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6.1: About a Brief History of Engineering

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Today, much of the world’s population lives in engineered environments. Most of us are surrounded by technological devices that dramatically affect how we live our lives. We live in houses whose structural, electrical, plumbing, and communications systems have been designed by engineers. We travel in cars, trucks, trains, and airplanes; we communicate with each other using televisions, computers, telephones, and cell phones. Engineers have played a key role in the development of all these devices.

It is not difficult to imagine life without many of these advances; in fact, some of the world’s poorest people live today without the benefits that we take for granted, such as clean water and working sanitation systems, plentiful food, and electronic conveniences. Much of the history of engineering has been directed at such problems, and we are the beneficiaries of their solutions as well as the inheritors of unforeseen new problems that engineering solutions have created.

The work of engineers has dramatically affected the nature of our society today as well as the course of civilization throughout the centuries. Engineers are often seen as purely technical individuals whose only concern is the development of new devices or structures. However, this is far from the truth. Throughout history, engineers have worked within their societies and have been constrained by their societies; the success or failure of engineering endeavors often has less to do with technical issues than with nontechnical issues including economics, social conventions, and luck.

Most modern definitions of engineering emphasize the application of knowledge of science and math to develop useful objects, products, structures, and so forth. While this is certainly true of modern engineers, engineering practice has historically extended beyond the use of science and math to include the ingenuity required to make things work. Many engineering feats of the past are even more impressive because they were achieved without a complete understanding of important scientific principles. Thus, for example, medieval cathedral builders can be considered as engineers even though their scientific understanding of forces and loads in structures was limited. Even with today's rapid advances in knowledge, much modern engineering practice involves solving problems that are not necessarily rooted in math or science.

The history of the word “engineer” gives some understanding of what engineers have been in the past. The original meaning of the word was one who constructs military engines; military engines were devices such as catapults as well as fortifications, roadways, and bridges. This meaning was expanded to mean one who invents or designs. The meaning of engineers as those who plan and execute public works was established in the early 1600s.

In this chapter, we present just a small fraction of all of the historical events related to engineering. Throughout history, society has been affected by the technological advances created by engineers, and engineers and their technology have both been dramatically affected by the societies in which they occurred. Thus, a complete history of engineering would require a complete history of society, which is clearly beyond the scope of this chapter. Also, this chapter focuses primarily on engineering within the western world, including the Roman Empire, Europe, and later North America.

Chapter Learning Objectives

After working through this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

• Give examples of how engineers have used creativity and judgment in the application of math, science, and technology to solve societal problems.
• Explain why complex engineering problems are usually solved by teams working within broader social structures.
• Explain how engineering progress provides new human capabilities, which in turn increases engineering capabilities.
• Give examples of how engineering provides society with both intended and desirable consequences as well as unintended and undesirable consequences.

The Global History of Engineering

A research history project.

Blueprint for Modernity is a research project focused on the global history of engineering. By the mid-twentieth century, tens of thousands of university-trained engineers provided the technical expertise in states and in corporations around the world, constituting a central part in the history of capitalism in the modern world. Yet the history of engineering remains understudied in a global context. This website offers resources for research and teaching on the history of global engineering ca. 1870-1940, including open-source data, opportunities for collaboration, research reports and case studies, and teaching materials.

To search or download a database of tens of thousands of engineers working globally between 1870 and 1930, with information on their schooling and work histories

Visualizations

Maps, graphs, and other types of data visualizations can facilitate our understanding of the history of engineering in its global context

The history of engineering can provide a window onto the histories of science and technology, of professions and business, of globalization, and of capitalism itself

We support an international network of scholars interested in histories of engineering around the world.  For more information and several case studies

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Technology & Engineering History Lesson Plans

IEEE REACH provides teachers and students with exemplary educational resources that explore the relationship between technology and engineering history and the complex relationships they have with society, politics, economics, and culture.

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History and Philosophy of Engineering Education

Credit hours:, learning objective:.

• develop a culture of critical reflection, intellectual curiosity, tolerance of ambiguity, scholarly engagement, and learning together
• identify and understand tools to inquire into the history and philosophy of engineering education, and develop skills for using these tools
• make use of these tools to problematize different perspectives as well as synthesize perspectives to form arguments for both oneself and others about the nature of engineering, education, and engineering education
• develop a perspective or identity as an agent of change in shaping engineering as a profession, the education of engineers, and the work of engineering education researchers
• form coherent arguments through the genre of academic writing and the use of peer feedback.

Description:

Aligned with these objectives are a set of "core ideas" or standpoints we hope participants take away:

• The definition and boundaries of "engineering" are not given or fixed but negotiated over time.
• Big questions about education - who should be educated, how should they be educated, for what reasons, and who should pay - need to be asked and answered by each generation (and often multiple times).
• Who we define as an engineer, and who we educate to be engineers is a gendered, raced, and classed process, which is deeply embedded into our very notion of what an engineer is.
• The content and philosophy of engineering is defined by people who participate in it, and by people who make decisions to not participate in it based on those definitions.
• The history of engineering as a field is extensive, and across the globe.
• Engineering education has a varied history in the US and is done differently across the globe.
• Engineering education research may feel like a new field, but it is neither new nor centered on the US. Those entering this field should know their ???roots??? as they take on roles in shaping the field.
• Writing and reading are critical to your future work (graduate study and beyond), and there are genres or ways of writing you need to develop skills in - in both reading and writing.
• what is (and should be) engineering
• what is (and should be) the purpose and process of engineering education
• who gets to be an engineer (and who should be)
• what and who shape these decisions (and what/who should shape these decisions)?
• finding meaning and clarity in situations filled with tensions and paradox
• seeing the organizational power of categories and boundary work for organizing social experience
• the idea that it is valuable to know whether an argument is a descriptive one or a normative one
• Synthesize knowledge
• Communicate knowledge
• Think critically and reflectively
• Participate actively in professional community

Topics Covered:

Prerequisites:, applied / theory:, web address:, computer requirements:, other requirements:, proed minimum requirements:, instructor(s), alice pawley.

The Historical Roots of the Field of Engineering Systems: Results from an In-Class Assignment

• First Online: 01 January 2013

Cite this chapter

• Christopher L. Magee 5 ,
• Rebecca K. Saari 5 ,
• G. Thomas Heaps-Nelson 5 ,
• Stephen M. Zoepf 5 &
• Joseph M. Sussman 5  

Part of the book series: Topics in Safety, Risk, Reliability and Quality ((TSRQ,volume 24))

1195 Accesses

Although the field of Engineering Systems (ES) is young, its intellectual roots originate far back in time. Tracing these roots is the objective of an integrative capstone assignment in the first doctoral subject for incoming ES PhD students at MIT. Teams of two or three students research the intellectual connections between a specific historical root and modern ES method. The assignment has now been offered for 5 years (2008–2012). This chapter describes the faculty and student perspectives on the assignment, including the perceived learning outcomes, and insights gained into the roots of Engineering Systems. Some overall observations include: (1) Interconnections among almost all selected topics are apparent. The historical development of each topic gives rise to overlap and complex interactions between historical roots and modern methods; (2) Students cite Herbert Simon’s work as most pivotal to the roots of Engineering Systems. Jay Forrester, John von Neumann, Norbert Weiner, Joseph Schumpeter and others are also identified as having a significant impact; (3) The faculty always learn something about the field from what the students find even when topics are repeated; and, (4) The assignment is a valuable, though imperfect, vehicle for learning about Engineering Systems and for launching budding researchers’ efforts in the field.

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The full detailed assignment is provided as an appendix to this document.

The presentations were not part of the assignment in 2008 but were from 2009–2012.

Two example submissions have been posted by the student authors [ 3 , 4 ] and are worth examination by the interested reader.

The complete survey instrument is included as an attachment.

Available at www.surveymonkey.com .

Initial survey was sent out to 2008–2011 students in January, 2012. The same survey was sent again in February, 2013 to participants in the 2012 class.

Note that typographical errors in student responses have been corrected when presented here. When they have been edited (either for anonymity or clarity), this is indicated by square brackets.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2012) Open courseware. http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/engineering-systems-division/esd-83-doctoral-seminar-in-engineering-systems-fall-2009/ . Last Accessed 10 Feb 2012

Roberts C, Magee C, Sussman J (2009) Teaching an engineering systems doctoral seminar: concepts and structure. Second international symposium on engineering systems, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 15–17 June 2009. Available at. http://esd.mit.edu/symp09/day3.html . Last Accessed 18 Feb 2012

Santen N, Wood D (2008) Linking historical roots and current methodologies of engineering systems. Massachusetts institute of technology, engineering systems division. Working paper series (ESD-WP-2008-22). http://esd.mit.edu/wps/2008/esd-wp-2008-22.pdf . Last Accessed 18 Feb 2012

Cameron B, Pertuze J (2009) Disciplinary links between scientific management and strategy development. Massachusetts institute of technology, engineering systems division. Working paper series (ESD-WP-2009-19). http://esd.mit.edu/wps/2009/esd-wp-2009-19.pdf . Last Accessed 18 Feb 2012

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Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge several colleagues who provided significant insight, particularly with respect to the survey instrument; both Lisa D’Ambrosio and Roberto Perez-Franco offered much appreciated advice in this area. We would also like to acknowledge our four student survey pre-testers, particularly Judy Maro for her comprehensive review of the instrument and an earlier draft of this chapter. Finally, we would like to acknowledge the 60 MIT Engineering Systems Division students from ESD.83’s 2008–2012 classes for their diligent and innovative efforts on the assignment and for their participation in the assignment survey.

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Authors and affiliations.

Engineering Systems Division, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave, Building E40-369, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA

Christopher L. Magee, Rebecca K. Saari, G. Thomas Heaps-Nelson, Stephen M. Zoepf & Joseph M. Sussman

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Correspondence to Christopher L. Magee .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Engineering Mngmt & Systems Engineering, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, USA

Adrian V. Gheorghe

Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen, Joint Research Center, Petten, The Netherlands

Marcelo Masera

Engineering Management and Systems Eng., Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, USA

Polinpapilinho F. Katina

Appendix A: Historical Roots Assignment as Given Fall, 2011

The field of contemporary engineering system derives from many historical roots . Some selected roots of engineering systems are as follows:

Some Selected Historical Roots of ES

From these roots (and others as well), the field of contemporary engineering systems has emerged.

One way (but far from the only way) to characterize the field of contemporary engineering systems is by considering the various methodologies that support the field now. Examples of what we might consider as methodologies for contemporary engineering systems along with key authors are as follows:

Some Methodologies for Contemporary ES

We note that similar terms appear in both the list of historical roots and methodologies of contemporary engineering system, reflecting the evolution of these concepts. In many cases, the approaches changed over time so today’s methodology is quite different from a similarly termed root.

This relationship between historical roots and current engineering systems methodologies can be approached in one of two possible ways and is illustrated in the figure below.

The first approach is to choose one of the possible historical roots noted above (or perhaps an additional one you would like to suggest) and trace it forward to indicate its impact on the field of contemporary engineering systems as characterized by the methodologies, also noted above. So you want to identify scholarly work that built upon the root, tracing it through to today’s foundation methodologies. Some of the roots may impact several of the contemporary methodologies.

There is an alternative way to think about the relationship between past intellectual developments and the field of contemporary engineering systems. This involves “backcasting” from where we are today to the roots. In this construction, one chooses one of the methodologies of contemporary engineering systems and works backwards in time to ascertain from whence it came. Again, a methodology as used today may derive from several of the roots. We have defined each methodology as currently used by noting the work of key authors on that methodology. Again, you could suggest additional current methods or authors.

For this assignment, we ask you to work in pairs, which we have specified, to create diversity in interests. Each pair will select one historical root and one contemporary Engineering Systems methodology as currently practiced. We request that you post your selections to the ESD.83 Wiki ( https://wikis.mit.edu/confluence/display/esdDOT83fa11/Historial+Roots+Assignment+Selection ). We suggest (but don’t require) that you choose a root and methodology that you presume are related such that the root will be one you believe a priori affects your current methodology. The instructing staff will approve your root/method pair, and we will let you know this via email. Remember you are invited to propose other historical roots or current methodologies.

It will be interesting to contrast what we learn from the two approaches—e.g., if a root-based analysis shows impact on a methodology, did the methodology-based analysis trace back to that root?

This assignment should involve careful historical research of the literature and result in a single jointly submitted paper that describes both the flow from historical root to current methodologies, and the flow from current methodology to historical roots. The paper should be about 5,000 words, not including tables and figures you may use to illustrate the interconnections in the literature. (Remember, visual thinking can be powerful.) It is envisioned that the references should be extensive (30–40 or more might be typical).

Some approaches you should include in your paper:

Contributors not listed in the historical roots table and contemporaneous scholarly responses to the work of the author we cite

Citation analysis to estimate the influence of various works as paths between roots and methodologies are developed

Influences on practice and research in various domains/contexts that are clear today

Some useful resources

In many cases, Wikipedia may provide an excellent starting point ( www.wikipedia.org ). From there you may be able to identify the major works which you may then build from in more rigorous and in-depth library research. The MIT Libraries has online access to the Web of Science, a citation database that may be a good place to start your citation analysis as well as discover important works. ( http://libraries.mit.edu/guides/cheatsheets/wos/ )

Appendix B: Survey Distributed to Historical Roots Participants

Appendix c: explanation of codes.

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Magee, C.L., Saari, R.K., Heaps-Nelson, G.T., Zoepf, S.M., Sussman, J.M. (2014). The Historical Roots of the Field of Engineering Systems: Results from an In-Class Assignment. In: Gheorghe, A., Masera, M., Katina, P. (eds) Infranomics. Topics in Safety, Risk, Reliability and Quality, vol 24. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02493-6_22

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How Far We have Come

The history of electrical engineering.

Read a summary or generate practice questions using the INOMICS AI tool

Electrical engineers are saddled with a lot of responsibility in today’s world of rapidly advancing technologies.They are tasked with designing, developing, and testing electrical equipment and systems. From smartphones to supercomputers, electrical engineers are deeply involved in every step of the engineering process. But what is electrical engineering?

The definition of electrical engineering is different depending on who you ask. Electrical engineers would agree that it is the branch of engineering that deals with the technology of electricity, of course, but it is so much more than that. On a fundamental level, electrical engineers combine the physics and mathematics of electricity, electromagnetism, and electronics and apply them to information processing and energy transmission.

The discipline of electrical engineering is young—less than 200 years old—but rapid advances have been made in such a short time. Developments are being made so quickly that what some considered to be years away have become reality, giving electrical engineering a fascinating history. How the discipline has evolved into what it is today may shock you.

To understand the history of electrical engineering, look first to the history of electricity. Humanity’s records of the origins of electricity, however, are inadequate at best. Humanity knew about electric eels and lightning, for example, but how electricity was generated remained out of reach. Although the history of electricity is full of unknowns, most people agree that Michael Faraday, a British chemist and physicist, played a large part establishing electrical engineering as a field of study..

The father of electrical engineering: Michael Faraday

Born in 1791, Michael Faraday, did not receive a traditional scientific education. He became an apprentice to a bookbinder, where he learned about scientific subjects from the books he bound. As he gained an interest in science, he started to attend scientific lectures. He was especially interested in electricity, galvanism, and mechanics. Eventually, he attended four lectures given by Humphry Davy, which marked the start of his scientific career.

In 1814, Faraday travelled throughout Europe with Davy for 18 months, meeting many scientists and developing his scientific knowledge along the way. Upon his return, he worked on chemical experiments with Davy for several years before he published his research on electromagnetic rotation, which is the principle behind the electric motor, in 1821. This moment, perhaps, was the birth of the electrical engineering discipline.

It took ten long years before Faraday did much more significant work with electricity. In 1831, he discovered electromagnetic induction, which is the principle behind the electric transformer and generator. He proved that a magnet could induce an electrical current in a wire, where he converted mechanical energy into electrical energy. This discovery showed that electricity had enormous potential for technological development. It didn’t have to be confined to a lab any longer.

Faraday died in 1867, having made many contributions to the world of electricity. His work serves as the basis for electrical engineering, as the fundamental principles he discovered are still in use today.

Recognizing electrical engineering as a field of study

Although the study of electricity was originally considered to be a part of physics, electrical engineering eventually branched into its own discipline. In 1883, the world’s first School of Electrical Engineering was established at the Technische Universität Darmstadt. Other schools followed suit in providing an education to budding electrical engineers, and the field continued to expand.

Since electricity was becoming increasingly influential in society, an organization to support those in electrical professions was formed in 1884. This organization was known as the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. In 1963, this organization merged with the Institute of Radio Engineers (formed in 1912) to form the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, which today is the world’s largest technical professional organization. 

Advancements in electrical engineering

Great advancements have been made in electrical engineering since the School of Electrical Engineering was established in Darmstadt. Since then, radar, smartphones, and computers have all been invented. Faraday would be astonished!

Vast improvements in electronic technologies have also been made, like with the television. When they were invented in the 1920s, televisions had small screens, could only show images in black and white, and only the wealthy could afford them. Today, television screens are massive. They can show lush colors in stunning resolution and are more affordable than ever.

The world would cease to function as it does today without electrical engineers. Global positioning systems are a great example of their contributions. Electrical engineers helped to develop the components for these systems and make them resilient enough to withstand years of use. Without their contributions, your smartphone wouldn’t know your location, and you couldn’t track the location of your Amazon packages. The next time you use anything electronic, be sure to thank an electrical engineer.

Recent innovations in electrical engineering

Electrical engineering is a constantly evolving field, and continues to produce incredibly innovative products. Being able to check the contents of a refrigerator while on vacation? Boots that can provide workers with alerts of unsafe environmental conditions? Having food delivered by drone? What were dreams a decade ago are now realities.

The discipline will continue to evolve at a breakneck pace. Processing power will continue to improve, allowing for smaller, faster, more innovative devices to be produced. Moore’s Law, which states that the number of transistors that can be packed onto a microchip doubles every two years, allows for processing power to grow exponentially. Microchips that could host fewer than 100,000 transistors in the 1970s can today host more than 50 billion.

The future of electrical engineering

In an increasingly technological world, electrical engineers are more in demand than ever. They will be called upon to provide innovative engineering solutions for diverse industries, such as telecommunications, automobile, and renewable energy. Luckily, electrical engineers are more than up to the challenge!

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• Maia Weinstock

Departments

• Women's and Gender Studies

As Taught In

• Engineering
• History of Science and Technology
• Gender Studies
• Women's Studies

Learning Resource Types

History of women in science and engineering, assignments, homework essay #1: nobel quotas assignment.

Part 1: Essay

The Nobel Prizes in science have historically been so heavily skewed toward men that some have called for the various Nobel committees to instill quotas ensuring a certain percentage of women receive the prizes. What do you think of this idea? Take a position on this proposition and explain in 2–3 pages why you do or do not think the Nobels should implement quotas to improve the gender balance of winners. This will be graded.

Part 2: Class Participation

Select one woman from the McGrayne book other than Marie Curie or Chien-Shiung Wu to present to the class. Presentations should be no more than a few minutes and convey the essential information about each woman, what she is best known for, and her connection to the Nobels. You may use a PowerPoint to convey your presentation if you like, but simple oral presentations are fine as well. Will not be graded but will count toward class participation. 

Homework Essay #2:  Letters to College President(s) on Women in Engineering

Write a recommendation letter to one or more presidents of top American engineering schools — could be President Reif, MIT President, could be a bunch of presidents collectively, up to you: Citing examples of discrimination faced by women engineers in the past century, set forth a few suggested ways to improve gender and cultural diversity within higher education engineering programs. Should be 2–3 pages, double spaced.

Midterm Paper

Write an in-depth biography (5–7 pages) of an individual woman or group of women that we’ve discussed, read about, or mentioned from the first six classes. You will need to present your work to the class; PowerPoint-style presentations are recommended. Also, before you begin, you will give a “lightning summary” of your person/people in 60 seconds.

Wikipedia Article

Write a new article about any woman in science or engineering — or a subject directly related to women in STEM. We will work on these together in class first, and I will provide hands-on help for those who do not know how to edit Wikipedia already. Once I receive your first drafts I will provide feedback and suggestions on how to improve the page; after you submit your final drafts I will provide explicit instructions on how to make the pages live on Wikipedia. To prepare, please review: a) SciAm article on countering trolls with more articles about women in STEM; b) a tutorial on how to edit Wikipedia; c) Wikipedia markup cheatsheet document; and d) an example of an exemplar article for you to aim toward for your projects that you will start in class. Your articles don’t have to be quite as long as the exemplar article, but all of the essential elements should be there.

Final Project

Craft a final project that demonstrates your deep understanding of a subject that we either learned in class or that you want to know more about. Format is up to the student. Multimedia projects are highly encouraged, but essays are also OK (written finals should be 10–15 pages). In advance of the final, please make sure I receive a 0.5–1-page description of your planned project; I will want to schedule 15–20 minute sessions with each student to review your plan and make sure you’re on track for a successful final project.

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Types of writing assignments for engineering courses

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Writing assignments in engineering courses can take many forms, ranging from a couple of sentences of in-class writing to formal reports.

Conceptual Writing

Ask students to write about technical definitions, assumptions, or terminology. They can rephrase easily found definitions and assumptions in their own words, which allows them to articulate basic knowledge that they have learned in the course.

Explain-a-Problem

Take an existing “calculator problem” and have students explain their answers. The format of their explanations can range from a few clarifying sentences to a solution manual-type description. This is the simplest type of writing question to apply, and it dovetails perfectly with already-developed homework questions.

How Stuff Works

Ask students to use newly-learned concepts and terminology in an explanation of how something works in the real world. This question forces students to apply new concepts and equations to an actual situation.

Real-world Example

Advise students to seek out and explain a real-world example of a concept in action. This type of writing prompt is great at promoting student appreciation for the real-world importance of what they are learning.

Design-a-Problem

Assign students to design their own homework problem and write a detailed solution to that problem. This approach lets students be creative and encourages deep understanding of technical concepts and procedures.

Open-ended Design

Challenge students to design a device or solution associated with a stated design objective. The writing component of the assignment lies in the explanation of the design. This writing task allows students to create their own design and further engage with technical concepts and procedures as they explain how their design works.

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• Universities/Colleges
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History of Civil Engineering:

It is difficult to determine the history of emergence and beginning of civil engineering, however, that the history of civil engineering is a mirror of the history of human beings on this earth. Man used the old shelter caves to protect themselves of weather and harsh environment, and used a tree trunk to cross the river, which being the demonstration of ancient age civil engineering.

Ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Qanat water management system (the oldest older than 3000 years and longer than 71 km,) the Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447-438 BC), the Appian Way by Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), the Great Wall of China by General Meng T’ien under orders from Ch’in Emperor Shih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC) and the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura. The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbours, bridges, dams and roads.

Other remarkable historical structures are Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan built in 691 BC; Li Ping's irrigation projects in China (around 220 BC); Julius Caesar's Bridge over the Rhine River built in 55 BC, numerous bridges built by other Romans in and around Rome(e.g. the pons Fabricius); Pont du Gard (Roman Aqueduct, Nimes, France) built in 19 BC; the extensive system of highways the Romans built to facilitate trading and (more importantly) fast manoeuvring of legions; extensive irrigation system constructed by the Hohokam Indians, Salt River, AZ around 600 AD; first dykes defending against high water in Friesland, The Netherlands around 1000 AD; El Camino Real - The Royal Road, Eastern Branch, TX and Western Branch, NM (1500s AD).

Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.

One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes’ screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations.

Educational & Institutional history of civil engineering

In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering. The first engineering school, The National School of Bridges and Highways, France, was opened in 1747. The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse. In 1771, Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society.

The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was Norwich University founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge. The first degree in Civil Engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835. The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905.

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History of the Code of Ethics for Engineers

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History of the Code of Ethics for Engineers       

Note: The material contained in the "History of the NSPE Code of Ethics" is being provided solely for historic purposes. Previous versions of the NSPE Code of Ethics and NSPE Canons of Ethics can be provided to assist professional engineers and others in enhancing their understanding of past and present ethics language and is not intended to express current NSPE positions or positions on matters of professional ethics.

The first reference to a Society Code of Ethics is found in the May 1935 issue of The American Engineer in the form of a suggestion for membership consideration. It is not clear whether the Society's Board of Directors ever adopted or acted upon the Suggested Code.

In 1946, the Board approved the Canons of Ethics for Engineers as prepared by a joint committee sponsored by the Engineers' Council for Professional Development, a coordinating body of technical engineering societies. NSPE was not a member of ECPD. It was published in the January 1947 issue of The American Engineer.

September 1948 - The Board adopted a motion to urge the state societies to adopt revised Canons of Ethics for Engineers as published in the November 1947 issue of The American Engineer. This version differs from that published in January 1947.

June 1952 - The Board adopted 15 Rules of Ethical Conduct, presumably to supplement the Canons of Ethics, although this is not explicitly stated.

June 1957 - The Board adopted Rules of Professional Conduct to supplement the Canons of Ethics.

February 1961 - The Board approved a change in the Rules of Professional Conduct to change Rule 49 re competitive bidding and to change Rule 50 to prescribe procedure when an engineer is asked for a proposal.

July 1964 - The Board adopted the NSPE Code of Ethics to replace the existing Canons of Ethics for Engineers and Rules of Professional Conduct.

January 1965 - Section 11(c) of the Code of Ethics was amended to add the word "engineering" prior to "services" to clarify that the Section does not apply to combined engineering and construction work.

June-July 1965 - The Board approved the addition of Section 3(e) to the Code of Ethics, dealing with participation in strikes, etc., and amended Section 12 to substitute "If he believes" in lieu of "If he has knowledge," dealing with criticism of another engineer's work.

January 1966 - Board approved amendments to Section 8(c) of the Code of Ethics to delete the two words, "or advisor," and to add a sentence re a conflict of interest.

July 1966 - The Board approved a change in Section 11(c) of the Code of Ethics to apply the competitive bidding provisions to obtaining the services of other professionals, and to permit the submission of tenders for work in foreign countries when such is required by law, regulations, or practices of the foreign country. (Note: the latter provision is sometimes called the "When in Rome" clause). Also, the Board approved changes in Section 12 to apply the section to employed engineers, and modified Section 12(a) by substituting "An Engineer in private practice" in lieu of the word "he," and deleted the words "or consent." Also, Section 12(b) pertaining to engineers in industry was added, pertaining to review of the work of another engineer by an engineer employed in government, industry, or education. Section 12(c) was slightly reworded for clarity, pertaining to engineers in sales or industrial employment making enginee ring comparisons of products.

January 1968 - The Board approved the deletion of the last sentence of Section 11(c), pertaining to overseas engineering ("When in Rome" clause).

July 1968 - The Board approved changes in Section 3(a) of the Code pertaining to advertising of engineering services, and other subparagraphs were renumbered. Also, Section 3(e) (pertaining to strikes) was transferred to Section 1 and designated Section 1(f).

January 1969 - The Board approved a revision of Section 11(d) of the Code pertaining to contingent contracts.

January 1971 - The Board approved a revision of Section 3, pertaining to advertising. Also, the Board approved the printing of a footnote with the Code pertaining to application of the Code to corporations.

January 1974 - The Board approved a revision of Section 11(b) which added the words "pay, or..." with respect to "commissions, political contributions,...in order to secure work exclusive of salaried positions through the employment agencies." Section 1(b) was revised by the deletion of the word "obviously" which appeared before the word "wrong" in a section relating to situations where an engineer should admit and accept errors. The Board also approved a change in Section 1(e) which removed the words "unfair methods" and substituted "false or misleading pretenses" in a provision relating to methods used by one employer to attract an engineer from another firm. Section 1(g) was changed to delete "He will not use his professional affiliations or public office to secure personal advantage and..." and to add simply "He..." in a provision admonishing against actions promoting one's interest at the expense of the integrity of the profession. Section 12 was amended to remove "in public" in a code section relating to an engineer injuring, maliciously or falsely, the professional reputation of another enginee r.

July 1976 - The Board approved a change which deleted Section 9(a) which stated "He will not undertake or agree to perform any engineering service on a free basis except for civic, charitable, religious or eleemosynary nonprofit organizations when the professional services are advisory in nature," and added Section 11 which stated "An engineer will not use 'free engineering' as a device to solicit or otherwise secure paid engineering assignments."

July 1978 - Section 11(c) relating to the selection of engineering firms was deleted and Section 11 was altered to delete the words "by competitive bidding" in the first paragraph of the section. The words "or fee" were deleted from Section 11(e). The Board also approved a change which deleted Section 9(a) of the Code addressing the issue of appropriate and adequate compensation for those engaged in engineering work. Section 3, relating to avoidance of conduct likely to discredit the profession by making misleading, deceptive, or false claims, misrepresentations was clarified.

July 1979 - The Board approved changes which added Section 7(b) admonishing against related services for a private party following public employment of an engineer. Sections 8 and 8(a) were replaced with a new Section 8 which provided clearer guidance relating to conflicts of interest and the disclosure of known conflicts to the employer and the clients. The Board also approved a change to renumber Section 10 dealing with the issue of conflict of interest to become Section 9. Section 11(b) relating to payments, political contributions, gifts, and other considerations in order to secure work was refined. Section 1(d) was altered to permit employed engineers to accept outside employment if it is not detrimental to the interests of their employer and to require such employee to notify the employer where such outside employment will constitute a conflict of interest or will be to the detriment of the regular work of the engineer. Finally, the Board approved the deletion of Section 11(a) relating to the supplanting of one engineer by another engineer.

January 1981 - The Board approved a change which deleted Section 11(e) restricting free engineering and amended Section 11(b) to delete all words following the word "compromised." The amended provision reads "An engineer shall not request, propose, or accept a professional commission on a contingency basis under circumstances in which his professional judgment may be compromised." In addition, the Board adopted a new code format for the NSPE Code of Ethics.

July 1981 - Section III(6)(c), restricting engineers in sales employment from giving engineering advice or designs other than specifically related to equipment being sold by them or their firm, was deleted. Section III(8) relating to the ethical duty of engineers to report the suspected illegal practice of engineering to the proper authorities, was amended to delete the words "other engineer," and the word "others" was substituted in their place.

January 1985 - The Board approved a change in Section II(2)(c) to add the word "only" following the word "sealed" in the last line. To conform with Florida registration law.

July 1986 - Section III(9) was amended to provide that engineers may seek indemnification for professional services for other than gross negligence where the engineer's interests cannot otherwise be protected.

January 1987 - Fundamental Canon 5 was amended by deleting the word "improper" and adding "deceptive acts." Rules of Practice No. 5 was amended by deleting the word "improper" and adding "deceptive acts." Section III(3)(a) was amended by deleting the word "statements" (second sentence) and substituting the word "or" after "misleading." Section III(6)(b) present wording deleted and changed to "Engineers, when employing other engineers, shall offer a salary according to professional qualifications." Section III(7) present wording deleted and changed to "Engineers shall not attempt to obtain employment or advancement or professional engagements by untruthfully criticizing other engineers, or by other improper or questionable methods." Section III(7)(b) present wording deleted and changed to "Engineers in salaried positions shall accept part-time engineering work only to the extent consistent with policies of the employer and in accordance with ethical considerations. Section III(8) was amended by deleting the word "indiscriminately" and substituting the word "untruthfully."

January 1990 - NSPE Board approved a change in Section II.4.d. to add "or quasi-governmental" after the word "governmental" to the clarify the distinction between the two entities.

July 1993 - NSPE entered into a consent agreement with the Federal Trade Commission. Pursuant to this consent agreement, the FTC issued an order on August 6, 1993, that provides that NSPE may not prohibit or restrict its members from engaging in truthful, nondeceptive advertising. NSPE Board approved deleting language from its Code in Section III.3.a. In addition, NSPE has revoked BER Cases 81-5 and 84-2.

July 1996 - The NSPE Board approved the following changes to the Code of Ethics: Addition of Fundamental Canon I.6 relating to engineers conducting themselves honorably and responsibly; Removal of III.6 relating to appropriate and adequate compensation and subsequent paragraphs renumbered; and, removal of III.11 relating to cooperating in information exchanges.

February 2001 - The NSPE Board approved the following change to the Code of Ethics: Deletion of Section III.1.e. "Engineers shall not actively participate in strikes, picket lines, or other collective coercive action."

July 2002 -- The NSPE Board approved the following changes to the Code of Ethics: New section II.1.e. "Engineers shall not aid or abet the unlawful practice of engineering by a person or firm." Old section II.1.e. was renumbered as new section II.1.f.

January 2003 -- The NSPE Board approved a new section (III.9.e.) to the Code of Ethics that reads: "Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers and should keep current in their specialty fields by engaging in professional practice, participating in continuing education courses, reading in the technical literature and attending professional meetings and seminars."

January 2006 -- The NSPE Board approved a new section (III.2.d.) to the Code of Ethics that reads: "Engineers shall strive to adhere to the principles of sustainable development1 in order to protect the environment for future generation." Footnoote 1 "Sustainable development" is the challenge of meeting human needs for natural resources, industrial products, energy, food, transportation, shelter, and effective waste management while conserving and protecting environmental quality and the natural resource base essential for future development.

July 2007 -- The NSPE House of Delegates approved the following revisions to NSPE Code sections III.2.a., III.2.c., and III.2.d. :

III. Professional Obligations

2. Engineers shall at all times strive to serve the public interest.

    a. Engineers are encouraged to participate in civic affairs; career guidance for youths; and work for the advancement of the safety, health, and well-being of their community.

    c. Engineers are encouraged to extend public knowledge and appreciation of engineering and its achievements.

    d. Engineers are encouraged to adhere to the principles of sustainable development in order to protect the environment for future generations.

July 2018 -- The NSPE House of Delegates approved a change to the NSPE Code of Ethics to move NSPE Code Section III.9.e. to a new NSPE Code Section III.2.e.

“Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers and should keep current in their specialty fields by engaging in professional practice, participating in continuing education courses, reading in the technical literature, and attending professional meetings and seminars.”

July 2019 -- The NSPE House of Delegates approved a new NSPE Code of Ethics Section III.1.f. regarding harassment and anti-discrimination.

“III.1.f. Engineers shall treat all persons with dignity, respect, fairness and without discrimination.”

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Science and History of GMOs and Other Food Modification Processes

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How has genetic engineering changed plant and animal breeding?

Did you know.

Genetic engineering is often used in combination with traditional breeding to produce the genetically engineered plant varieties on the market today.

For thousands of years, humans have been using traditional modification methods like selective breeding and cross-breeding to breed plants and animals with more desirable traits. For example, early farmers developed cross-breeding methods to grow corn with a range of colors, sizes, and uses. Today’s strawberries are a cross between a strawberry species native to North America and a strawberry species native to South America.

Most of the foods we eat today were created through traditional breeding methods. But changing plants and animals through traditional breeding can take a long time, and it is difficult to make very specific changes. After scientists developed genetic engineering in the 1970s, they were able to make similar changes in a more specific way and in a shorter amount of time.

A Timeline of Genetic Modification in Agriculture

A Timeline of Genetic Modification in Modern Agriculture

Circa 8000 BCE: Humans use traditional modification methods like selective breeding and cross-breeding to breed plants and animals with more desirable traits.

1866: Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, breeds two different types of peas and identifies the basic process of genetics.

1922: The first hybrid corn is produced and sold commercially.

1940: Plant breeders learn to use radiation or chemicals to randomly change an organism’s DNA.

1953: Building on the discoveries of chemist Rosalind Franklin, scientists James Watson and Francis Crick identify the structure of DNA.

1973: Biochemists Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen develop genetic engineering by inserting DNA from one bacteria into another.

1982: FDA approves the first consumer GMO product developed through genetic engineering: human insulin to treat diabetes.

1986: The federal government establishes the Coordinated Framework for the Regulation of Biotechnology. This policy describes how the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) work together to regulate the safety of GMOs.

1992: FDA policy states that foods from GMO plants must meet the same requirements, including the same safety standards, as foods derived from traditionally bred plants.

1994: The first GMO produce created through genetic engineering—a GMO tomato—becomes available for sale after studies evaluated by federal agencies proved it to be as safe as traditionally bred tomatoes.

1990s: The first wave of GMO produce created through genetic engineering becomes available to consumers: summer squash, soybeans, cotton, corn, papayas, tomatoes, potatoes, and canola. Not all are still available for sale.

2003: The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations develop international guidelines and standards to determine the safety of GMO foods.

2005: GMO alfalfa and sugar beets are available for sale in the United States.

2015: FDA approves an application for the first genetic modification in an animal for use as food, a genetically engineered salmon.

2016: Congress passes a law requiring labeling for some foods produced through genetic engineering and uses the term “bioengineered,” which will start to appear on some foods.

2017: GMO apples are available for sale in the U.S.

2019: FDA completes consultation on first food from a genome edited plant.

2020 : GMO pink pineapple is available to U.S. consumers.

2020 : Application for GalSafe pig was approved.

How are GMOs made?

“GMO” (genetically modified organism) has become the common term consumers and popular media use to describe foods that have been created through genetic engineering. Genetic engineering is a process that involves:

• Identifying the genetic information—or “gene”—that gives an organism (plant, animal, or microorganism) a desired trait
• Copying that information from the organism that has the trait
• Inserting that information into the DNA of another organism
• Then growing the new organism

How Are GMOs Made? Fact Sheet

Making a GMO Plant, Step by Step

The following example gives a general idea of the steps it takes to create a GMO plant. This example uses a type of insect-resistant corn called “Bt corn.” Keep in mind that the processes for creating a GMO plant, animal, or microorganism may be different.

To produce a GMO plant, scientists first identify what trait they want that plant to have, such as resistance to drought, herbicides, or insects. Then, they find an organism (plant, animal, or microorganism) that already has that trait within its genes. In this example, scientists wanted to create insect-resistant corn to reduce the need to spray pesticides. They identified a gene in a soil bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) , which produces a natural insecticide that has been in use for many years in traditional and organic agriculture.

After scientists find the gene with the desired trait, they copy that gene.

For Bt corn, they copied the gene in Bt that would provide the insect-resistance trait.

Next, scientists use tools to insert the gene into the DNA of the plant. By inserting the Bt gene into the DNA of the corn plant, scientists gave it the insect resistance trait.

This new trait does not change the other existing traits.

In the laboratory, scientists grow the new corn plant to ensure it has adopted the desired trait (insect resistance). If successful, scientists first grow and monitor the new corn plant (now called Bt corn because it contains a gene from Bacillus thuringiensis) in greenhouses and then in small field tests before moving it into larger field tests. GMO plants go through in-depth review and tests before they are ready to be sold to farmers.

The entire process of bringing a GMO plant to the marketplace takes several years.

Learn more about the process for creating genetically engineered microbes and genetically engineered animals .

What are the latest scientific advances in plant and animal breeding?

Scientists are developing new ways to create new varieties of crops and animals using a process called genome editing . These techniques can make changes more quickly and precisely than traditional breeding methods.

There are several genome editing tools, such as CRISPR . Scientists can use these newer genome editing tools to make crops more nutritious, drought tolerant, and resistant to insect pests and diseases.

Learn more about Genome Editing in Agricultural Biotechnology .

How GMOs Are Regulated in the United States

GMO Crops, Animal Food, and Beyond

How GMO Crops Impact Our World

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assignment of software engineering, for practicing design pattern

MenciusH/funny-json-explorer

Folders and files.

Repository files navigation

Funny json explorer说明文档.

Mengke Huang 21307268

抽象工厂模式：抽象工厂 AbstractRectangleFactory 能够生产JsonTree, 由 Node 构成。具体工厂 RecIcon1Factory 和具体工厂 RecIcon2Factory 是其泛化，生产不同icon的具体产品 RecContainer （即中间节点）和 RecLeaf （即叶子节点）, 二者是抽象产品 Node 泛化。另一抽象工厂 AbstractTreeFactory 同理。不同抽象工厂生产的节点风格不同。

建造者模式：抽象工厂 AbstractRectangleFactory 用建造者 RecJsonTreeBuilder 生成每个节点，构建JsonTree。另一抽象工厂同理。

组合模式：JsonTree由中间节点 RecContainer 和叶子节点 RecLeaf 构成，中间节点拥有子节点。另一风格的节点同理。

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Professional Certificate - 14 course series

DevOps professionals are in high demand! According to a recent GitLab report, DevOps skills are expected to grow 122% over the next five years, making it one of the fastest growing skills in the workforce.

This certificate will equip you with the key concepts and technical know-how to build your skills and knowledge of DevOps practices, tools and technologies and prepare you for an entry-level role in Software Engineering. 

The courses in this program will help you develop skill sets in a variety of DevOps philosophies and methodologies including Agile Development, Scrum Methodology, Cloud Native Architecture, Behavior and Test-Driven Development, and Zero Downtime Deployments.

You will learn to program with the Python language and Linux shell scripts, create projects in GitHub, containerize and orchestrate your applications using Docker, Kubernetes & OpenShift, compose applications with microservices, employ serverless technologies, perform continuous integration and delivery (CI/CD), develop testcases, ensure your code is secure, and monitor & troubleshoot your cloud deployments.

Guided by experts at IBM, you will be prepared for success. Labs and projects in this certificate program are designed to equip job-ready hands-on skills that will help you launch a new career in a highly in-demand field. 

This professional certificate is suitable for both - those who have none or some programming experience, as well as those with and without college degrees.

Applied Learning Project

Throughout the courses in this Professional Certificate, you will develop a portfolio of projects to demonstrate your proficiency using various popular tools and technologies in DevOps and Cloud Native Software Engineering. 

Create applications using Python programming language, using different programming constructs and logic, including functions, REST APIs, and various Python libraries.

Develop Linux Shell Scripts using Bash and automate repetitive tasks

Create projects on GitHub and work with Git commands

Build and deploy applications composed of several microservices and deploy them to cloud using containerization tools (such as Docker, Kubernetes, and OpenShift); and serverless technologies

Employ various tools for automation, continuous integration (CI) and continuous deployment (CD) of software including Chef, Puppet, GitHub Actions, Tekton and Travis.

Secure and Monitor your applications and cloud deployments using tools like sysdig and Prometheus.

Introduction to DevOps

The essential characteristics of DevOps including building a culture of shared responsibility, transparency, and embracing failure.

The importance of Continuous Integration and Continuous Delivery, Infrastructure as Code, Test Driven Development, Behavior Driven Development.

Essential DevOps concepts: software engineering practices, cloud native microservices, automated continuous deployments, and building resilient code.

The organizational impact of DevOps, including breaking down silos, working in cross functional teams, and sharing responsibilities.

Introduction to Cloud Computing

Define cloud computing and explain essential characteristics, history, the business case for cloud, and the emerging technologies enabled by cloud

Describe the cloud service models- IaaS, PaaS, SaaS, and cloud deployment models- Public, Private, Hybrid; explain cloud infrastructure components

Explain emerging Cloud related trends including HybridMulticloud, Microservices, Serverless, Cloud Native, DevOps, and Application Modernization

List and describe services of popular cloud platforms including AWS, Microsoft Azure, Google Cloud, IBM Cloud, Alibaba Cloud, and others

Introduction to Agile Development and Scrum

Adopt the 5 practices of Agile, a subset of DevOps: small batches, minimum viable product, pair programming, behavior- and test-driven development.

Write good user stories, estimate and assign story points and track stories using a kanban board. Incorporate Scrum artifacts, events, and benefits.

Create and refine a product backlog using the sprint planning process. Produce potentially shippable product increments with every iteration.

Create burndown charts to forecast the ability to meet a sprint goal. Use metrics to enhance performance, productivity, and client satisfaction.

Hands-on Introduction to Linux Commands and Shell Scripting

Describe the Linux architecture and common Linux distributions and update and install software on a Linux system.

Perform common informational, file, content, navigational, compression, and networking commands in Bash shell.

Develop shell scripts using Linux commands, environment variables, pipes, and filters.

Schedule cron jobs in Linux with crontab and explain the cron syntax. 

Getting Started with Git and GitHub

Describe version control and its place in social and collaborative coding and in DevOps.

Explain basic Git concepts such as repositories and branches used for distributed version control and social coding.

Create GitHub repositories and branches, and perform pull requests (PRs) and merge operations, to collaborate on a team project.

Build your portfolio by creating and sharing an open-source project on GitHub.

Python for Data Science, AI & Development

Learn Python - the most popular programming language and for Data Science and Software Development.

Apply Python programming logic Variables, Data Structures, Branching, Loops, Functions, Objects & Classes.

Demonstrate proficiency in using Python libraries such as Pandas & Numpy, and developing code using Jupyter Notebooks.

Access and web scrape data using APIs and Python libraries like Beautiful Soup.

Developing AI Applications with Python and Flask

Describe the steps and processes involved in creating a Python application including the application development lifecycle

Create Python modules, run unit tests, and package applications while ensuring the PEP8 coding best practices

Explain the features of Flask and deploy applications on the web using the Flask framework

Create and deploy an AI-based application onto a web server using IBM Watson AI Libraries and Flask

Introduction to Containers w/ Docker, Kubernetes & OpenShift

Using containers, learn how to move applications quickly across any environment.

Build cloud native applications using Docker, Kubernetes, OpenShift, and Istio.

Describe and leverage Kubernetes architecture to set up and use an entire lifecycle-based container management system.

Create and leverage a YAML deployment file to configure and create resources such as pods, services, replicasets, and others in a declarative way.

Application Development using Microservices and Serverless

Summarize the fundamentals of Microservices, their advantages, and contrast with monolithic architectures.

Create REST API endpoints and invoke them using cURL and Postman; Use SwaggerUI to document and test APIs.

Create, and deploy microservices using Docker containers and serverless technologies like IBM Code Engine.

Practice hands-on with labs and projects using a no-charge cloud-based environment.

Introduction to Test and Behavior Driven Development

Explain the importance of testing 

Describe test-driven development (TDD) and explain its benefits for DevOps

Develop unit tests with test assertions and test fixtures and then run the tests

Improve unit testing through advanced TDD methods including coverage reports, factories, fakes, and mock objects

Continuous Integration and Continuous Delivery (CI/CD)

Explain Infrastructure as Code, describe tools used, and create Infrastructure as Code scripts using Terraform

Describe cloud platforms and automation, and automate CI/CD tasks using Jenkins and GitHub actions

Define Continuous Integration (CI) and list some examples of tools used for CI

Describe the process of Continuous Deployment (CD) with tools like OpenShift Pipelines and Argo CD

Application Security for Developers and DevOps Professionals

Explain security by design, learn to develop applications using security by design principles; perform defensive coding following OWASP principles.

Describe IBM cloud container vulnerability; perform vulnerability scanning and pen testing with Kali Linux.

Describe what to look for in app performance; perform troubleshooting using logging, stack trace, and log analytics.

Discuss concepts like Golden Signals; list tools for monitoring and troubleshooting; and test monitoring in action with Prometheus and Grafana.

Monitoring and Observability for Development and DevOps

Explain the importance of monitoring and describe concepts like Golden Signals

Demonstrate your knowledge of observability with Instana and explain the pillars of observability, cloud native observability, and types of sampling

Implement logging and demonstrate your knowledge of telemetry using OpenTelemetry and tracing using Kubernetes

Develop hands-on experience with a variety of tools such as Prometheus, Grafana, Mezmo (LogDNA), OpenTelemetry, and Instana

DevOps Capstone Project

Identify user requirements, write user stories, create and execute sprint plans.

Build an application composed of several microservices and employ containers and serverless for running apps in Cloud.

Develop test cases and test your app during various stages of its lifecycle; utilize CI/CD tools to update and deploy your app.

List several next steps for starting or enhancing your career as a DevOps professional.

IBM is the global leader in business transformation through an open hybrid cloud platform and AI, serving clients in more than 170 countries around the world. Today 47 of the Fortune 50 Companies rely on the IBM Cloud to run their business, and IBM Watson enterprise AI is hard at work in more than 30,000 engagements. IBM is also one of the world’s most vital corporate research organizations, with 28 consecutive years of patent leadership. Above all, guided by principles for trust and transparency and support for a more inclusive society, IBM is committed to being a responsible technology innovator and a force for good in the world. For more information about IBM visit: www.ibm.com

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Frequently asked questions

How long does it take to complete the specialization.

This program can be completed with 6-12 months.

What background knowledge is necessary?

No specialized background needed. Only basic computer and IT literacy is needed. Suitable for those with and without college degrees. No prior programming experience required, however will also benefit those with some software development or operations experience.

Do I need to take the courses in a specific order?

It is recommended that you take most courses in the suggested order as they build upon concepts in previous courses.

Will I earn university credit for completing the Specialization?

University credit is not currently available for this program.

What will I be able to do upon completing the Specialization?

Upon completing this professional certificate you will have develop the knowledge and hands-on skills to work as in entry level Software Engineering or DevOps practitioner role.

Is this course really 100% online? Do I need to attend any classes in person?

This course is completely online, so there’s no need to show up to a classroom in person. You can access your lectures, readings and assignments anytime and anywhere via the web or your mobile device.

What is the refund policy?

If you subscribed, you get a 7-day free trial during which you can cancel at no penalty. After that, we don’t give refunds, but you can cancel your subscription at any time. See our full refund policy Opens in a new tab .

Can I just enroll in a single course?

Yes! To get started, click the course card that interests you and enroll. You can enroll and complete the course to earn a shareable certificate, or you can audit it to view the course materials for free. When you subscribe to a course that is part of a Certificate, you’re automatically subscribed to the full Certificate. Visit your learner dashboard to track your progress.

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