example of qualitative research title in agriculture

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187 Agriculture Essay Topics & Research Questions + Examples

Are you looking for the best agriculture topics to write about? You’re at the right place! StudyCorgi has prepared a list of important agriculture research topics. On this page, any student can find essay questions and project ideas on various agricultural issues, such as food safety, genetically engineered crops, and sustainable farming practices.

👨‍🌾 TOP 7 Agriculture Research Topics – 2024

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• Agriculture and Its Role in Economic Development
• Commercial Agriculture, Its Role and Definition
• Agriculture: Personal Field Visit
• Food Safety Issues in Modern Agriculture
• Soil: The Essential Aspect of Agriculture
• In Support of Robotics Use in Agriculture
• Globalization Impact on Sustainable Agriculture
• Agricultural Influences on the Developing Civil Society Agriculture had a significant influence on developing societies, ranging from creating trade to bringing industrialization, education, and social classes.
• Population Growth and Agriculture in the Future The current industrial agriculture needs to be advanced and developed in combination with sustainable agricultural practices.
• History of Agricultural Technology Development Agricultural technologies were majorly developed during the Medieval period to ensure sufficient product yields for growing populations around the world.
• Agricultural Biotechnology and Its Pros and Cons Agricultural biotechnology enhances the growth of crops and animals, minimizes pesticide use, and improves the nutritional quality of produce.
• Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Secondary Level Agricultural Science Apart from internal student factors, such as the ability to generalize and absorb new knowledge, the learning process is significantly affected by the teacher.
• Improving Stress Resistance in Agricultural Crops The essay suggests that stress-resistant crops are needed to ensure yield stability under stress conditions and to minimize the environmental impacts of crop production.
• Industry and Agriculture: Use of Technology Industry and agriculture are among the areas that have experienced a vast rise in effectiveness and performance quality due to the integration of new types of technology into them.
• Agriculture in Honduras: Existing Challenges and Possible Solutions This paper tackles the issue of existing challenges and possible solutions to the problems of agriculture in Honduras.
• Agriculture and Food in Ancient Greece The paper states that agricultural practices and goods from Greece extended to neighboring countries in the Mediterranean as the dominance increased.
• Hunting and Gathering Versus Agricultural Society The hunting and gathering society is considered the most equitable of all seven types, while the agricultural community gives rise to the development of civilization.
• The Agriculture Industry’s Digital Transformation This study seeks to explore the dynamics of digital technology in agriculture over the past two decades, focusing on the perspectives and perceptions of the farmers.
• Aspects of Pesticide Use in Agriculture This paper investigates socio-environmental factors connected with pesticide use in agriculture and food production. It has a destructive impact on the environment
• Agriculture Development and Related Theories There are two main domestication models used to describe the development of agriculture: unconscious and conscious.
• Freedom in American Countryside and Agriculture This paper portrays how freedom has been eliminated in the countryside by the state agriculture department, and whether the farmer has a moral right to do his farming practices.
• Agriculture: Application of Information Technology IT application in agriculture has contributed to food security in most modern communities. Farming has become easier than before as new inventions are made.
• Agricultural Technology Implementation by Medieval Europeans and West Africans The paper examines how West Africans and Medieval Europeans were affected by their corresponding climates and why their methods were unique to their respective locations.
• European Invasion and Agriculture in the Caribbean The early invasion of the Europeans in the Caribbean did not prompt the employment of the slave trade in the agricultural activities until the development of the sugar plantations.
• Governmental Price Control in Agricultural Sector The consequences of real-life governmental price control are the evolutionary nature of transformations in the agricultural sector.
• Food and Agriculture of Ancient Greece The concepts of agriculture and cuisine both have a deep connection to Greek history, culture, development, and social trends.
• Trade Peculiarities in Food and Agriculture Food trading is a peculiar area, as food is the basis for surviving the population. The one who controls food production and trading routes, also controls all populations.
• Sustainable Agriculture Against Food Insecurity The paper argues sustainable agriculture is one way to reduce food insecurity without harming the planet because the number of resources is currently decreasing.
• The Big History of Civilizations – Origins of Agriculture: Video Analysis This paper aims to analyze the origins of agriculture – what was a foraging economy and way of life like, as well as compare foragers and farmers.
• Climate Change and Its Potential Impact on Agriculture and Food Supply The global food supply chain has been greatly affected by the impact of global climate change. There are, however, benefits as well as drawbacks to crop production.
• Climate Changes Impact on Agriculture and Livestock The project evaluates the influences of climate changes on agriculture and livestock in different areas in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
• Agricultural Problems in Venezuela Agriculture has been greatly underdeveloped in Venezuela, yet it is a country that has vital minerals and resources required for the global economy.
• Market Revolution: Agriculture and Global Trade In the era of traders, the vast land area and rich natural resources created many economic opportunities. Most people lived in rural areas and were engaged in agriculture.
• Repeasantization: Impact on Agriculture The repeasantization led to fundamental changes that created a new system of agriculture that is still relevant today.
• Agriculture, Water, and Food Security in Tanzania This paper evaluates the strategies applicable to the development and further maintenance of agriculture, water, and food security in Tanzania.
• Agriculture and Food Production in the Old Kingdom
• Agriculture and the Transition to the Market in Asia
• Agrarian Reform and Subsistence Agriculture in Russia
• Agriculture, Nutrition, and the Green Revolution in Bangladesh
• Agriculture Business and Management
• Agriculture, Horticulture, and Ancient Egypt
• Agriculture and Food Production in the Old Kingdom of Egypt
• Administrative and Transaction-Related Costs of Subsidising Agriculture
• Agriculture and Economic Growth in Argentina, 1913-84
• Agriculture and Economic Development in Brazil, 1960-1995
• Agriculture and Greenhouse Gas Cap-And-Trade
• Croatian Agriculture Towards World Market Liberalization
• Adapting Credit Risk Models to Agriculture
• Agriculture and European Union Enlargement
• Agriculture and Food Security in Pakistan
• Cash Flows and Financing in Texas Agriculture
• Current Problems With Indian Agriculture
• Agriculture and Its Drain on California
• Agriculture and the Economic Life of India
• Agriculture and Global Climate Stabilization
• Achieving Regional Growth Dynamics in African Agriculture
• Agriculture and Non-agricultural Liberalization in the Millennium Round
• Corporate Agriculture and Modern Times
• Agriculture and Rural Employment Agricultural in Bolivia
• Climatic Fluctuations and the DI¤Usion of Agriculture
• Agriculture Global Market Briefing
• Agriculture and the Industrial Revolution of the Late 1700s
• Agriculture and Animal Husbandry in Ecuador
• Biofuels, Agriculture, and Climate Change
• Aggregate Technical Efficiency and Water Use in U.S. Agriculture
• The Australian Agriculture Company’s Financial Analysis The Australian Agriculture Company shows a positive sign for investment due to its financial analysis indicating company resilience and strong prospects of growth.
• Agriculture-Led Food Crops and Cash Crops in Tanzania This paper aims to explore the contributions of the agriculture sector in Tanzania to the country’s industrialization process by using recent data about its food and cash crops.
• The Impact of Pesticides’ Use on Agriculture Pesticides are mostly known for their adverse effects and, therefore, have a mostly negative connotation when discussed among general audiences.
• Cuisine and Agriculture of Ancient Greece There are many reasons for modern students to investigate the development of cuisine and agriculture in Ancient Greece.
• Agriculture and Food Safety in the United States Agriculture in the United States has grown progressively centralized. The shortcomings in the 2018 U.S. farm legislation resulted in multiple challenges in the food system.
• Sustainable Agriculture and Future Perspectives Sustainable agriculture is essential to the earth’s environment. When farmers take care of their land and crops, they are taking care of environmental sustainability.
• Colonialism and Economic Development of Africa Through Agriculture The colonial period is characterized by the exploitation of the agricultural sector in Africa to make a profit and provide Western countries with raw materials.
• Agricultural Adaptation to Changing Environments The paper discusses the impact of climate change on agriculture in Canada. This phenomenon is real and has affected the industry over at least the last three decades.
• The Neolithic Era: Architecture and Agriculture The improvements to agriculture, society, architecture, and culture made during the Neolithic period had an undeniable impact on aspects of the world.
• Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture and Food This paper will examine four aspects of climate change: variation in the rainfall pattern, water levels, drought, temperature, and heatwaves.
• Agricultural Traditions of Canadians In Canada there is a very good agricultural education, so young people can get higher education in agriculture and use it on their own farms.
• Sharecropping. History of Racial Agriculture Sharecropping became a variation of racialized agriculture, that which has negative impact on the capabilities of the black population to generate and pass down wealth.
• Food Additives Use in Agriculture in the United States Food additives in agriculture become a debatable issue because their benefits do not always prevail over such shortages like health issues and environmental concerns.
• Radio-Frequency Identification in Healthcare and Agriculture Specifically, radio-frequency identification (RFID) has gained traction due to its ability to transmit data over distance.
• Mechanism of US Agricultural Market The fact that lower interest rates increased the number of potential customers for real estate in the 2000s shows that housing prices should have increased.
• A Biological Terror Attack in Agriculture The United States is highly vulnerable to terror attacks of biological nature in agriculture yet such an occurrence can cripple the economy.
• The Economics of Race, Agriculture and Environment This research paper is going to answer the question; do public policies reduce or enhance racial inequality in agricultural and environmental affairs?
• Agriculture the Backbone of Ancient Egypt’s Economy In pre-industrial societies, agriculture was the backbone of most economies. This is true in ancient times and very much evident in ancient Egypt.
• Impact of Bioterrorism on the U.S Agriculture System The paper describes that the term bioterrorism has several definitions depending upon the origin of the attack but in general terms, it refers to any form of terrorist attack.
• Impacts of Genetic Engineering of Agricultural Crops In present days the importance of genetic engineering grew due to the innovations in biotechnologies and Sciences.
• The Effects of Genetic Modification of Agricultural Products Discussion of the threat to the health of the global population of genetically modified food in the works of Such authors as Jane Brody and David Ehrenfeld.
• Agriculture and Mayan Society Resilience The Yucatan peninsula had a vast landscape which was good for agriculture thus making agriculture to be the main economic base for the Mayans.
• Homeland Security in Agriculture and Health Sectors Lack of attention to the security and protection of the agricultural sector in the U.S. economy can create a serious threat to the health and safety of the population.
• Water Savings and Virtual Trade in Agriculture Water trade in agriculture is not a practice that is unique to the modern generation. The practice was common long before the emergence of the Egyptian Empire.
• Virtual Water Trade and Savings in Agriculture This essay discusses the savings associated with virtual water trade in agriculture and touches on the effects of a shift to local agricultural production on global water savings.
• Virtual Water Trade of Agricultural Products Virtual water trade is a concept associated with globalization and the global economy. Its rise was motivated by growing water scarcity in arid areas around the world.
• Agricultural Role in African Development Diao et al. attempt to determine the role of agriculture in overcoming the challenge of poverty in rural areas of Africa compared to alternative theories of economic growth.
• Virtual Water Savings and Trade in Agriculture The idea of virtual water was initially created as a method for assessing how water-rare nations could offer food, clothing, and other water-intensive products to their residents.
• America’s Agriculture in the Period of 1865-1938 This paper analyzes America’s contribution in prevention of natural calamities, decline of soil quality, promotion of production outlay and provision of sufficient food.
• Capital Taxes and Agriculture
• Canadian Trade With the Chinese Agriculture Market
• Agriculture and Its Impact on Economic Development
• Bacteriocins From the Rhizosphere Microbiome From an Agriculture Perspective
• Agriculture and Its Impact on Financial Institutions
• Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food in the Irish Economy
• Adoption and Economic Impact of Site-Specific Technologies in U.S. Agriculture
• Cash Rents and Land Values in U.S. Agriculture
• Crises and Structural Change in Australian Agriculture
• Biotechnology and Its Application in Agriculture
• Alternative Policies for Agriculture in Europe
• Agriculture and Food Security in Asia by 2030
• Agriculture and Coping Climate Change in Nepal
• Agriculture and Ethiopia’s Economic Transformation
• Culture: Agriculture and Egalitarian Social
• Adaptation, Climate Change, Agriculture, and Water
• Agriculture and the Literati in Colonial Bengal, 1870 to 1940
• Agriculture and Barley Farming Taro
• Agriculture and Agricultural Inputs Markets
• Agriculture and Environmental Challenges
• Challenges for Sustainable Agriculture in India
• Agriculture and German Reunification
• Agriculture and Tourism Relationship in Malaysia Tourism
• 21st Century Rural America: New Horizons for U.S. Agriculture
• Canadian Agriculture and the Canadian Agricultural Industry
• California Agriculture Dimensions and Issues
• Advancements and the Development of Agriculture in Ancient Greece and Rome
• Agriculture and Early Industrial Revolution
• Aztec: Agriculture and Habersham County
• Agriculture and Current Deforestation Practices
• How Has Agriculture Changed From Early Egypt, Greece, and Rome to the Present?
• What Are the Advantages of Using Pesticides on Agriculture?
• Are Digital Technologies for the Future of Agriculture?
• How Did Agriculture Change Our Society?
• Does Agriculture Help Poverty and Inequality Reduction?
• Can Agriculture Prosper Without Increased Social Capital?
• Are Mega-Farms the Future of Global Agriculture?
• How Can African Agriculture Adapt to Climate Change?
• Does Agriculture Really Matter for Economic Growth in Developing Countries?
• Can Conservation Agriculture Save Tropical Forests?
• How Can Sustainable Agriculture Be Better for Americans?
• Are U.S. and European Union Agriculture Policies Becoming More Similar?
• Should Pollution Reductions Count as Productivity Gains for Agriculture?
• Can Market Access Help African Agriculture?
• How Does Genetic Engineering Affect Agriculture?
• Does Individualization Help Productivity of Transition Agriculture?
• Can Spot and Contract Markets Co-Exist in Agriculture?
• How Has Biotechnology Changed Agriculture Throughout the Years?
• Does Trade Policy Impact Food and Agriculture Global Value Chain Participation of Sub-Saharan African Countries?
• Can Sustainable Agriculture Feed Africa?
• How Can Multifunctional Agriculture Support a Transition to a Green Economy in Africa?
• Does Urban Agriculture Enhance Dietary Diversity?
• How Did Government Policy, Technology, and Economic Conditions Affect Agriculture?
• Can the Small Dairy Farm Remain Competitive in US Agriculture?
• What Are the Main Changes in French Agriculture Since 1945 and What Challenges Does It Face Today?
• How Can Marketing Theory Be Applied to Policy Design to Deliver Sustainable Agriculture in England?
• Will African Agriculture Survive Climate Change?
• How Has Agriculture Changed Civilizations?
• Does Urban Agriculture Improve Food Security?
• Can US and Great Plains Agriculture Compete in the World Market?
• The effect of climate change on crop yields and food security.
• Sustainable agricultural practices for soil health.
• Precision agriculture techniques and applications.
• The impact of genetically engineered organisms on crop yields and safety.
• The benefits of agroforestry systems for the environment.
• Current challenges in water management in agriculture.
• The environmental impact of organic farming.
• The potential of urban agriculture to address food insecurity.
• Food waste in the agricultural supply chain.
• Comparing the effectiveness of aquaponic and hydroponic systems.
• Organic vs. conventional farming.
• Can regenerative agriculture combat climate change?
• Agricultural subsidies: pros and cons.
• Should harmful pesticides be banned to protect pollinators?
• Should arable land be used for biofuels or food production?
• Do patent protections of seeds hinder agricultural innovation?
• Agricultural robots: increased efficiency or displaced rural labor?
• Should GMO labeling be mandatory?
• Do the benefits of pesticides outweigh their potential health harms?
• Is it unsustainable to grow water-intensive crops in arid regions?
• The economics of organic farming.
• The need for climate-adaptive crops.
• The role of bees in agriculture and threats to their survival.
• Smart agriculture: transforming farming with data and connectivity.
• The journey of food in modern agricultural supply chains.
• The role of agri-tech startups in agricultural innovation.
• Youth in agriculture: inspiring the next generation of farmers.
• Why should we shift to plant-based meat alternatives?
• The importance of preserving indigenous agricultural practices.
• Smart irrigation systems: optimizing water use in agriculture.

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These essay examples and topics on Agriculture were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on June 20, 2024 .

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Home » 500+ Qualitative Research Titles and Topics

500+ Qualitative Research Titles and Topics

Table of Contents

Qualitative research is a methodological approach that involves gathering and analyzing non-numerical data to understand and interpret social phenomena. Unlike quantitative research , which emphasizes the collection of numerical data through surveys and experiments, qualitative research is concerned with exploring the subjective experiences, perspectives, and meanings of individuals and groups. As such, qualitative research topics can be diverse and encompass a wide range of social issues and phenomena. From exploring the impact of culture on identity formation to examining the experiences of marginalized communities, qualitative research offers a rich and nuanced perspective on complex social issues. In this post, we will explore some of the most compelling qualitative research topics and provide some tips on how to conduct effective qualitative research.

Qualitative Research Titles

Qualitative research titles often reflect the study’s focus on understanding the depth and complexity of human behavior, experiences, or social phenomena. Here are some examples across various fields:

• “Understanding the Impact of Project-Based Learning on Student Engagement in High School Classrooms: A Qualitative Study”
• “Navigating the Transition: Experiences of International Students in American Universities”
• “The Role of Parental Involvement in Early Childhood Education: Perspectives from Teachers and Parents”
• “Exploring the Effects of Teacher Feedback on Student Motivation and Self-Efficacy in Middle Schools”
• “Digital Literacy in the Classroom: Teacher Strategies for Integrating Technology in Elementary Education”
• “Culturally Responsive Teaching Practices: A Case Study in Diverse Urban Schools”
• “The Influence of Extracurricular Activities on Academic Achievement: Student Perspectives”
• “Barriers to Implementing Inclusive Education in Public Schools: A Qualitative Inquiry”
• “Teacher Professional Development and Its Impact on Classroom Practice: A Qualitative Exploration”
• “Student-Centered Learning Environments: A Qualitative Study of Classroom Dynamics and Outcomes”
• “The Experience of First-Year Teachers: Challenges, Support Systems, and Professional Growth”
• “Exploring the Role of School Leadership in Fostering a Positive School Culture”
• “Peer Relationships and Learning Outcomes in Cooperative Learning Settings: A Qualitative Analysis”
• “The Impact of Social Media on Student Learning and Engagement: Teacher and Student Perspectives”
• “Understanding Special Education Needs: Parent and Teacher Perceptions of Support Services in Schools

Health Science

• “Living with Chronic Pain: Patient Narratives and Coping Strategies in Managing Daily Life”
• “Healthcare Professionals’ Perspectives on the Challenges of Rural Healthcare Delivery”
• “Exploring the Mental Health Impacts of COVID-19 on Frontline Healthcare Workers: A Qualitative Study”
• “Patient and Family Experiences of Palliative Care: Understanding Needs and Preferences”
• “The Role of Community Health Workers in Improving Access to Maternal Healthcare in Rural Areas”
• “Barriers to Mental Health Services Among Ethnic Minorities: A Qualitative Exploration”
• “Understanding Patient Satisfaction in Telemedicine Services: A Qualitative Study of User Experiences”
• “The Impact of Cultural Competence Training on Healthcare Provider-Patient Communication”
• “Navigating the Transition to Adult Healthcare Services: Experiences of Adolescents with Chronic Conditions”
• “Exploring the Use of Alternative Medicine Among Patients with Chronic Diseases: A Qualitative Inquiry”
• “The Role of Social Support in the Rehabilitation Process of Stroke Survivors”
• “Healthcare Decision-Making Among Elderly Patients: A Qualitative Study of Preferences and Influences”
• “Nurse Perceptions of Patient Safety Culture in Hospital Settings: A Qualitative Analysis”
• “Experiences of Women with Postpartum Depression: Barriers to Seeking Help”
• “The Impact of Nutrition Education on Eating Behaviors Among College Students: A Qualitative Approach”
• “Understanding Resilience in Survivors of Childhood Trauma: A Narrative Inquiry”
• “The Role of Mindfulness in Managing Work-Related Stress Among Corporate Employees: A Qualitative Study”
• “Coping Mechanisms Among Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder”
• “Exploring the Psychological Impact of Social Isolation in the Elderly: A Phenomenological Study”
• “Identity Formation in Adolescence: The Influence of Social Media and Peer Groups”
• “The Experience of Forgiveness in Interpersonal Relationships: A Qualitative Exploration”
• “Perceptions of Happiness and Well-Being Among University Students: A Cultural Perspective”
• “The Impact of Art Therapy on Anxiety and Depression in Adult Cancer Patients”
• “Narratives of Recovery: A Qualitative Study on the Journey Through Addiction Rehabilitation”
• “Exploring the Psychological Effects of Long-Term Unemployment: A Grounded Theory Approach”
• “Attachment Styles and Their Influence on Adult Romantic Relationships: A Qualitative Analysis”
• “The Role of Personal Values in Career Decision-Making Among Young Adults”
• “Understanding the Stigma of Mental Illness in Rural Communities: A Qualitative Inquiry”
• “Exploring the Use of Digital Mental Health Interventions Among Adolescents: A Qualitative Study”
• “The Psychological Impact of Climate Change on Young Adults: An Exploration of Anxiety and Action”
• “Navigating Identity: The Role of Social Media in Shaping Youth Culture and Self-Perception”
• “Community Resilience in the Face of Urban Gentrification: A Case Study of Neighborhood Change”
• “The Dynamics of Intergenerational Relationships in Immigrant Families: A Qualitative Analysis”
• “Social Capital and Economic Mobility in Low-Income Neighborhoods: An Ethnographic Approach”
• “Gender Roles and Career Aspirations Among Young Adults in Conservative Societies”
• “The Stigma of Mental Health in the Workplace: Employee Narratives and Organizational Culture”
• “Exploring the Intersection of Race, Class, and Education in Urban School Systems”
• “The Impact of Digital Divide on Access to Healthcare Information in Rural Communities”
• “Social Movements and Political Engagement Among Millennials: A Qualitative Study”
• “Cultural Adaptation and Identity Among Second-Generation Immigrants: A Phenomenological Inquiry”
• “The Role of Religious Institutions in Providing Community Support and Social Services”
• “Negotiating Public Space: Experiences of LGBTQ+ Individuals in Urban Environments”
• “The Sociology of Food: Exploring Eating Habits and Food Practices Across Cultures”
• “Work-Life Balance Challenges Among Dual-Career Couples: A Qualitative Exploration”
• “The Influence of Peer Networks on Substance Use Among Adolescents: A Community Study”

Business and Management

• “Navigating Organizational Change: Employee Perceptions and Adaptation Strategies in Mergers and Acquisitions”
• “Corporate Social Responsibility: Consumer Perceptions and Brand Loyalty in the Retail Sector”
• “Leadership Styles and Organizational Culture: A Comparative Study of Tech Startups”
• “Workplace Diversity and Inclusion: Best Practices and Challenges in Multinational Corporations”
• “Consumer Trust in E-commerce: A Qualitative Study of Online Shopping Behaviors”
• “The Gig Economy and Worker Satisfaction: Exploring the Experiences of Freelance Professionals”
• “Entrepreneurial Resilience: Success Stories and Lessons Learned from Failed Startups”
• “Employee Engagement and Productivity in Remote Work Settings: A Post-Pandemic Analysis”
• “Brand Storytelling: How Narrative Strategies Influence Consumer Engagement”
• “Sustainable Business Practices: Stakeholder Perspectives in the Fashion Industry”
• “Cross-Cultural Communication Challenges in Global Teams: Strategies for Effective Collaboration”
• “Innovative Workspaces: The Impact of Office Design on Creativity and Collaboration”
• “Consumer Perceptions of Artificial Intelligence in Customer Service: A Qualitative Exploration”
• “The Role of Mentoring in Career Development: Insights from Women in Leadership Positions”
• “Agile Management Practices: Adoption and Impact in Traditional Industries”

Environmental Studies

• “Community-Based Conservation Efforts in Tropical Rainforests: A Qualitative Study of Local Perspectives and Practices”
• “Urban Sustainability Initiatives: Exploring Resident Participation and Impact in Green City Projects”
• “Perceptions of Climate Change Among Indigenous Populations: Insights from Traditional Ecological Knowledge”
• “Environmental Justice and Industrial Pollution: A Case Study of Community Advocacy and Response”
• “The Role of Eco-Tourism in Promoting Conservation Awareness: Perspectives from Tour Operators and Visitors”
• “Sustainable Agriculture Practices Among Smallholder Farmers: Challenges and Opportunities”
• “Youth Engagement in Climate Action Movements: Motivations, Perceptions, and Outcomes”
• “Corporate Environmental Responsibility: A Qualitative Analysis of Stakeholder Expectations and Company Practices”
• “The Impact of Plastic Pollution on Marine Ecosystems: Community Awareness and Behavioral Change”
• “Renewable Energy Adoption in Rural Communities: Barriers, Facilitators, and Social Implications”
• “Water Scarcity and Community Adaptation Strategies in Arid Regions: A Grounded Theory Approach”
• “Urban Green Spaces: Public Perceptions and Use Patterns in Megacities”
• “Environmental Education in Schools: Teachers’ Perspectives on Integrating Sustainability into Curricula”
• “The Influence of Environmental Activism on Policy Change: Case Studies of Grassroots Campaigns”
• “Cultural Practices and Natural Resource Management: A Qualitative Study of Indigenous Stewardship Models”

Anthropology

• “Kinship and Social Organization in Matrilineal Societies: An Ethnographic Study”
• “Rituals and Beliefs Surrounding Death and Mourning in Diverse Cultures: A Comparative Analysis”
• “The Impact of Globalization on Indigenous Languages and Cultural Identity”
• “Food Sovereignty and Traditional Agricultural Practices Among Indigenous Communities”
• “Navigating Modernity: The Integration of Traditional Healing Practices in Contemporary Healthcare Systems”
• “Gender Roles and Equality in Hunter-Gatherer Societies: An Anthropological Perspective”
• “Sacred Spaces and Religious Practices: An Ethnographic Study of Pilgrimage Sites”
• “Youth Subcultures and Resistance: An Exploration of Identity and Expression in Urban Environments”
• “Cultural Constructions of Disability and Inclusion: A Cross-Cultural Analysis”
• “Interethnic Marriages and Cultural Syncretism: Case Studies from Multicultural Societies”
• “The Role of Folklore and Storytelling in Preserving Cultural Heritage”
• “Economic Anthropology of Gift-Giving and Reciprocity in Tribal Communities”
• “Digital Anthropology: The Role of Social Media in Shaping Political Movements”
• “Migration and Diaspora: Maintaining Cultural Identity in Transnational Communities”
• “Cultural Adaptations to Climate Change Among Coastal Fishing Communities”

Communication Studies

• “The Dynamics of Family Communication in the Digital Age: A Qualitative Inquiry”
• “Narratives of Identity and Belonging in Diaspora Communities Through Social Media”
• “Organizational Communication and Employee Engagement: A Case Study in the Non-Profit Sector”
• “Cultural Influences on Communication Styles in Multinational Teams: An Ethnographic Approach”
• “Media Representation of Women in Politics: A Content Analysis and Audience Perception Study”
• “The Role of Communication in Building Sustainable Community Development Projects”
• “Interpersonal Communication in Online Dating: Strategies, Challenges, and Outcomes”
• “Public Health Messaging During Pandemics: A Qualitative Study of Community Responses”
• “The Impact of Mobile Technology on Parent-Child Communication in the Digital Era”
• “Crisis Communication Strategies in the Hospitality Industry: A Case Study of Reputation Management”
• “Narrative Analysis of Personal Stories Shared on Mental Health Blogs”
• “The Influence of Podcasts on Political Engagement Among Young Adults”
• “Visual Communication and Brand Identity: A Qualitative Study of Consumer Interpretations”
• “Communication Barriers in Cross-Cultural Healthcare Settings: Patient and Provider Perspectives”
• “The Role of Internal Communication in Managing Organizational Change: Employee Experiences”

Information Technology

• “User Experience Design in Augmented Reality Applications: A Qualitative Study of Best Practices”
• “The Human Factor in Cybersecurity: Understanding Employee Behaviors and Attitudes Towards Phishing”
• “Adoption of Cloud Computing in Small and Medium Enterprises: Challenges and Success Factors”
• “Blockchain Technology in Supply Chain Management: A Qualitative Exploration of Potential Impacts”
• “The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Personalizing User Experiences on E-commerce Platforms”
• “Digital Transformation in Traditional Industries: A Case Study of Technology Adoption Challenges”
• “Ethical Considerations in the Development of Smart Home Technologies: A Stakeholder Analysis”
• “The Impact of Social Media Algorithms on News Consumption and Public Opinion”
• “Collaborative Software Development: Practices and Challenges in Open Source Projects”
• “Understanding the Digital Divide: Access to Information Technology in Rural Communities”
• “Data Privacy Concerns and User Trust in Internet of Things (IoT) Devices”
• “The Effectiveness of Gamification in Educational Software: A Qualitative Study of Engagement and Motivation”
• “Virtual Teams and Remote Work: Communication Strategies and Tools for Effectiveness”
• “User-Centered Design in Mobile Health Applications: Evaluating Usability and Accessibility”
• “The Influence of Technology on Work-Life Balance: Perspectives from IT Professionals”

Tourism and Hospitality

• “Exploring the Authenticity of Cultural Heritage Tourism in Indigenous Communities”
• “Sustainable Tourism Practices: Perceptions and Implementations in Small Island Destinations”
• “The Impact of Social Media Influencers on Destination Choice Among Millennials”
• “Gastronomy Tourism: Exploring the Culinary Experiences of International Visitors in Rural Regions”
• “Eco-Tourism and Conservation: Stakeholder Perspectives on Balancing Tourism and Environmental Protection”
• “The Role of Hospitality in Enhancing the Cultural Exchange Experience of Exchange Students”
• “Dark Tourism: Visitor Motivations and Experiences at Historical Conflict Sites”
• “Customer Satisfaction in Luxury Hotels: A Qualitative Study of Service Excellence and Personalization”
• “Adventure Tourism: Understanding the Risk Perception and Safety Measures Among Thrill-Seekers”
• “The Influence of Local Communities on Tourist Experiences in Ecotourism Sites”
• “Event Tourism: Economic Impacts and Community Perspectives on Large-Scale Music Festivals”
• “Heritage Tourism and Identity: Exploring the Connections Between Historic Sites and National Identity”
• “Tourist Perceptions of Sustainable Accommodation Practices: A Study of Green Hotels”
• “The Role of Language in Shaping the Tourist Experience in Multilingual Destinations”
• “Health and Wellness Tourism: Motivations and Experiences of Visitors to Spa and Retreat Centers”

Qualitative Research Topics

Qualitative Research Topics are as follows:

• Understanding the lived experiences of first-generation college students
• Exploring the impact of social media on self-esteem among adolescents
• Investigating the effects of mindfulness meditation on stress reduction
• Analyzing the perceptions of employees regarding organizational culture
• Examining the impact of parental involvement on academic achievement of elementary school students
• Investigating the role of music therapy in managing symptoms of depression
• Understanding the experience of women in male-dominated industries
• Exploring the factors that contribute to successful leadership in non-profit organizations
• Analyzing the effects of peer pressure on substance abuse among adolescents
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with disabilities in the workplace
• Understanding the factors that contribute to burnout among healthcare professionals
• Examining the impact of social support on mental health outcomes
• Analyzing the perceptions of parents regarding sex education in schools
• Investigating the experiences of immigrant families in the education system
• Understanding the impact of trauma on mental health outcomes
• Exploring the effectiveness of animal-assisted therapy for individuals with anxiety
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful intergenerational relationships
• Investigating the experiences of LGBTQ+ individuals in the workplace
• Understanding the impact of online gaming on social skills development among adolescents
• Examining the perceptions of teachers regarding technology integration in the classroom
• Analyzing the experiences of women in leadership positions
• Investigating the factors that contribute to successful marriage and long-term relationships
• Understanding the impact of social media on political participation
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with mental health disorders in the criminal justice system
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful community-based programs for youth development
• Investigating the experiences of veterans in accessing mental health services
• Understanding the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health outcomes
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood obesity prevention
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful multicultural education programs
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in the workplace
• Understanding the impact of poverty on academic achievement
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with autism spectrum disorder in the workplace
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful employee retention strategies
• Investigating the experiences of caregivers of individuals with Alzheimer’s disease
• Understanding the impact of parent-child communication on adolescent sexual behavior
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding mental health services on campus
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful team building in the workplace
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with eating disorders in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of mentorship on career success
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with physical disabilities in the workplace
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful community-based programs for mental health
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with substance use disorders in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of social media on romantic relationships
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding child discipline strategies
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful cross-cultural communication in the workplace
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with anxiety disorders in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of cultural differences on healthcare delivery
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with hearing loss in the workplace
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful parent-teacher communication
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with depression in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of childhood trauma on adult mental health outcomes
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding alcohol and drug use on campus
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful mentor-mentee relationships
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with intellectual disabilities in the workplace
• Understanding the impact of work-family balance on employee satisfaction and well-being
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with autism spectrum disorder in vocational rehabilitation programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful project management in the construction industry
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with substance use disorders in peer support groups
• Understanding the impact of mindfulness meditation on stress reduction and mental health
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood nutrition
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful environmental sustainability initiatives in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with bipolar disorder in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of job stress on employee burnout and turnover
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with physical disabilities in recreational activities
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful strategic planning in nonprofit organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with hoarding disorder in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of culture on leadership styles and effectiveness
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding sexual health education on campus
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful supply chain management in the retail industry
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with personality disorders in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of multiculturalism on group dynamics in the workplace
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic pain in mindfulness-based pain management programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful employee engagement strategies in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with internet addiction disorder in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of social comparison on body dissatisfaction and self-esteem
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood sleep habits
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful diversity and inclusion initiatives in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with schizophrenia in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of job crafting on employee motivation and job satisfaction
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with vision impairments in navigating public spaces
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful customer relationship management strategies in the service industry
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with dissociative amnesia in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of cultural intelligence on intercultural communication and collaboration
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding campus diversity and inclusion efforts
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful supply chain sustainability initiatives in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of transformational leadership on organizational performance and employee well-being
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with mobility impairments in public transportation
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful talent management strategies in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with substance use disorders in harm reduction programs
• Understanding the impact of gratitude practices on well-being and resilience
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood mental health and well-being
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful corporate social responsibility initiatives in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with borderline personality disorder in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of emotional labor on job stress and burnout
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with hearing impairments in healthcare settings
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful customer experience strategies in the hospitality industry
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with gender dysphoria in gender-affirming healthcare
• Understanding the impact of cultural differences on cross-cultural negotiation in the global marketplace
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding academic stress and mental health
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful supply chain agility in organizations
• Understanding the impact of music therapy on mental health and well-being
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with dyslexia in educational settings
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful leadership in nonprofit organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in online support groups
• Understanding the impact of exercise on mental health and well-being
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood screen time
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful change management strategies in organizations
• Understanding the impact of cultural differences on international business negotiations
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with hearing impairments in the workplace
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful team building in corporate settings
• Understanding the impact of technology on communication in romantic relationships
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful community engagement strategies for local governments
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of financial stress on mental health and well-being
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful mentorship programs in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with gambling addictions in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of social media on body image and self-esteem
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood education
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful virtual team management strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with dissociative identity disorder in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of cultural differences on cross-cultural communication in healthcare settings
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic pain in cognitive-behavioral therapy programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful community-building strategies in urban neighborhoods
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with alcohol use disorders in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of personality traits on romantic relationships
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding mental health stigma on campus
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful fundraising strategies for political campaigns
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with traumatic brain injuries in rehabilitation programs
• Understanding the impact of social support on mental health and well-being among the elderly
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in medical treatment decision-making processes
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful innovation strategies in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with dissociative disorders in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of cultural differences on cross-cultural communication in education settings
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood physical activity
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful conflict resolution in family relationships
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with opioid use disorders in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of emotional intelligence on leadership effectiveness
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with learning disabilities in the workplace
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful change management in educational institutions
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with eating disorders in recovery support groups
• Understanding the impact of self-compassion on mental health and well-being
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding campus safety and security measures
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful marketing strategies for nonprofit organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with postpartum depression in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of ageism in the workplace
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with dyslexia in the education system
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with anxiety disorders in cognitive-behavioral therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of socioeconomic status on access to healthcare
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood screen time usage
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful supply chain management strategies
• Understanding the impact of parenting styles on child development
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with addiction in harm reduction programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful crisis management strategies in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with trauma in trauma-focused therapy programs
• Examining the perceptions of healthcare providers regarding patient-centered care
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful product development strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with autism spectrum disorder in employment programs
• Understanding the impact of cultural competence on healthcare outcomes
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in healthcare navigation
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful community engagement strategies for non-profit organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with physical disabilities in the workplace
• Understanding the impact of childhood trauma on adult mental health
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful supply chain sustainability strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with personality disorders in dialectical behavior therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of gender identity on mental health treatment seeking behaviors
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with schizophrenia in community-based treatment programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful project team management strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder in exposure and response prevention therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of cultural competence on academic achievement and success
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding academic integrity
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful social media marketing strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with bipolar disorder in community-based treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of mindfulness on academic achievement and success
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with substance use disorders in medication-assisted treatment programs
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with anxiety disorders in exposure therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of healthcare disparities on health outcomes
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful supply chain optimization strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with borderline personality disorder in schema therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of culture on perceptions of mental health stigma
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with trauma in art therapy programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful digital marketing strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with eating disorders in online support groups
• Understanding the impact of workplace bullying on job satisfaction and performance
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding mental health resources on campus
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful supply chain risk management strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with chronic pain in mindfulness-based pain management programs
• Understanding the impact of cognitive-behavioral therapy on social anxiety disorder
• Understanding the impact of COVID-19 on mental health and well-being
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with eating disorders in treatment programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful leadership in business organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with chronic pain in cognitive-behavioral therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of cultural differences on intercultural communication
• Examining the perceptions of teachers regarding inclusive education for students with disabilities
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with depression in therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of workplace culture on employee retention and turnover
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with traumatic brain injuries in rehabilitation programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful crisis communication strategies in organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with anxiety disorders in mindfulness-based interventions
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in healthcare settings
• Understanding the impact of technology on work-life balance
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with learning disabilities in academic settings
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful entrepreneurship in small businesses
• Understanding the impact of gender identity on mental health and well-being
• Examining the perceptions of individuals with disabilities regarding accessibility in public spaces
• Understanding the impact of religion on coping strategies for stress and anxiety
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in complementary and alternative medicine treatments
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful customer retention strategies in business organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with postpartum depression in therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of ageism on older adults in healthcare settings
• Examining the perceptions of students regarding online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful team building in virtual work environments
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with gambling disorders in treatment programs
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in peer support groups
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful social media marketing strategies for businesses
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with ADHD in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of sleep on cognitive and emotional functioning
• Examining the perceptions of individuals with chronic illnesses regarding healthcare access and affordability
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with borderline personality disorder in dialectical behavior therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of social support on caregiver well-being
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in disability activism
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful cultural competency training programs in healthcare settings
• Understanding the impact of personality disorders on interpersonal relationships
• Examining the perceptions of healthcare providers regarding the use of telehealth services
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with dissociative disorders in therapy programs
• Understanding the impact of gender bias in hiring practices
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with visual impairments in the workplace
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful diversity and inclusion programs in the workplace
• Understanding the impact of online dating on romantic relationships
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood vaccination
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful communication in healthcare settings
• Understanding the impact of cultural stereotypes on academic achievement
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with substance use disorders in sober living programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful classroom management strategies
• Understanding the impact of social support on addiction recovery
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding mental health stigma
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful conflict resolution in the workplace
• Understanding the impact of race and ethnicity on healthcare access and outcomes
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder in treatment programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful project management strategies
• Understanding the impact of teacher-student relationships on academic achievement
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful customer service strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with social anxiety disorder in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of workplace stress on job satisfaction and performance
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with disabilities in sports and recreation
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful marketing strategies for small businesses
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with phobias in treatment programs
• Understanding the impact of culture on attitudes towards mental health and illness
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding sexual assault prevention
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful time management strategies
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with addiction in recovery support groups
• Understanding the impact of mindfulness on emotional regulation and well-being
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with chronic pain in treatment programs
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful conflict resolution in romantic relationships
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with autism spectrum disorder in social skills training programs
• Understanding the impact of parent-child communication on adolescent substance use
• Examining the perceptions of parents regarding childhood mental health services
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful fundraising strategies for non-profit organizations
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with chronic illnesses in support groups
• Understanding the impact of personality traits on career success and satisfaction
• Exploring the experiences of individuals with disabilities in accessing public transportation
• Analyzing the factors that contribute to successful team building in sports teams
• Investigating the experiences of individuals with chronic pain in alternative medicine treatments
• Understanding the impact of stigma on mental health treatment seeking behaviors
• Examining the perceptions of college students regarding diversity and inclusion on campus.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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New Frontiers in Agricultural Extension

New Competencies, Career Opportunities and Research Priorities in Agricultural Extension

Blog 224-How Treated Water Can Fuel a Circular Economy in Agriculture

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Blog 178- a case for more qualitative studies in agriculture.

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In this blog Aditya and Bhuvana argue for mainstreaming qualitative research methods in agricultural research. The blog elaborates on the misplaced, but predominant, notion of superiority of quantitative methods, particularly in Social Science. The choice of method should be a function of the research question and not the other way around. The purpose of this blog is to convince the readers that there is always ‘room at the table’ for qualitative studies in agriculture, and as a discipline we gain by embracing a mixed methods approach.  

I [1] have always been fascinated by qualitative research methods, but I have rarely used one till now in the seven years of my research career. I always end up visualising myself presenting a research grounded in qualitative methods at a Social Science conference – I can literally imagine frowns from my colleagues listening to my presentation and some whispers, “Is it really economics?” or then again “Is it really science?” or “These are merely statements, how do you know they are true?” There is a fascination and a strong preference for quantitative methods among researchers working on social aspects of agriculture. Most courses on research methods have exclusive emphasis on quantitative aspects of research. Use of qualitative methods is limited, even when used, the rigour of such studies in general is very poor. In this blog, we question this prejudice about quantitative methods being in some way superior to qualitative methods. We argue in favour of having more qualitative studies in agriculture.

WHY QUALITATIVE STUDEIS ARE IMPORTANT?

Let us start with our over the top love for quantitative studies. We agree that these are straight forward methods, amenable to statistical testing and lends itself to generalization. However, we should also accept the downside of using only the quantitative lens of enquiry. For instance, consider the most common adoption studies. The typical question to start with is ‘what determines the adoption of new technologies?’.

In a typical study, authors have a prior hypothesis that socio economic variables such as gender, age, education, income, and some technological aspects (mostly perceived) affect technology adoption. Data is collected on these variables, a model which fits the data is used and interpreted based on statistical significance. Most of these studies end up with conclusions, such as younger farmers are more likely to adopt technologies or educated farmers are more likely to do so. In fact, one of my senior colleagues from Statistics used to tell me that social scientists can justify anything; if the coefficient for age is negative, they will interpret it as younger farmers are more entrepreneurial and risk taking, and if the coefficient is positive, interpretation is changed to older farmers, whose experience leads to adoption! This is analogous to the narration in Box 1.

Nevertheless, what policy input can we give to such studies? Is it not already known that education is important? We already know the gender roles and challenges that women-headed farms face. What is it contributing to the progress of the theory or the subject matter? I am not criticizing every study here, of course there are very good papers on adoption using quantitative methods, but I am trying to underscore that not every quantitative paper with huge dataset and sound methods is useful or insightful. On a lighter note, Aditya has created a meme (Figure 1) on things that we find funny in our research papers.

Please allow us to present arguments in favour of qualitative studies. Many of you with a strong background in quantitative methods think that qualitative methods are easier as the sample size would typically be very small and one needs to worry about statistical significance (I used to be one of those, not now!). To do a qualitative study is easier, but it is extremely difficult to do it well. It is more complex, messier and time consuming than a typical quantitative study, but more on this later. Question at this point is: what are the advantages of a qualitative study when done systematically?

Most qualitative methods are inductive (not all, though) and they aim to understand the world based on lived experiences. Many of the constructs which cannot be typically defined or measured as variables can be extracted in this case. Here, each situation is understood on its own, and interpretations are drawn to best explain the scenarios, rather than trying to fit the situation into a pre-existing theory. When we try to fit a given scenario into a pre-conceived model, there are chances of mis-representation and we learn little about the problem. I think this passage from Patton is very relevant in this context.

So, qualitative studies are more interpretive, could explore human behaviour at a more fundamental level and understand farmers’ behaviour from their own world view. These studies could be very useful on their own, or in combination with quantitative methods. Before detailing the typical characteristics of a qualitative study, I think it is helpful to discuss some basics of the philosophy of science.

Broadly there are three main philosophies in science.

• Deductive reasoning – Starting the enquiry with a theoretical background and applying it to understand field situations. It could be either ‘naïve falsification’ where the researchers try to either support a theory or end up with falsifying it based on observations from the field; or ‘critical reasoning’ where the hypothesis based on theory is the starting point, and the hypothesis is then statistically tested.
• Inductive reasoning – This is theory-free reasoning based on observed data. The aim is to understand the story that observations are telling us and then drawing inferences based on these. The philosophy is to develop concepts based on the observed data.
• Abductive reasoning – The philosophy is to critically observe the situation, draw inferences, go back to the field and gather more data to refine the concepts. So, this going back and forth between data collection and analysis differentiates it from the inductive methods.

EPISTEMOLOGY

With this understanding, we can now talk about epistemology. Epistemology is a very difficult term to define. In the simplest explanation, it is a set of rules for creating new knowledge, or rules used to understand the world we live in. Epistemologies pertaining to Social Science can be better represented in the form of a spectrum. We don’t intend to explain all these different strands of epistemology in this blog, those who are interested can read more on these. Figure 2 depicts the spectrum of different epistemologies.

Qualitative methods fall under the epistemology of post-positivism, where the importance is on understanding the context of the situation, giving importance to understanding human interactions and lived experiences of participants. These methods rely on the researcher’s description of perceived reality of the participants. In other words, the aim is not to describe what is real, but what the respondents think is real, based on their world view, because these perceptions are what shape their behaviour.

The purpose of detailing the research philosophies is just this: a researcher can better understand how to approach the problem if they think through on the epistemology they want to select. More importantly, there is no one universal methodological paradigm suited to all situations. One needs to choose the paradigm based on the situation and what they want to achieve. As Patton (1990) puts it ‘research and evaluation should be built on the foundation of a “paradigm of choices” rather than become the handmaiden of any single inevitably narrow disciplinary or methodological paradigm.’

Let us not be closed-minded on the choice of methods and let our choice of method be nothing like a ‘bear choosing to like honey’. Let us be open to and promote more qualitative studies in agriculture as they can generate insights which are beyond the reach and scope of quantitative studies.

Note: We are not experts in the field of qualitative research, as we started working on it only recently and have developed a fascination for it. If there are any errors in the explanation, we totally own them. We also acknowledge that this blog is inspired by the teachings of Prof. Dr Vera Bitsch of TUM, Munich, Germany. Many of the points and literature comes from the classes of the Professor and the discussions afterwards. We are forever grateful to Prof Bitsch for the inspiration.

Recommended for Further Reading

Arsel Z. 2017. Asking questions with reflexive focus: A tutorial on designing and conducting interviews. Journal of Consumer Research 44(4):939-948.

Bitsch V. 2005. Qualitative research: A grounded theory example and evaluation criteria. Journal of Agribusiness 23(345-2016-15096):75-91.

Bitsch V. 2009. Grounded Theory: A research approach to wicked problems in agricultural economics. Mini-symposium on Qualitative Agricultural Economics. Mini-symposium qualitative Agricultural Economics at the International Conference of Agricultural Economists, Beijing, August (2009)

Geertz C. 2000. Deep play: Notes on the Balinese cockfight. Pages 175-201 in:  Culture and politics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

[1] This blog is written in a conversational tone, with ‘I’ and ‘We’ being used interchangeably.

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“The blog was afresh and quite thought provoking. Obviously erosion of knowledge occurs when social science data is strictly put in the boxes of quantitative analysis. Here the methodologies of psychology research may provide us cues in sharpening and pursuing qualitative research methods in agricultural extension. Thank you Aditya and Bhuvana and AESA for the blog. This thought need to be taken forward as a research area for widening meaningful research in an inclusive arena”

“A realistic perspective of social research! This blog introduces qualitative research as a way of understanding a phenomenon in a “holistic way”, which enables a researcher to derive actionable outcomes from his/her empirical work. The need for a qualitative approach stems from a researcher’s goal of dealing with a social phenomenon. He/she may wish to understand the phenomenon – what is happening, with what effects, what are the causes, the relationship between cause and effect, etc. The level at which a researcher wishes to understand the phenomenon (goals) and his/her plans to use the outputs are the keys to determining the research approaches.

I believe that the recent fascination of agricultural social scientists with the quantitative approach stems from the “immediacy” of the “high impact outputs” they get out of their research work. It’s like a researcher learning a new technique, applying it in research work, publishing a high-impact paper, and moving on to the next. In reality, the quantitative techniques are suitable mainly for higher-order “explanatory and prediction research goals” such as associations and cause-effect, which often help in “replicating” the phenomenon (e.g. field interventions). Most of the extension phenomenon stems from real-life faced by agricultural stakeholders, are complex in nature, and we need “metacognitive knowledge” to manage the phenomenon. Acquiring “metacognitive knowledge” is not a direct process, it is a step-by-step approach to moving from factual, conceptual, and procedural knowledge, In simple terms, if we move directly to “explanation” without “description and exploration”, we may not acquire the ability “to replicate” the action (e.g. model)/ “prescribe a solution” (e.g. training/ information/ supplying technology)/”develop an action plan (e.g. decentralized planning).

Qualitative approaches help the social researchers to understand the phenomenon in a realistic way (in terms of what is it?, what are the causes? Why? When? and what effects?), when used along with quantitative approaches, and enable them to deliver actionable outputs (besides increasing their citation index). When the Govt is investing heavily in development programmes, our inadequate understanding of a social phenomenon will lead to hasty and poor decisions.

When the Government is investing heavily in multiple agricultural support programs for doubling the farmers’ income, soil health, credit delivery, special sector development (SC/ST/NEH/Women/Youth), it is essential for social science researchers to help the Government machinery with relevant methods, implementation guidelines, tools and policy support information. A recent World Bank report on repurposing agricultural policies indicates that current support for agriculture produces low value for money as a way of helping farmers – for every dollar of public support, the return to farmers is just 35 cents. As agricultural social scientists, we have a greater role to play in the development process (apart from enriching our biodata) and qualitative approaches are the key to conducting “responsible and outcome-driven” social research.

This well-articulated blog is putting focus on the importance of qualitative studies in agricultural science. However, this importance is hardly recognized. The research methodology courses offered in social sciences are less focused on qualitative methods and their application. This is evident from the abysmally lower number of PG/Ph.D. studies with a qualitative focus. Hence, it is important to open our views and gain a better understanding of qualitative approaches to have more paradigm choices for a social scientist.

“Hope the young social scientists will imbibe the spirit and essence of this blog. Qualitative data is often presented as a narrative and collect the experiences and insights of farmers (why and how).

Quantitative data collection retrieves numerical data in terms of what, where and when. Hence both quantitative and qualitative data analysis are important. It is better to adopt a combination of both. Qualitative analysis is relevant because the data shared by individuals is more powerful in analysing complex systems, which will be able to illustrate how the implementation of programmes and policies are working in the field settings.

However, there are concerns with the qualitative methodology. One important concern is to remove subjectivity to the extent possible. If there’s subjectivity, methodological ways to generate consensus need to be adopted. There should be normalisation of such data. I congratulate the authors for the blog”

To get information fast initially Qualitative methods help a lot. To have more valid findings qualitative methods need to be twined with quantitative approach

There are no two opinions about using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods in social science research. The reasons for the social scientists not in favor of qualitative research is obvious. As is well known qualitative research is subjective and it is difficult for the researcher to defend the results (even if qualitatively superior) unless the results are supported by the quantitative data. On the other hand quantitative research need not to take the support of qualitative data, often ignoring the quality of research. As argued by the authors that qualitative methods definitely help in understanding the ground realities which we normally miss while using only quantitative methods. I share our experiences in this regard.

When we wanted to study the level of poverty in Women Self Help Groups, we adopted the usual quantitative method of family income to categorize families into rich and poor. We also asked the members to indicate the constructs which help in identifying poor families They consider families as poor if

i. they cannot afford to take breakfast

ii. their houses are kutcha ( at least one out of the three viz roof, walls or floor is not pukka)

iii. they do not have debts

iv. they do not own a two wheeler etc.

Similarly, when we wish to know how many families do not consume milk, we obtained the data through usual surveys. But again, when we observe some of the school children taking the tumbler of milk home ( for making tea for all the family members) instead of they drinking the milk supplied by the Govt. as part of mid day meal scheme, that explains the glaring realities of rural life..

Congratulations to the authors Aditya and Bhuvana.

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Ai generator.

Industrial areas are associated with concentrated pools of personal and economic opportunities. However, urban imagery is misconstrued as the sole concretization of progress. We are abandoning agricultural lands in search of greener pastures in the cement and steel wonderland. We are converting fertile fields into urban projects, gambling our food source, for one. To mitigate future more devastating losses, academic institutes have poured hard work into writing researches in agriculture.

Agriculture research can be either or both qualitative and quantitative research . Agricultural science is not a new idea. It started roughly around the time when man learned he could grow his food. The concept was simple: “Plant A is edible, Plant B is not. Let’s plant more of A.” As humans practiced growing plants and animals for general consumption, we learned better ways to generate a better yield. Soon, we developed tools for the trade: chemicals, machines, and their derivatives that make farming more systematic and efficient.

Why We Research

More than 20,000 years since man’s first attempt at cultivation , yet a lot about agriculture is still an open question. Farming is not just about sowing seeds and reaping fruits. Complex processes occur between the planting and harvesting periods. In the past, farmers rely on trial-and-error methods to find out what works for them. Not having a strong and reliable foundation for our next move could mean our families would be hungry indefinitely. Just producing food wasn’t enough.

Food security

The marriage of agriculture and education allowed better crop management. We increased the yield and nutritional value of plants while making them grow healthier. We saw development in farming methods and innovations based on research and scientific investigations. An in-depth understanding of plant biology allowed for improved food production and reduced damages from pestilence and acts of God.

It is in the genes

Rice is one of the primary agricultural commodities in the world. Rice flowers bloom at a specific period in the morning, at times for two hours, for a few days. In that short time, the plant must be able to pollinate successfully. However, favorable weather will not discount the impact of pests and infections on the plant’s normal life cycle. One of the things that agricultural research scientists in the lab have worked on is tinkering with the genes of different rice varieties to extend or shorten the flowering time and making the plant resistant to fatal infestations and conditions.

Bigger is better

Another feat in the history of agriculture is farmers transforming corn into what it is today. In the past, a starkly different-looking plant would bear small fruits, not unlike the size of our fingers. The early civilization in Mexico did not have the present knowledge and resource about corn’s biology and genetics. It took several thousands of years of selectively cultivating the desirable traits of the plant teosinte into the hearty sized corn cob that we know and love today.

But not always

Not all agriculture research has turned out desirable, however. For years, people have worked on producing a big, juicy variant of red tomatoes. Researchers have tinkered with the genes that influence the size of the fruit. By doing so, they have unintentionally affected the genes that make the tomatoes taste good. Therefore, some big tomatoes today aren’t palatable as the genetic pathway responsible for its distinct sweetness was accidentally altered.

Nevertheless, agricultural science is hard at work on its effort to keep the world fed and healthy. It is unswayed in finding better ways to produce food that meet the demands of the modern world.

Price For Progress

However, it seems that the modern world is the giant goliath of farmers and scientists. Our idea of progress and advancement left out the contribution of agriculture in the past. Not to mention, people now prefer working in offices and establishments. The rise in population, decreasing land area to grow food, and the declining number of people who see farming as a good job to get all threaten our food security.

In urban areas, indoor gardening is gaining momentum. The rising prices of commodities makes growing your food a sensible choice. However, we should note that that small space in your apartment balcony or that small strip of land beside your house can’t feed you and your family forever.

10+ Agriculture Research Examples

If we can’t regain the farm lands or provide support to the dwindling population of farmers, we will face food crisis. We need to intensify agricultural research to prevent global hunger.

1. National Agriculture Research Example

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2. Global Agriculture Research System Example

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3. Agriculture Research in Development Example

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4. Agriculture Investment Research Example

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5. Computer Application in Agriculture Research Example

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6. Standard Agriculture Research Example

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7. Printable Agricultural Research Example

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8. Long Term Agriculture Research Example

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9. Agriculture Assessment Ethics Research Example

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10. Sample Agriculture Research in Development Example

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11. Public Agriculture Research Example

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Getting Started

The following are reminders on how to make writing your agricultural research papers less arduous.

1. Define The Problem

Your first step to any research is identifying the area that you wish to work on. A literature review is a good way to start your case. Reading on updated and recent materials regarding your chosen topic will help you explore the problem and determine its place in the context of society. Is the problem urgent? Is your contribution original? By spotting the gaps in related literature, you can give new information or significantly improve current practices.

2. Write A Proposal

Drafting a research proposal requires the researcher’s familiarity with the chosen topic and thesis design. Reviewers will look into your capacity to perform the study before it is approved. The convincing pledge of skill is found in your literature review. When you are vying for a study grant, you should consider the interests of the institution that you are approaching. Their priorities should be aligned with the goals of your research.

3. The Common Good

Since you are proposing a study in agriculture, you should be aware of the goal of this community. Your expected findings should be beneficial to the farmers and the agricultural sector. The problem should be specific, clear, relevant, and timely. Even if the result will be negative, the study should still have something useful to provide the community. Don’t forget, your research must follow all the ethical guidelines for research.

4. Be Two Steps Ahead

Create a visual roadmap for your research project. Flow charts and research plans are organization tools that will help you a great deal during your entire endeavor. They keep you grounded on the things you have to perform. You can also track your progress the whole time using Gantt charts , and see to it that your goals are achieved. Cover your bases and plan a successful study ahead.

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Understanding Gender and Culture in Agriculture: The Role of Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches

• First Online: 01 January 2014

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• Julia A. Behrman 7 ,
• Ruth Meinzen-Dick 8 &
• Agnes R. Quisumbing 9  

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Because gender relations are complex and context-specific, nuanced, context-specific data collection and analytical methods are recommended. This chapter presents a suite of quantitative and qualitative methods for collecting and analyzing data on gender relations in agriculture. It begins with a detailed overview of how quantitative and qualitative methodologies can be employed to collect gender and assets data for agricultural research. It reviews the use of mixed-methods approaches in research projects to strengthen research findings and to create a more complete and convincing picture of gender relationships. Three case studies illustrate the ways in which qualitative and quantitative data can be used together in analyzing the gender dimensions of agriculture: adoption of maize varieties in Mexico, adoption of maize varieties in Zimbabwe, and agricultural technology dissemination in Bangladesh. In these three examples, using integrated mixed-methods enabled researchers to understand more about the processes underlying the adoption of agricultural technologies. The chapter concludes with a number of important data needs for gender work in quantitative and qualitative agricultural research.

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These studies included Guyer ( 1980 ), Tripp ( 1982 ), Pahl ( 1983 ), and studies from different countries (for example, Fapohunda 1988 ) in the volume edited by Dwyer and Bruce ( 1988 ). A series of studies on agricultural commercialization and nutrition in developing countries also found that income controlled by women is more likely to be spent on food than is income controlled by men (Kennedy 1994 ). Evidence that men and women may have different production priorities can be found in the work of Dey ( 1985 ) and von Braun and Webb ( 1989 ) on irrigated rice in The Gambia, Jones’s ( 1983 ) formal model of intrahousehold conflict and husband’s and wife’s gains from cooperation based on work in the Cameroon, Mukhopadhyay’s ( 1984 ) decision model of the sexual division of labor for household tasks, Hill’s ( 1963 , 1978 ) description of Fante women’s entrepreneurial behavior, and Gladwin’s ( 1975 , 1982 ) models of women’s marketing and farming decisions. Implications of these differences for project design are discussed by Cloud ( 1983 ). These and other studies from Sub-Saharan Africa are reviewed in Gladwin and Macmillan ( 1989 ). By the mid-1990s, economists appeared to be developing a considerable level of interest in the issue of the unitary household, to which the research by Chris Udry ( 1996 ) and others in Burkina Faso was particularly important and continues to be heavily cited (Jackson 2005 ). IFPRI played an important role in bringing together current research on gender and intrahousehold issues—and in catalyzing future research—through a 1992 conference, the proceedings of which produced a publication comprising 30 policy briefs and, eventually, a book (Haddad et al. 1997 ).

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We accept a wide ranging conception of assets that spans both tangible and intangible assets, including physical assets, financial assets, social capital, human capital, and so on.

While randomized placement of the intervention has been viewed as the gold standard for impact evaluation, other approaches may be more feasible, depending on context. This includes matching methods, regression discontinuity designs, and instrumental variables approaches.

This section draws from some of the background work reported in Hoddinott and Quisumbing ( 2003 ) as well as Adato and Meinzen-Dick ( 2002 ).

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Behrman, J.A., Meinzen-Dick, R., Quisumbing, A.R. (2014). Understanding Gender and Culture in Agriculture: The Role of Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. In: Quisumbing, A., Meinzen-Dick, R., Raney, T., Croppenstedt, A., Behrman, J., Peterman, A. (eds) Gender in Agriculture. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8616-4_2

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How to Conduct Research on Your Farm or Ranch

Qualitative research.

or call (301) 779-1007 to order.

Qualitative research methods are used in many different fields, especially in the social sciences and education. With qualitative research, whatever is being studied (e.g., human behavior, animal behavior, marketing strategies, community dynamics, program effectiveness) is explored in context. Researchers look closely at the factors that influence their research population and try to correlate findings with key characteristics of that population. The researcher usually does not introduce treatments or manipulate variables. Rather, they gather data through interviews, detailed case studies or certain kinds of surveys. They also use existing data sets extensively for background research and to corroborate findings and conclusions. Along with conceptualizing the research and carrying out the data collecting, researchers involved in qualitative research also word questionnaires and surveys, and conduct one-on-one interviews with project participants. In addition, qualitative research offers flexibility, as researchers can adjust the scope and techniques for collecting data as patterns emerge. Table 7 summarizes some of the key differences between qualitative and quantitative research methods described in earlier sections of this publication.

TABLE 7. Difference Between Quantitative and Qualitative Research

• DOI: 10.22004/AG.ECON.59612
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Qualitative Research: A Grounded Theory Example and Evaluation Criteria

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My data speak to me: grounded theory as a tool for analysis in qualitative research.

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An integrated 'within' mixed research methodological approach: applying grounded theory to survey design

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GENDER DIMENSIONS OF CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT ON CROP PRODUCTION AND ADAPTATION STRATEGIES IN THE NADOWLI-KALEO DISTRICT, GHANA

Climate change has become a well-known global issue which has the greatest impact on agriculture which is the mainstay of the people in Nadowli-Kaleo District. Although climate change affects everyone but its impacts are differently distributed among males and females. This study analyzed the gender differentiated impacts of climate change on agricultural production and the adaptation strategies by the farmers in the Nadowli-Kaleo District. The study adopted both qualitative and quantitative ...

FARMERS’ WILLINGNESS TO PAY FOR PRIVATE IRRIGATION SUPPLY IN NANDOM DISTRICT, GHANA

This study investigated farmers willingness to pay (WTP) for private irrigation in Nandom district, Ghana. The study randomly sampled 236 farmers and analyzed data using descriptive statistics and ordered logit regression model. Results revealed that 94.5 percent of the farmers were WTP for private irrigation services with a mean of 35.83 cedis. Farmers’ WTP is determined by income, age, farm size, engagement in an off-farm occupation, labour hours invested in farm operation, yield losses e...

ADOPTION OF GREEN REVOLUTION SERVICES AND POVERTY REDUCTION IN GHANA

In Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) the technological advances of the Green Revolution (GR) have not been very successful. However, the efforts being made to re-introduce the revolution call for more socio-economic research into the adoption and the effects of the new technologies. The paper discusses an investigation on the effects of GR technology adoption on poverty among households in Ghana. Maximum likelihood estimation of a poverty model within the framework of Heckman's two stage method of cor...

RICE IMPORTATION LIBERALIZATION IN GHANA: IMPLICATIONS FOR SMALLHOLDER RICE PRODUCTION IN NORTHERN GHANA

The case of rice import liberalization in Ghana is an interesting and highly distinctive one. One of the policies of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) is to support an increase in local rice production in order to reduce imports by about 30% as part of efforts to promote food sufficiency. Its strategy aims to increase mechanization, the cultivation of inland valleys, effective and efficient use of existing irrigation systems and further development of irrigation. Ironically, this po...

PROBLEMS TO STANDARDIZATION AND MARKETING OF TRADITIONAL HERBAL MEDICINE IN THE BUlLS A NORTH DISTRICT

Traditional medicine has been in practice in Ghana for several decades and the patronage is high. Several people use it and believe in it. However, traditional medicine in the Builsa North District is not standardized; hence, the research was to investigate the problems to standardization, and marketing of traditional herbal medicine in the Builsa North District in the upper east region of Ghana. Focus was on the discovery of the raw materials for the medicine, the processing and preparation ...

Determinants for rainwater harvesting adoption: a case study of smallholder farmers in Murang’a County, Kenya

Abstract Rainwater harvesting has been practiced among smallholder farmers for centuries in many parts of the world. Recently, it has gained more attention due to the reported increasing water demand and the need for sustainable water management. Drawing on data from a cross sectional survey of 384 household heads (HH), the research study explored the determinants for rainwater harvesting among smallholder farmers in Murang’a County, Kenya. Multistage random sampling technique was employed...

Soil nutrients and crop yield response to conservation-effective management practices in the sub-humid highlands agro-ecologies of Kenya

Abstract Crop productivity in most smallholder farming systems in Sub-Saharan Africa experience low use of soil amendment resources, low and erratic rainfall, frequent dry spells, and droughts. Rain-fed agriculture has a high crop yield potential if rainfall and soil nutrient input resources are utilized effectively. Thus, in 2011, we set up an on-farm experiment in Meru South (sub-humid) and Mbeere South (marginal sub-humid) sub-counties in upper Eastern Kenya to assess conservation-effecti...

The response of soil physicochemical properties to tillage and soil fertility resources in Central Highlands of Kenya

Abstract To attain agricultural sustainability, use of soil resources and tillage requires equal consideration for chemical and physical components of soil fertility. We assessed responses of selected soil physical and chemical properties to tillage and soil fertility amending resources. The study was carried out in Meru South and Kandara sub-counties located in the Central Highlands of Kenya for four cropping seasons. The experimental design was split-plot with tillage as the main factor - ...

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