common Law
The Constitution as Preemptive Force in US Law
Statutes and Cases
Treaties as Statutes: The “Last in Time” Rule
Causes of Action, Precedent, and KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Comparing Common-Law Systems with Other Legal Systems
Civil-Law Systems KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
A Sample Case Note to Students CASE QUESTIONS
Summary and Exercises Summary EXERCISES SELF-TEST QUESTIONS SELF-TEST ANSWERS
How Do Law and Ethics Differ?
Why Should an Individual or a Business Entity Be Ethical? KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Utilitarianism
Rules and Duty: Deontology
Social Justice Theory and Social Contract Theory
Aristotle and Virtue Theory
Josephson’s Core Values Analysis and Decision Process KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Josephson’s Core Values Model The Core Values KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Legal Organization of the Corporation
Maximizing Profits: Milton Friedman “The Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits”
Stakeholder Theory
Ethical Leadership Is Top-Down
Accountability Is Often Weak
Killing the Messenger
Ethics Codes
Ethics Hotlines and Federal Sentencing Guidelines
Managing by the Numbers Managing by Numbers: The Sears Auto Center Story
Conscious Capitalism
Learning Objectives LEARNING OBJECTIVES Robinson v. Audi
Limited Jurisdiction Courts
General Jurisdiction Courts
Appellate Courts
District Courts
Courts of Appeal
United States Supreme Court KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
The Federal-State Balance: Federalism
Exclusive Jurisdiction in Federal Courts
Concurrent Jurisdiction Summary of Rules on Subject Matter Jurisdiction Robinson v. Audi
Legal Procedure, Including Due Process and Personal Jurisdiction
Complaint and Summons
Jurisdiction and Venue
Service of Process and Personal Jurisdiction Summary of Rules on Personal Jurisdiction
Choice of Law and Choice of Forum Clauses KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Initial Pleadings, and Motions to Dismiss
Discovery KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Pretrial Conference
Posttrial Motions KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Judgment or Order
Judgment and Order KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Case or Controversy: Standing to Sue
Class Actions KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Costs KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Arbitration
Mediation KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Summary CASE QUESTIONS
Ferlito v. Johnson & Johnson CASE QUESTIONS
The Constitution as Reflecting American Values
General Structure of the Constitution
Separation of Powers and Judicial Review KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Early Commerce Clause Cases
From the New Deal to the New Frontier and the Great Society:1930s–1970
The Substantial Effects Doctrine: World War II to the 1990s KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Dormant Commerce Clause LEARNING OBJECTIVES Dealing with Unwelcome Waste KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Preemption: The Supremacy Clause LEARNING OBJECTIVES The Supremacy Clause KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
First Amendment
Fourth Amendment
Fifth Amendment
Fourteenth Amendment: Due Process and Equal Protection Guarantees KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Griswold v. Connecticut CASE QUESTIONS
Wickard v. Filburn
Kassel v. Consolidated Freightways Corp. CASE QUESTIONS
Hunt v. Washington Apple Advertising Commission CASE QUESTIONS
Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission CASE QUESTIONS
Why Have Administrative Agencies?
Why Regulate the Economy at All? Ideal Conditions for a Free Market
History of Federal Agencies
Classification of Agencies
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The Constitution and Agencies KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
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Judicial Review of Agency Actions KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Trial-Type Hearings
Rulemaking KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
The Paperwork Burden
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Exhaustion of Administrative Remedies
Strategies for Obtaining Judicial Review
Suing the Government KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Marshall v. Barlow’s, Inc. CASE QUESTIONS
American Textile Manufacturers Institute v. Donovan CASE QUESTIONS
The Nature of Criminal Law KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Assault and Battery
Theft: Larceny, Robbery, Embezzlement, False Pretenses
Receiving Stolen Property
Mail and Wire Fraud
Violations of the Food and Drug Act
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Impossibility
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Mistake of Fact and Mistake of Law
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Procedure LEARNING OBJECTIVES KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
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False Pretenses CASE QUESTIONS
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Definition of Tort
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Damages KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
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Assumption of Risk
Vicarious Liability KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Historical Basis of Strict Liability: Animals and Ultrahazardous Activities
Strict Liability for Products KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Intentional Torts: False Imprisonment CASE QUESTIONS
Negligence: Duty of Due Care CASE QUESTIONS
Negligence: Proximate Cause CASE QUESTIONS
Klein v. Pyrodyne Corporation CASE QUESTIONS
The Role of Contracts in Modern Society
The Definition of Contract
Overview of the Contracts Chapter KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
History of the UCC
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The Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
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Terminology: Suffixes Expressing Relationships KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Explicitness: Implied Contract CASE QUESTIONS
Mutuality of Contract: Unilateral Contract CASE QUESTIONS
Unilateral Contract and At-Will Employment CASE QUESTIONS
The Significance of Agreement
The Objective Test KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
The Definition of Offer
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Invitations to Bid
Communication
Definiteness
The UCC Approach
Revocability
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Irrevocability by Law
Rejection by the Offeree
Counteroffer
Acceptance with Counteroffer
The UCC and Counteroffers
Lapse of Time
Death or Insanity of the Offeror
Destruction of Subject Matter Essential to the Offer
Postoffer Illegality KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
General Definition of Acceptance
When Is Acceptance Effective?
Instantaneous Communication
Stipulations as to Acceptance
The “Mailbox Rule”
Acceptance “Outruns” Rejection
Electronic Communications
General Rule: Silence Is Not Acceptance
Exceptions KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Objective Intention CASE QUESTIONS
Advertisements as Offers CASE QUESTIONS
Silence as Acceptance CASE QUESTIONS
Summary and Exercises Summary EXERCISES SELF-TEST QUESTIONS SELF-TEST ANSWERS SELF-TEST ANSWERS
Physical Duress
Duress by Threat
Undue Influence KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
General Description
Misstatement of Fact
Concealment
Nondisclosure
Statement Made False by Subsequent Events
Statements of Opinion
Misstatement of Law
Assertions of Intention
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Negligent Misrepresentation
Materiality
Justifiable Reliance
Innocent Misrepresentation
Remedies KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
Unilateral Mistake
Mutual Mistake
Material Effect on the Agreed-to Exchange of Performance
Party Seeking Relief Does Not Bear the Risk of the Mistake KEY TAKEAWAY EXERCISES
The General Rule

IRS PLR: Tax Treatment of Indexed Annuity Contracts Under Structured Settlement Transactions (IRC §130)

By Bloomberg Tax Automation

The IRS has published a private letter ruling on Section 130 regarding certain personal injury liability assignments. The case involved the federal income tax treatment of an indexed annuity contract issued under a structured settlement transaction involving a carrier and assignment company. The IRS ruled that the periodic payments to be received under the contract are fixed and determinable as to the amount and time of payment within the meaning of § 130(c)(2)(A) and that the contract will not fail to be a “qualified funding asset” within the meaning of § 130(d) solely because of the potential increase in the ...

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COMMENTS

Assignment and novation
Like assignment, novation transfers the benefits under a contract but unlike assignment, novation transfers the burden under a contract as well. In a novation the original contract is extinguished and is replaced by a new one in which a third party takes up rights and obligations which duplicate those of one of the original parties to the ...
Assignment
Assignment. The transfer of a right from one party to another. For example, a party to a contract (the assignor) may, as a general rule and subject to the express terms of a contract, assign its rights under the contract to a third party (the assignee) without the consent of the party against whom those rights are held. Obligations cannot be ...
Assignment of Contract: What Is It? How It Works
An assignment of contract is a legal term that describes the process when a contract assignee wishes to transfer their contractual obligations to another. ... Scott graduated from Cardozo Law School and also has an English degree from Penn. His practice focuses on business law and contracts, with an emphasis on commercial transactions and ...
Assignments: The Basic Law
Assignments: The Basic Law. The assignment of a right or obligation is a common contractual event under the law and the right to assign (or prohibition against assignments) is found in the majority of agreements, leases and business structural documents created in the United States. As with many terms commonly used, people are familiar with the ...
Assignment of Contract Rights
Restatement (Second) of Contracts, Section 317 (1). The one who makes the assignment is both an obligee and a transferor. The assignee acquires the right to receive the contractual obligations of the promisor, who is referred to as the obligor (see Figure 14.1 "Assignment of Rights"). The assignor may assign any right unless (1) doing so would ...
Assigning a contract
A Letter of assignment can be used to affect the assignment and is signed by the outgoing party and the incoming party. It contains special provisions to transfer all of the rights and benefits under the contract to the incoming party. However, in practice, the assignor will usually subcontract, or delegate, their obligations under the contract ...
The key English contract law cases of 2020
In this briefing we review this year's important contract cases and consider what commercial parties can learn from them. 1. At the time of writing, we note that the Supreme Court heard a leapfrog appeal from the decision of the High Court from 16-19 November 2020. The judgment is pending.
Contracts: assignment
by Practical Law Commercial. An outline of the ways in which contractual rights may be transferred to third parties by means of assignment, and the rule against assigning the burden, or obligations, of a contract. Free Practical Law trial. To access this resource, sign up for a free trial of Practical Law.
Assessing Assignability: Transferring Contractual ...
Parties to a commercial contract often desire to transfer their rights or obligations to a non-party. However, even though the general rule permits the unilateral assignment or delegation of contractual rights and obligations, there are certain key exceptions to the general rule. This update provides guidance on selected issues to consider when assessing the assignability of a commercial ...
What is assignment in contract law?
In business contracts, assignment refers to transferring an agreement's rights, obligations, and property to another party. For example, most commercial tenancy agreements include a clause allowing the tenant to assign their lease to a third party, and that third party becomes the new tenant. Unfortunately, assigning a contract does not provide ...
PDF Basic Principles of English Contract Law
A contract is an agreement giving rise to obligations which are enforced or recognised by law. In common law, there are 3 basic essentials to the creation of a contract: (i) agreement; (ii) contractual intention; and (iii) consideration. The first requisite of a contract is that the parties should have reached agreement.
What Is an Assignment of Contract?
An assignment of contract occurs when one party to an existing contract (the "assignor") hands off the contract's obligations and benefits to another party (the "assignee"). Ideally, the assignor wants the assignee to step into his shoes and assume all of his contractual obligations and rights. In order to do that, the other party to the ...
assign
Assign is the act of transferring rights, property, or other benefits to another party (the assignee) from the party who holds such benefits under contract (the assignor). This concept is used in both contract and property law. Contract Law Under contract law, when one party assigns a contract, the assignment represents both: (1) an assignment of rights; and (2) a delegation of duties.
Understanding law assignment
However, this conception does not accurately reflect the law of assignment as it has developed in the caselaw in England and Wales. This book sets out a different model of the workings of assignments as a matter of English law, one that provides an analytical, yet historically sensitive, framework which allows us to better understand how, and ...
assignment
assignment. Assignment is a legal term whereby an individual, the "assignor," transfers rights, property, or other benefits to another known as the " assignee .". This concept is used in both contract and property law. The term can refer to either the act of transfer or the rights /property/benefits being transferred.
Contracting under English law
Changing or ending English law contracts. A contract can be varied, amended or updated, if both parties recognise the need for this. Often a variation clause in the contract is used stating that the contract can be amended if both parties agree to it in writing. Commercial contracts should be drafted with express clauses relating to termination.
Assignment (law)
Assignment (law) Assignment [1] is a legal term used in the context of the laws of contract and of property. In both instances, assignment is the process whereby a person, the assignor, transfers rights or benefits to another, the assignee. [2] An assignment may not transfer a duty, burden or detriment without the express agreement of the assignee.
Assignment of Contract
ASSIGNMENT OF CONTRACT The modem written assignment was developed in this way. It takes the place of the ancient power of attorney, and has the same effect. It follows that the assignment of a contract does not pass legal title, but empowers the assignee to sue in his assignor's name.-This is a legal doctrine. No equitable principle- is involved,
Assignment of contract
Section 2 (h) of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 defines a contract as "an agreement enforceable by law". It is characterised by an offer and an acceptance along with consideration and is backed by the power of law. An agreement is a promise by one party to another. A proposal once accepted becomes a promise.
If a contract is silent on assignment does the law imply that the
Where a contract is silent on assignment and transferability, i.e. there is no assignment and transfer provision, am I right that in my understanding that, under English law, the parties are deemed to have an unfettered right to assign and transfer their rights and obligations under the contract to a third party without having the need to obtain the other party's consent?
14.1: Assignment of Contract Rights
The one who makes the assignment is both an obligee and a transferor. The assignee acquires the right to receive the contractual obligations of the promisor, who is referred to as the obligor (see Figure 14.1 "Assignment of Rights" ). The assignor may assign any right unless (1) doing so would materially change the obligation of the obligor ...
Arbitration agreements
Langley J in his judgment held: 'English law treats the issue as one subject to the chosen proper law of the Agreement and that excludes the doctrine which forms no part of English law.'; Assignment. The benefit of contracts may be assigned for various reasons as security for loans, as part of a corporate restructuring or acquisition or in ...
Assignment of Contract Rights
LEARNING OBJECTIVES. Understand what an assignment is and how it is made. Recognize the effect of the assignment. Know when assignments are not allowed. Understand the concept of assignor's warranties. The Concept of a Contract Assignment. Method of Assignment. Effect of Assignment.
IRS PLR: Tax Treatment of Indexed Annuity Contracts Under Structured
The IRS has published a private letter ruling on Section 130 regarding certain personal injury liability assignments. The case involved the federal income tax treatment of an indexed annuity contract issued under a structured settlement transaction involving a carrier and assignment company.

Assignment of Contract

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Assignments: The Basic Law

14.1 Assignment of Contract Rights

The Concept of a Contract Assignment

Method of Assignment

Acceptance and Revocation

Effect of Assignment

When Assignments Are Not Allowed

Material Change in Duties of the Obligor

Assignment of Personal Rights

Assignment Forbidden by Statute or Public Policy

Contracts That Prohibit Assignment

Future Contracts

Partial Assignments

Successive Assignments

Assignor’s Warranties

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Assigning a contract

Make your Letter assigning a contract

What does ‘assigning’ mean?

Check the contract first

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How does the assignment take place?

What is the difference between assigning and novating a contract?

Related Guides

The key English contract law cases of 2020

1. At the time of writing, we note that the Supreme Court heard a leapfrog appeal from the decision of the High Court from 16-19 November 2020. The judgment is pending.

Excusing liability

What is a reasonable condition of consent (and what is not)?

How will the Courts determine the law applicable to an arbitration clause?

What stays and what goes in assignment and novation?

Notices: the devil in the detail

Waiver by election: understanding the boundaries

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Contracting under English law - the key principles

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If a contract is silent on assignment does the law imply that the assignment can only take place with consent?

14.1: Assignment of Contract Rights

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

The Concept of a Contract Assignment