Explaining Increasing Female Crime in the later half of the 20th Century: The Liberationist Perspective
Last Updated on March 5, 2019 by Karl Thompson
Freda Adler proposed that the emancipation of women and increased economic opportunities for women lead to an increase in the female crime rate. Her basic idea was that as women attain social positions similar to men, and as the employment patterns of men and women become similar, so too do their related crimes. Adler claimed to have found a cross-national correlation between levels of women’s economic freedoms and their crime levels.
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One evaluation of Adler is found in the Marginalistaion Thesis which states that women’s Liberation has indeed lead to increased job opportunities for women, but women are much more likely to be employed in part-time and/or low paid jobs which are unrewarding and insecure. This has led to the creation of a ‘pink collar ghetto’ – with women suffering higher levels of economic deprivation than men.
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women’s liberation thesis
A perspective that suggests that increases in women’s arrests are due to the expansion of criminal opportunities that they were offered. Developed by Freda Adler, the theory emerged in relation to the women’s movement in the United States in the 1960s, which resulted in expanded opportunities for women to participate in the workforce. As they gained opportunities for conventional employment, the theory argues, so too would they have more opportunities within unconventional employment (i.e. crime). This thesis has been used to support the notion that gang membership has allowed females to achiever a greater sense of liberation, empowerment, autonomy, and freedom.... ...
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Gender and Crime
- Pollack discusses the ‘chivalry thesis’; an idea that suggests the criminal justice system treats men and women differently.
![sociology liberation thesis Illustrative background for The ‘chivalry thesis’](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/81d2ae56-96f3-47db-bfc9-f0c531075900/finger-print-crime-,h_400,q_80,w_640.jpg)
The ‘chivalry thesis’
- He claims that this stems from gender role socialisation.
![sociology liberation thesis Illustrative background for Gender role socialisation](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-11/df404398-6a35-425e-a104-c0403b25f1e7/damsel-distress-sword-knight-princess-rescue-,h_400,q_80,w_640.jpg)
Gender role socialisation
- The criminal justice system is traditionally dominated by men who are raised to be ‘chivalrous’ towards women.
- This means that when faced with a female offender, male police officers are more likely to treat them leniently.
![sociology liberation thesis Illustrative background for __Heidensohn__](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/1cb2d50e-1396-4109-94a1-ff456aa90635/stop-1131143__480,h_400,q_80,w_640.jpg)
- In many domestic abuse cases, women choose not to report the majority of incidents to the police.
- Radical feminist Heidensohn claims that the criminal justice system treats women very poorly when investigating claims of sexual assault or domestic violence.
![sociology liberation thesis Illustrative background for Gender norms](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-11/1f3235d3-b4f6-4fd5-bbb8-7d57918c343f/stockings-legs-tights-,h_400,q_80,w_640.jpg)
Gender norms
- This is because women are viewed to have deviated from stereotypical gender norms.
- E.g. if they act in a sexually promiscuous way they are not performing their expressive role.
- Parsons suggests that women are less likely to be criminals due to their genetic characteristics, this is called sex role theory.
![sociology liberation thesis Illustrative background for Sex role theory](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/943b7fc2-7e64-405c-993d-f2ed245fffc9/mother-84628_1920,h_400,q_80,w_640.jpg)
Sex role theory
- He argues the importance of the ‘expressive leader’ in the primary socialisation of children and suggests women have more to lose if they turn to criminal activity.
![sociology liberation thesis Illustrative background for ‘Patriarchal control’](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/2d5274a7-a1fe-47fc-9d81-b0e2338b2781/woman-1979272_1920,h_400,q_80,w_640.jpg)
‘Patriarchal control’
- Heidensohn claims that women are generally more likely to conform to society’s norms and values than men and therefore tend to be restricted when it comes to criminal or deviant activity.
- She claims that because of ‘patriarchal control’, women are used to being controlled by men throughout their lives and consequently do not have the same opportunities to commit crime.
![sociology liberation thesis Illustrative background for The ‘liberation thesis’](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-03/c135cfaf-2992-4bbd-884f-60c0eb65aad3/shutterstock_327573029,h_400,q_80,w_640.jpg)
![](http://alexandria-library.space/777/templates/cheerup2/res/banner1.gif)
The ‘liberation thesis’
- Adler suggests that as female progression evolves, so will the opportunity for women to commit crime.
- She refers to this as the ‘liberation thesis’.
- As women become more prevalent in traditionally male spaces such as employment women will have more opportunity to commit crime, such as white collar crime.
Masculinity and Crime
- Messerschmidt suggests that men constantly work at developing their masculinity, which is deemed to be an achievement in the eyes of other men.
![sociology liberation thesis Illustrative background for __Messerschmidt__](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/courseImages/biology/4.1.1 Photosynthesis/man-461195_640-min,h_400,q_80,w_640.jpg)
Messerschmidt
![sociology liberation thesis Illustrative background for Masculinity](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-07/6f597dc6-5b66-4ae8-a5a5-7789be059a21/Man-Woman-Lover-,h_400,q_80,w_640.jpg)
Masculinity
- Being paid for employment.
- The subordination of women.
- Heterosexuality.
- Being sexually active.
![sociology liberation thesis Illustrative background for __Katz__](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-09/7dfd3f4e-b5d3-4311-9182-152f643cec63/tattoo-man-ink-prison-crime-criminal-,h_400,q_80,w_640.jpg)
- Katz suggests that men commit crime in order to feel a thrill.
- In most cases, Katz claims that many crimes are committed out of boredom and that male criminals are seeking ‘thrills’ at any opportunity.
![sociology liberation thesis Illustrative background for Crime and thrill](https://image-v2.cdn.app.senecalearning.com/2018-07/87ea9144-902a-4f60-a3be-4fc276c3f516/shoplifting-stealing-clothes,h_400,q_80,w_640.jpg)
Crime and thrill
- He claims that different types of crimes, bring different levels of thrill depending on their severity.
- For example, shoplifting is a low-level crime and therefore only provides ‘sneaky thrills’.
1 Theory & Methods
1.1 Sociological Theories
1.1.1 Marxism
1.1.2 Feminism
1.1.3 Social Action Theories
1.2 Sociological Methods
1.2.1 Types of Data
1.2.2 Positivism & Interpretivism
1.2.3 Research Design
1.2.4 Research Considerations
1.2.5 Values in Research
1.2.6 Modernity & Post-Modernity
1.2.7 Sociology as a Science
1.2.8 Sociology & Social Policy
1.2.9 End of Topic Test - Sociology Methods & Theories
1.3 Sources of Data
1.3.1 Introduction
1.3.2 Experiments
1.3.3 Surveys
1.3.4 Longitudinal Studies
1.3.5 Questionnaires
1.3.6 Types of Questionnaires
1.3.7 Interviews
1.3.8 Observation
1.3.9 Case Studies
1.3.10 Documents
1.3.11 Official Statistics
1.3.12 End of Topic Test - Sources of Data
2 Education with Methods in Context
2.1 Role & Function of the Education System
2.1.1 Introduction
2.1.2 Functionalist Theories
2.1.3 Marxist & Feminist Theories
2.1.4 The New Right
2.2 Educational Achievement
2.2.1 Social Class: Internal Factors
2.2.2 Social Class: External Factors
2.2.3 Social Class: Attitudes to Education
2.2.4 Social Class: Difference in Achievement
2.2.5 Gender
2.2.6 Ethnicity
2.3 Relationships & Processes Within Schools
2.3.1 Processes
2.3.2 Labelling
2.3.3 Categorisations
2.3.4 Student Experience
2.3.5 End of Topic Test -Education with Methods
2.4 Educational Policies
2.4.1 Equality
2.4.2 Privatisation
2.4.3 Marketisation
2.4.4 Government Policies by Party
2.4.5 Globalisation
2.4.6 End of Topic Test- Educational Policies
2.4.7 Practice Exam Question - Social Policies
3 Option 1: Culture & Identity
3.1 Conceptions of Culture
3.1.1 Culture
3.1.2 Mass Culture
3.1.3 Popular Culture
3.1.4 Global Culture
3.1.5 End of Topic Test - Culture and Identity
3.2 Identity & Socialisation
3.2.1 Identities
3.2.2 Socialisation
3.2.3 Secondary Socialisation
3.2.4 Theories of Socialisation
3.2.5 End of Topic Test - Identity
3.2.6 Practice Exam Question - Socialisation & Equality
3.3 Social Identity
3.3.1 Social Class
3.3.2 Upper & Middle Class
3.3.3 Working & Underclass
3.3.4 Social Class Evaluation
3.3.5 Gender
3.3.6 Changing Gender Identities
3.3.7 Ethnicity
3.3.9 Disability
3.3.10 Nationality
3.3.11 End of Topic Test - Social Identity
3.4 Production, Consumption & Globalisation
3.4.1 Production & Consumption
3.4.2 Globalisation
3.4.3 Evaluation
3.4.4 End of Topic Test - Production
4 Option 1: Families & Households
4.1 Families & Households
4.1.1 Definitions
4.1.2 Functionalist & New Right Perspectives
4.1.3 Marxist & Feminist Perspectives
4.1.4 Postmodernist Perspective
4.1.5 End of Topic Test - Families & Households
4.1.6 Practice Exam Question - Function of Family
4.2 Changing Patterns
4.2.1 Marriage
4.2.2 Divorce
4.2.3 LAT Relationships
4.2.4 Child-Bearing
4.2.5 Lone Parenthood
4.2.6 Diversity
4.2.7 The Sociology of Personal Life
4.2.8 Government Policies Post-WW2
4.2.9 End of Topic Test - Changing Patterns
4.3 The Symmetrical Family
4.3.1 The Symmetrical Family
4.3.2 Evaluation
4.4 Children & Childhood
4.4.1 Childhood
4.4.2 Childhood in the UK
4.4.3 Childhood as a Social Construct
4.4.4 The Disappearance of Childhood
4.4.5 Child Abuse
4.4.6 Domestic Violence
4.4.7 End of Topic Test - Family & Childhood
4.5 Demographic Trends UK
4.5.1 Introduction
4.5.2 Birth Rates
4.5.3 Death Rates
4.5.4 The Ageing Population
4.5.5 Studies on the Ageing Population
4.5.6 Migration
4.5.7 Globalisation
4.5.8 End of Topic Test - Demographics UK
5 Option 1: Health
5.1 Social Constructions
5.1.1 The Body
5.1.2 Health, Illness & Disease
5.1.3 Disability
5.1.4 Models of Health & Illness
5.1.5 End of Topic Test - Social Constructions
5.2 Social Distribution of Healthcare
5.2.1 Social Class
5.2.2 Gender
5.2.3 Ethnicity
5.2.4 Regional
5.3 Provision & Access to Healthcare
5.3.1 The NHS
5.3.2 Inequalities in Provision
5.3.3 Sociological Explanations
5.3.4 Inequalities in Access
5.3.5 Inequalities in Access 2
5.3.6 End of Topic Test - Distribution Health
5.4 Mental Health
5.4.1 The Biomedical Approach
5.4.2 Social Patterns
5.4.3 Social Constructionist Approach
5.5 The Globalised Health Industry
5.5.1 The Functionalist Approach
5.5.2 The Postmodernist Approach
5.5.3 The Globalised Health Industry
5.5.4 End of Topic Test - Mental Health & Globalisation
6 Option 1: Work, Poverty & Welfare
6.1 Poverty & Wealth
6.1.1 Types of Poverty
6.1.2 Types of Poverty 2
6.1.3 Distribution of Wealth UK
6.1.4 Sociological Theories
6.1.5 Sociological Theories 2
6.1.6 Distribution of Poverty UK
6.1.7 End of Topic Test - Poverty & Wealth
6.2 Welfare
6.2.1 The Welfare State
6.2.2 Theoretical Approaches to Welfare
6.3 Labour Process
6.3.1 Nature of Work
6.3.2 Technology & Control
6.3.3 Work & Life
6.3.4 The Effects of Globalisation
6.3.5 Globalisation & Worklessness
6.3.6 End of Topic Test - Welfare & Labour
7 Option 2: Beliefs in Society
7.1 Ideology, Science & Religion
7.1.1 Types of Religion
7.1.2 Ideology & Belief Systems
7.1.3 Social Stability & Religion
7.1.4 Social Change & Religion
7.1.5 End of Topic Test - Ideology, Science & Religion
7.2 Religious Movements
7.2.1 Religious Organisations
7.2.2 New Religious Movements
7.2.3 New Age Movements
7.2.4 Practice Exam Question - Growth of NRMs
7.3 Society & Religion
7.3.1 Social Groups & Religion
7.3.2 Gender & Religion
7.3.3 End of Topic Test- Religious Movements & Society
7.4 Contemporary Religion
7.4.1 Secularisation UK
7.4.2 Against Secularisation
7.4.3 Secularisation US
7.4.4 Fundamentalism
7.4.5 Economic Development & Religion
7.4.6 End of Topic - Contemporary Religion
8 Option 2: Global Development
8.1 Development, Underdevelopment & Global Inequality
8.1.1 Development
8.1.2 Underdevelopment & Global Inequality
8.2 Globalisation & Global Organisations
8.2.1 Globalisation
8.2.2 Transnational Corporations & International Agency
8.2.3 Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)
8.3 Aid, Trade, Industrialisation, Urbanisation
8.3.1 Development: Aid & Trade
8.3.2 Development: Industrialisation & Urbanisation
8.3.3 Development: Environment & War
9 Option 2: The Media
9.1 Contemporary Media
9.1.1 New Media
9.1.2 Control of the Media
9.1.3 Sociological Approaches: New Media
9.1.4 Globalisation
9.1.5 News Selection
9.1.6 Moral Panics
9.1.7 End of Topic Test - Contemporary Media
9.2 Media Representations
9.2.2 Social Class & Ethnicity
9.2.3 Gender
9.2.4 Sexuality & Disability
9.2.5 Practice Exam Questions - Presentation of Women
9.3 Audiences
9.3.1 Media Theories
9.3.2 Media Theories 2
9.3.3 Media Representations & Audiences
10 Crime & Deviance
10.1 Crime & Society
10.1.1 Functionalism
10.1.2 Subcultural Theory
10.1.3 Marxism
10.1.4 Realism
10.1.5 Other Approaches
10.1.6 End of Topic Test - Crime & Society
10.1.7 Practice Exam Questions - Social Construction
10.2 Social Distribution of Crime
10.2.1 Ethnicity
10.2.2 Gender
10.2.3 Globalisation & Crime
10.2.4 Media & Crime
10.2.5 Types of Crimes
10.2.6 End of Topic Test - Social Distribution of Crime
10.3 Prevention & Punishment
10.3.1 Surveillance
10.3.2 Prevention
10.3.3 Punishment
10.3.4 Victimology
10.3.5 End of Topic Test - Prevention & Punishment
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Adler - Feminist Theories of Crime and Deviance
Last updated 30 Nov 2022
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The contribution of Adler to feminist theories of crime and deviance is explored in this video.
- Crime and Deviance
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IMAGES
VIDEO
COMMENTS
Adler claimed to have found a cross-national correlation between levels of women’s economic freedoms and their crime levels. One evaluation of Adler is found in the Marginalistaion Thesis which states that women’s Liberation has indeed lead to increased job opportunities for women, but women are much more likely to be employed in part-time ...
I addressed Adler’s theory in detail, other theories, the makeup of the female criminal and various female crimes. This study provided evidence that all three case studies conform to Adler’s. theory. nIn accordance with Adler’s theory, each of these three females committed.
The findings indicate that mismatched liberation increases the female share of violent and property crimes, especially for adult cohorts and among samples after 1988 when women’s ends-means gap was found to be enlarged.
Developed by Freda Adler, the theory emerged in relation to the women’s movement in the United States in the 1960s, which resulted in expanded opportunities for women to participate in the workforce.
Many agree that Adler’s most significant the- oretical contribution came with the publication ofSistersincrime:Theriseofthenewfemale criminal(1975). In this book, she presented her argument for the relationship between the feminist liberation movement and its influence on female criminality.
This paper examines the nature of female offending patterns in relationship to societal gender equality using cross-national analysis of 27 European countries for the year 2006. Importantly, our analysis uses a conceptually innovative indicator (the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Index) to determine relative levels of gender equality.
of the PKK, a left national liberation movement that seeks to change its own society. However, Öcalan, apparently also one of those whose political thinking has been sharpened by the forced abstinence from daily politics, has succeeded in further developing his political thought in captivity.” —Thomas Schmidinger, author of The Battle for the
Abstract: This study reconceptualizes and tests liberation and economic marginality hypotheses as complementary explanations for female offending patterns. Both explanations are relevant in explaining female crime, but need to be reframed as interacting forces not opposing theories.
The ‘liberation thesis’ Adler suggests that as female progression evolves, so will the opportunity for women to commit crime. She refers to this as the ‘liberation thesis’.
Crime and Deviance. The contribution of Adler to feminist theories of crime and deviance is explored in this video.