research title about pollution in the philippines

Estimating the Health & Economic Cost of Air Pollution in the Philippines

In the Philippines, air pollution is the third highest risk factor driving death and disability due to non-communicable diseases (NCDs), and is also the leading environmental risk to health (IHME 2020). Its costs are not limited to the individual or community level, but also nationally, as air pollution-related health impacts yield corresponding financial and economic costs, which are often unaccounted for in policymaking. 

To add urgency to the issue, a growing body of scientific studies and literature are finding that air pollution is more dangerous to human health than previously thought. The World Health Organization updated its National Ambient Air Quality Guidelines (AQG) in September 2021, tightening the guidelines of annual average air pollution exposure to 5µg/m 3 from 10µg/m 3 for PM 2.5 and to 10µg/m 3 from 40µg/m 3 for nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ).

Quantifying the impacts of air pollution on human health and the economy is important, especially in countries like the Philippines, where air pollution levels are increasing due to a growing number of fossil fuel pollution sources across various sectors. 

Our research found that air pollution was responsible for 66,230 deaths in the Philippines in 2019, of which 64,920 deaths were estimated to be adults and 1,310 children. This is significantly higher than previous estimates made for the country, aligning the impact with the most recent literature. The corresponding economic cost of exposure to air pollution is estimated at PHP 2.32 trillion (US$ 44.8 billion) in 2019 , or a GDP equivalent of 11.9% of the country’s GDP in 2019. Premature deaths account for most of the estimated economic cost at PHP 2.2 trillion (US$ 42.8 billion). 

This report covers the methodology and results of estimating the health and economic cost of air pollution in the Philippines under three scenarios: a baseline scenario, a WHO 2005 AQG-compliant scenario, and a WHO 2021 AQG-compliant scenario.

6 February 2023

Lauri Myllyvirta, Hubert Thieriot, Isabella Suarez

Philippines

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Tackling air pollution in the Philippines

Affiliations.

• 1 College of Medicine, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines.
• 2 Planetary and Global Health Program, St Luke's Medical Center College of Medicine-William H Quasha Memorial, Quezon City 1112, Philippines; Sunway Centre for Planetary Health, Sunway University, Selangor, Malaysia. Electronic address: [email protected].
• PMID: 35397217
• DOI: 10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00065-1

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Conflict of interest statement

RRG is a member of the Editorial Advisory Board of The Lancet Planetary Health. OAGT declares no competing interests.

• Global urban temporal trends in fine particulate matter (PM 2·5 ) and attributable health burdens: estimates from global datasets. Southerland VA, Brauer M, Mohegh A, Hammer MS, van Donkelaar A, Martin RV, Apte JS, Anenberg SC. Southerland VA, et al. Lancet Planet Health. 2022 Feb;6(2):e139-e146. doi: 10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00350-8. Epub 2022 Jan 5. Lancet Planet Health. 2022. PMID: 34998505 Free PMC article.

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Value of clean water resources: estimating the water quality improvement in metro manila, philippines.

1. Introduction

1.1. water quality issues, 1.2. study area and the issue, 1.3. objective, 2. materials and methods, 2.1. contingent valuation method, 2.2. survey design, 2.3. survey administration technique and data collection, 3.1. overview, 3.2. data validation, 3.3. wtp and economic value of water quality improvement, 4. discussion and policy implications, 5. conclusions and future plans, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest, scenario presented in the survey on water quality improvement in metro manila, philippines.

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Jalilov, S.-M. Value of Clean Water Resources: Estimating the Water Quality Improvement in Metro Manila, Philippines. Resources 2018 , 7 , 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources7010001

Jalilov S-M. Value of Clean Water Resources: Estimating the Water Quality Improvement in Metro Manila, Philippines. Resources . 2018; 7(1):1. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources7010001

Jalilov, Shokhrukh-Mirzo. 2018. "Value of Clean Water Resources: Estimating the Water Quality Improvement in Metro Manila, Philippines" Resources 7, no. 1: 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources7010001

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Environmental Challenges in the Philippines

• First Online: 21 April 2017

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• Yves Boquet 2  

Part of the book series: Springer Geography ((SPRINGERGEOGR))

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The Republic of the Philippines is one of most exposed countries in the world to many “natural” hazards: earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunami, lahar flows, typhoons, flooding, landslides, and sea level rise. Earthquake risks make Metro Manila especially vulnerable, due to the high population density and the poor quality of buildings, partly linked to corruption. This chapter examines the current policies to reduce risk in the metropolis and the scales of vulnerability, both at the national, regional, community and individual levels, focusing on the resilience of people and society when confronted with danger. Their vulnerability is heightened with several forms of environmental degradation, such as deforestation, soil impoverishments, mining impacts, all favoring landslides and floods, as well as the loss in biodiversity, both in maritime and land areas. Despite the establishment of protected areas and natural parks, adaptation to climate change and mitigation of damage remains difficult and requires building up a better institutional resilience.

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Each event recorded in this database is killed at least ten people, affected at least 100 people or needed international aid.

http://www.preventionweb.net/english/countries/statistics/?cid=135

Adaptations are actions that people do to adjust to stimuli, such as rainfall or flooding. Mitigation, in the context of climate change, is more about reducing greenhouse-gas emission (Mayuga 2015 ). Adaptations are more local in scale, mitigation more global in scope.

For example in 1645 (destruction of Manila’s cathedral), even as the epicenter was far the city, in Gabaldon, Nueva Ecija . The latest major tremor affecting Manila with casualties and destructions was the 1968 Casiguran earthquake, with an epicenter in Aurora province.

http://www.gov.ph/downloads/1977/02feb/19770219-PD-1096-FM.pdf

Twelve non-technical questions, accompanied by simple drawings, easy to answer by any resident: (1) Who built or designed my house? (2) How old is my house? (3) Has my house been damaged by past earthquakes or other disasters? (4) What is the shape of my house? (5) Has my house been extended or expanded? (6) Are the external walls of my house 6-inch (150 mm) thick? (7) Are steel bars of standard size and spacing used in walls? (8) Are there unsupported walls more than 3 m wide? (9) What is the gable wall of my house made of? (10) What is the foundation of my house? (11) What is the soil condition under my house? (12) What is the overall condition of my house?

http://www.ndrrmc.gov.ph/index.php/13-disaster-risk-reduction-and-management-laws/1457-the-valley-fault-system-atlas

http://www.nababaha.com/marikina_valley_fault.htm

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Such as the European Union, CARE Netherlands , GIZ (German Agency for International Cooperation), USAid or JICA.

“Adaptation” refers to policies helping protect citizens, the economy, and the environment from climate change impacts like storms, drought, flooding, landslides, and heat waves. Climate change “mitigation” refers to policies aiming at a reduction of carbon emissions from the transportation, garbage management, agriculture, energy, and industrial sectors.

The forum was originally composed of 20 developing countries (Afghanistan, Bangladesh , Barbados, Bhutan, Costa Rica , Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Kiribati, Madagascar , Maldives, Nepal , Philippines, Rwanda, St Lucia, Tanzania, Timor Leste, Tuvalu, Vanuatu , Vietnam ), The inaugural meeting of this “V-20” took place in Lima, Peru , in October 2015, in conjunction with the 2015 Annual Meetings of the World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund, with the Philippines serving as chair of the meeting. The call to create the V20 originated from the Climate Vulnerable Forum’s Costa Rica Action Plan (2013–2015) in a major effort to strengthen economic and financial responses to climate change. It foresaw a high-level policy dialogue pertaining to action on climate change and the promotion of climate resilient and low emission development with full competence for addressing economic and financial issues beyond the remit of any one organization. The 20 original members were later joined by 23 more countries (Burkina Faso, Cambodia , Comoros, Democratic Republic of Congo, Dominican Republic, Fiji , Grenada, Guatemala, Haiti , Honduras, Malawi, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Morocco, Niger, Palau , Papua New Guinea , Senegal, South Sudan, Sri Lanka , Sudan, Tunisia and Yemen).

In Paris , President Aquino pledged a whopping 70% in reduction of carbon emissions by the Philippines, while approving the operation of at least 27 coal-fired power plants, no more than a month after the UN Climate conference, to insure the provision of electricity to the country. Upon his arrival at the Philippine presidency, Rodrigo Duterte announced he was not bound by the “crazy pledges” of his predecessor and would honor the 70% commitment, preferring to re-think the country’s priorities and the right balance between climate change protection and the need to provide economic development tools (energy) for the country.

Such as the May 2015 Climate Vulnerability Regional Forum in Manila attended by delegates from Afghanistan, Cambodia , Maldives, Mongolia, Myanmar, Pakistan , Papua New Guinea , Tajikistan, Timor Leste and Vietnam .

As well as other environmental laws such as the Renewable Energy Act, the Solid Waste Management Act and the Environmental Awareness Education Act.

http://www.pagasa.dost.gov.ph / (Pagasa national weather service), http://weather.com.ph/weathertv/ , http://www.hurricanezone.net/ all offer detailed information about active typhoons

“Resilience Capacity Building for Cities and Municipalities to Reduce Disaster Risks from Climate Change and Natural Hazards”

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Resiliency is another, much less used, form of this word. Resiliency is used mostly in North America, as an alternate to resilience

Etymologically it is derived from “Bathala”, the ancient Supreme Being worshiped by Filipinos during the pre-Spanish Period. It is akin to the Arabic/Muslim expression “Inshallah” (at the will of God)

A word derived from kapwa , a Tagalog term widely used when addressing another with the intention of establishing a connection. Kapwa looks for what people have in common as human beings, not as rich or poor, young or old, man, woman or child. According to this thinking, people always remain just people (“ tao lang ”) despite titles, prestigious positions or wealth, or abject poverty. What really matters is their behavior and their ethics. The essence of humanity is recognizable in everyone, linking (including) people rather than separating (excluding) them from each other.

Pagpapanday ng Kalakasan (finding and cultivating strengths); Paghahanap ng Kalutasan at Kaagapay (seeking solutions and support); Pangangalaga sa Katawan (managing physical reactions); Pagsasaayos ng Kalooban at Isipan (managing thoughts and emotions); Pagsasagawa ng Kapakipakinabang na Gawain (engaging in regular and positive activities); Pag-usad sa Kinabukasan (moving forward).

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Boquet, Y. (2017). Environmental Challenges in the Philippines. In: The Philippine Archipelago. Springer Geography. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51926-5_22

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How Did the Philippines Become the World’s Biggest Ocean Plastic Polluter?

As summer vacation commences, tourists are bound to flock to the Philippines, a nation known for its iconic islands that house some of the world’s whitest sands and most transparent waters. Unfortunately, the Asian nation has also made waves by being crowned as the world’s biggest ocean plastic polluter. In this article, we dive into the persistent plastic pollution in the country’s waters.

Assessing Ocean Plastic Pollution in the Philippines

The Philippines had the largest share of global plastic waste discarded in the ocean in 2019. The country was responsible for 36.38% of global oceanic plastic waste, far more than the second-largest plastic polluter, India, which in the same year accounted for about 12.92% of the total.

Contrary to popular belief, most plastic waste does not enter the sea directly. Conversely, it makes its way to the sea from smaller water streams. 

According to a 2021 study , 80% of plastic waste comes from rivers and seven of the top ten plastic-polluted rivers in the world are in the Philippines. Pasig River even dethrones the previously most polluted river in 2017 , the Yangtze River of China. 

How Does Plastic Pollution Affect the Environment?

The Philippines prides itself on having one of the world’s most diverse marine biodiversity. By being at the apex of the Coral Triangle, the country holds an extensive system of coral reefs occupying more than 27,000 square kilometres (10,425 square miles). 

Dubbed the “rainforest of the sea”, coral reefs are the essence of marine ecosystems , with 25% of the ocean’s fish relying on them for shelter, food, and reproduction.

Unfortunately, this centralisation of dependence is easily overthrown once coral reefs encounter threats such as rising ocean temperatures and plastic pollution. 

A 2018 study showed that, without the presence of plastic, coral reefs have a 4% likelihood of contracting a disease. With plastic, the risk dramatically increases to 89% due to the spread of pathogens. 

This phenomenon triggers a chain reaction, as it disrupts marine ecosystems and causes nearby sea animals to consume microplastics. Microplastics are smaller pieces of plastic generated through processes such as weathering and exposure to wave action and more. Their consumption is evidently persisting in the Philippines, where nearly half of all rabbitfish , a commonly consumed fish species, were found to contain traces of microplastics.

By dumping plastics into the sea, these eventually enter our bloodstream. According to the United Nations, more than 51 trillion microplastic particles litter the world’s seas, a quantity that outnumbers the stars in our galaxy by 500 times.

While we are increasingly aware of where microplastics can be found, we are still relatively in the dark about their impact on the environment and especially on human health. Yet, there is no doubt that microplastics contain highly toxic and harmful chemicals.

You might also like: 5 Coral Reefs That Are Currently Under Threat and Dying

What’s Behind the Philippines’ Plastic Pollution Crisis?

The Philippines has a peculiar culture of consuming products in small quantities. For example, instead of buying a regular bottle of shampoo, many people opt for sachets sold at local stores at a much lower price. 

With a reported 20 million people living below the poverty line in 2021, the country’s widespread poverty leaves citizens hunting for the cheapest alternative. Large corporations exploit this situation by offering palm-sized packages of products and building a “sachet economy”, further exacerbating plastic pollution in the country. 

Nonetheless, it is said that there is no other material that offers safer and quicker transportation of food like plastic does. 

Instead of merely focusing on reducing plastic use, governments should also consider increasing the accessibility to proper disposal facilities. Indeed, the head of Philippine Alliance for Recycling and Materials Sustainability Crispian Lao states that 70% of Filipinos lack access to disposal facilities, which steers plastic waste directly to oceans. With minimal exposure to environmentally-friendly options for plastic disposal, the population often lacks awareness of plastic pollution.

This highlights another problem: The lack of government action. 

Among the reasons behind plastic pollution being such a big issue in the Philippines is government mismanagement. More specifically, the government is criticised for merely having good laws surrounding waste disposal but often failing to properly enforce them . 

In 2001, the government established the Waste Management Act to tackle the nation’s growing solid waste problem through methods such as prohibition of open dumps for solid waste and by adopting systematic waste segregation. Two decades later, the Commission on Audit stated that there has still been a “steady” increase in waste generation. 

You might also like: 4 Biggest Environmental Issues in the Philippines in 2024

How Do We Fix This?

In the grand scheme of things, most of the causes of plastic pollution could be addressed with proper government intervention. Instead of feeding into the corporate agenda that maximises plastic production, the government could take notes from its surrounding Asian regions. 

For example, Taiwan was responsible for a meagre 0.05% of global oceanic plastic waste in 2019, owing to numerous legislation to protect its waters from plastic that the country enforced in recent years, including the Marine Pollution Control Act in 2000 and the Action Plan of Marine Debris Governance in 2018. In 2020, the Environmental Protection Administration declared a ban on all free plastic straws and has now pledged to ban all single-use plastics by 2030. With years of revising and enforcing plans, Taiwan can now aim for bigger environmental goals.

Another great example is China. Up until 2017, the country was the largest importer of plastic . Since the introduction of a ban on imported waste in 2018, including different types of plastics, things have drastically changed. The ban effectively halved the amount of imported waste. Ultimately, China was responsible for only 7.22% of global oceanic plastic pollution in 2019. 

Additionally, the Philippine government could extend its success from the six-month closure of its tropical landmark Boracay in 2018, following former President Duterte’s order to carry out rehabilitation works to restore the island’s pristine condition from pollution.

A survey conducted in February 2018 by the Philippines News Agency found that a staggering 716 out of 834 businesses had no discharge permit and were draining contaminated water into the sea.

Before the closure, the faecal coliform level in Boracay waters was at nearly 900 most probably number (MPN) per 100 millilitres (ml). The acceptable level for swimming conditions is 100 MPN per 100ml. By the time it reopened, Boracay’s coliform concentration had plummeted to 40 MPN per 100 ml, indicating a much cleaner environment.

Despite the financial loss that came with the prolonged closure of Boracay, numerous stakeholders have stated that it was worth it. 

You might also like: 10 Plastic Pollution in the Ocean Facts You Need to Know

As this example shows, short-term efforts can lead to long-term improvements.

Especially if aided by government measures, the actions of an entire nation can go a long way. By increasing the number of accessible recycling bins, people would be one step closer to classifying their trash. By imposing fees or even bans on the use or production of plastics, people would have no plastic to throw into the seas. By simply raising awareness, more Filipinos would act against plastic pollution.

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Philippines tackles air pollution

After six years of governmental wrangling and a massive nationwide campaign to gather signatures, the Philippines—home to one of the world’s most polluted cities—is on the verge of passing clean air legislation.

The population of Manila has grown faster than that in any other city since 1970 and now stands at at least 12 million, with 12600 people to each square kilometre. Thousands live in the shadow of power stations or industrial plants. Smog constantly blankets the city, 2.2 million motor vehicles form traffic jams, and pedestrians keep handkerchiefs clamped over their mouths and noses.

According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), levels of lead in the air in Manila are more than three times the established safety limit, and concentrations of suspended particulate matter are also dangerously high. Other pollutants have not been measured.

The priority legislation could be passed within as little as two months and would phase out the use of leaded fuel within 18 months, reduce industrial emissions, promote recycling, phase out vehicles over 15 years old, ban incineration, and drastically increase fines for the owners of polluting vehicles.

Dr Steve Tamplin, WHO regional adviser on environmental health, said: “The crucial question is whether this legislation will be effectively enforced.” At an average speed of just 7 km/hour, rush hour traffic in Manila moves more slowly than anywhere else in Asia. Dr Tamplin said that investing more in overhead light rail systems, which currently cover a single 30 km stretch, would be the best way of reducing traffic congestion, the biggest source of pollution.

Dr Miguel Celdran, a paediatrician at Makati Medical Center, said: “About 90%of my patients have respiratory illness, and we’re seeing babies as young as two months suffering from asthma. Twenty years ago, this was unheard of.”

A recent survey by the Philippine Paediatric Society, which asked doctors to describe the most common illnesses that they treat, received the same response in every case: diseases of the upper respiratory tract.

Urine samples from taken from children living and begging on the polluted streets showed that at least 7%had high lead concentrations.

Dr Celdran said that his mainly middle class clients kept their children indoors, using air ionisers and filtered air conditioners to improve air quality, but that this resulted in other problems due to a lack of exercise.

The United Nations estimates that by the year 2000 around half of the world’s population will be living in urban areas, and the global fleet of motor vehicles is already thought to be more than 800 million.

A WHO report, Urban Air Pollution in Megacities of the World, warns that: “Megacities could well see increases in their air pollution concentrations of levels as high as 75-100%over the next decade.”

Manila's smog may soon be a thing of the past

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PH air pollution eases, but still 3 times higher than what’s safe

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MANILA, Philippines—Back in 2020, when COVID-19 lockdowns were still in place, the Philippines saw its air quality improve because of reduced emissions, but as restrictions were lifted, the level of PM2.5, or fine particles, polluting the air is rising again.

This was revealed by IQAir as it released its World Air Quality Report 2022, which found that out of 131 countries and territories, only six met the prescribed annual average PM2.5 concentration of 5 micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m³) or less.

While last year’s air quality in the Philippines, as measured by the annual average concentration of PM2.5, slightly improved to 14.9 μg/m³ from 15.6 μg/m³, it was still three times higher than what is considered safe by the World Health Organization (WHO).

RELATED STORY: ‘Every breath you take’: Air pollution stifles Europe’s health targets

Looking back, PM2.5 concentration in the country was 14.6μg/m³ and 17.6μg/m³ in 2018 and 2019, but with lockdowns imposed to mitigate the spread of COVID-19 in 2020, the level of pollution went down to 12.8 μg/m³.

GRAPHIC Ed Lustan

The report said that with a PM2.5 concentration of 14.9 μg/m³, the Philippines was 69th on the list of most polluted countries and territories last year, an improvement from 64th in 2021.

Chad was the most polluted at 89.7 μg/m³, followed by Iraq at 80.1 μg/m³, Pakistan at 70.9 μg/m³, Bahrain at 66.6 μg/m³, and Bangladesh at 65.8 μg/m³.

Guam was the least polluted at 1.3μg/m³, followed by French Polynesia at 2.5μg/m³, US Virgin Islands at 2.9μg/m³, Bermuda at 3.0μg/m³, and Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba at 3.3μg/m³.

What’s polluting the air?

Based on what IQAir said, back in 2016, 80 percent of the country’s air pollution was from motor vehicles while the remaining 20 percent was from sources such as factories and open burning of organic matter. The weather is a contributing factor, too.

The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) stressed last year that the lifting of COVID-19 restrictions worsened air quality in the Philippines, especially Metro Manila.

This, as in 2020, when the government imposed months of hard lockdowns, the country saw road congestion easing and air quality improving, with the University of the Philippines (UP) saying that PM2.5 levels significantly decreased in March that year.

Data from UP’s Institute of Environmental Science and Meteorology indicated that PM2.5 levels fell to 7.1 μg/m³ in the first week of the lockdown, way lower than the 20 μg/m³ recorded two weeks earlier.

As stated by environment journalist Khalid Raji in an article published in the website Earth.org, air pollution in the Philippines likewise stems from the burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil.

“Considering that 53 percent of the population is without access to clean fuels and technology for cooking, this is bound to further exacerbate air quality in the long run,” he said.

Southeast Asia’s air quality

The World Air Quality Report 2022 covered 131 countries and territories, including nine countries in Southeast Asia: Indonesia, Laos, Vietnam, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Cambodia.

IQAir said countries in the region “have continued their efforts to decrease PM2.5 concentrations to safe levels recommended by the WHO guidelines,” which is 5 μg/m³ or less.

“Industry, power generation, vehicle emissions, and open burning remain top contributors of PM2.5 in the country,” it said.

The Swiss company, which is an expert in air technology, said PM2.5 concentrations decreased for seven of nine countries in the region, and that only Laos and Vietnam recorded higher annual averages compared to 2021.

Indonesia ended the year with the highest PM2.5 concentration of all countries in the region with an annual average of 30.4 μg/m3 . Indonesia was the worst in the region in PM2.5 concentration in 2021 as well.

Cambodia improved its air quality level in 2022 with a 58 percent decrease in its annual average PM2.5 concentration down to 8.3 μg/m3 , the lowest in the region. Cambodia was the 6th most polluted in Southeast Asia in 2021.

IQAir said the region was represented by 296 cities in the World Air Quality Report 2022, but only eight satisfied the WHO PM2.5 guideline limit of 5 μg/m3 , leaving a total of 288 cities that exceeded WHO-recommended PM2.5 concentrations.

Thailand and Indonesia were the most represented on the list of the 15 most polluted cities, with seven and five respectively. Indonesia is also well represented on the list of the 15 least polluted cities with six.

While Vietnam has 7 cities in the list of 15 least polluted cities, its capital city Hanoi was the second most polluted city in the region with an annual average PM2.5 concentration of 40.1 μg/m3.

Fine particulate matter

As stated by IQAir, the data analyzed for the World Air Quality Report 2022 came exclusively from empirically measured PM2.5 data collected from ground level air monitoring stations.

“The PM2.5 measurement data in this report is aggregated from both regulatory air quality monitoring instrumentation and low-cost air quality sensors,” it said.

“Most of the data used in the World Air Quality Report is collected in real-time, with additional supplementary air quality measurements sourced from historical year-end data sets.”

PM2.5 concentration describes the amount of fine particulate aerosol particles up to 2.5 microns in diameter and is used as the standard air quality indicator for the World Air Quality Report.

Measured in μg/m3, PM2.5 is one of six major air pollutants commonly used in the classification of air quality. PM2.5 is largely accepted as the most harmful of these pollutants based on its prevalence in the environment and the wide range of negative human health effects associated with its exposure.

IQAir said PM2.5 can be produced by a variety of sources which can result in different chemical compositions and physical characteristics. Sulfates, nitrates, black carbon, and ammonium are some of the most common particles that make up PM2.5.

The anthropogenic generation of PM2.5 can largely be attributed to combustion engines, power generation, industrial processes, agricultural processes, wood and coal burning, and construction. The most prevalent natural sources of PM2.5 include dust storms, wildfires, and sandstorms.

It said “small particles pose the greatest risk to human health” and that “while the nose can filter most coarse particles, fine and ultrafine particles are inhaled deeper into the lungs where they can be deposited or even pass into the bloodstream.”

READ: Scientists discover how air pollution triggers lung cancer

Here are the measurements, which are in microns in diameter (μm), of some of the particles presented by IQAir:

• Human hair: 50 t0 180 μm
• Sand: 50 to 2,000 μm
• Pollen: 10 to 150 μm
• Mold spores: 8 to 80 μm
• Red blood cell: 7 to 8 μm
• Respiratory droplets: 5 to 10 μm
• Dust: 1 to 1,000 μm
• Bacterium: 0.5 to 10 μm
• Dust mites: 0.2 to 25 μm
• Pet dander: 0.1 to 25 μm
• Coronavirus: 0.1 to 0.5 μm
• Influenza A: 0.06 to 0.12 μm
• Smoke: 0.01 to 10 μm
• SARS-CoV-2: 0.07 to 0.09 μm

Health implications

WHO said air pollutants measured include PM2.5 and PM10 (particles with an aerodynamic diameter of equal or less than 2.5, also called fine, and 10 micrometer respectively), ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and sulfur dioxide (SO2).

PM2.5, it said, can penetrate the lungs and further enter the body through the bloodstream, affecting all major organs and that exposure to PM2.5 can cause harm both to our cardiovascular and respiratory system, provoking, for example stroke, lung cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

New research has also shown an association between prenatal exposure to high levels of air pollution and developmental delay at age three, as well as psychological and behavioral problems later on, including symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, anxiety and depression.

The Indoor Air Hygiene Institute said studies also suggest that long-term exposure to fine particulate matter may be associated with increased rates of chronic bronchitis, reduced lung function and increased mortality from lung cancer and heart disease.

“People with breathing and heart problems, children and the elderly may be particularly sensitive to PM2.5,” the institute said.

This, as exposure to fine particles can also affect lung function and worsen medical conditions such as asthma and heart disease.

“Scientific studies have linked increases in daily PM2.5 exposure with increased respiratory and cardiovascular hospital admissions, emergency department visits and deaths,” the institute’s study said.

Gov’t should act

In 2021, environment groups Greenpeace Philippines and Center for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA) called on the government to speed up efforts to protect Filipinos from the worsening air pollution exacerbated by the country’s dependence on coal.

READ: Pollution costs P4.5 trillion, 66,000 lives every year

They said that as the government focuses on economic recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic, programs to control air pollution must not be sidetracked. These programs include raising stringent standards to control emissions from coal power plants, adding more air quality monitoring stations, investing in low-carbon transport, and transitioning to renewable energy sources.

“The threat of air pollution to human health — and the external costs associated with long-term exposure to it — increases with growing dependence on fossil fuels,” CREA said.

“In addressing this problem, robust monitoring capacity across the country is vital for not only understanding the scale of the health threat to Filipinos, but also ensuring that the right standards and solutions are pursued to control air pollution as quickly as possible,” it said.

For Greenpeace Philippines, the government must first address the outdated air quality standards and the lack of capacity to monitor PM2.5, especially in provinces with coal plants, to ensure that measures to protect Filipinos from health risks are in place.

As stated in the Clean Air Act, the DENR–Environmental Management Bureau is required to conduct a review of standards for stationary sources every two years and revise for further improvement.

“However, the National Emission Standards for Source-Specific Air Pollutants have not been updated since they were set in 1999,” Greenpeace Philippines and CREA said.

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“Now more than ever, the government needs to ensure stringent air pollution mitigation because the surge of air pollution that may arise from the reopening of our economy increases our vulnerability to COVID19,” Greenpeace Philippines had said.

READ: World Car-Free Day: A glance at greener, safer roads for people

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THE GROWING THREAT OF MICROPLASTICS AND PLASTICS

The World Bank estimates that the Philippines use an overwhelming 163 million pieces of sachets per day. A staggering 2.3 million tons of plastic waste are generated in the country annually. Unfortunately, only 28% of key plastic resins are being recycled while the rest are simply discarded. So, where does the remaining 72% of these plastics go? To find it, one no longer needs to go to the nearest scrap shop but they can simply open their refrigerators.

In celebration of the National Science and Technology Week (NSTW) 2022, the National Research Council of the Philippines made the call to increase awareness in the growing threat of microplastics and plastics on food security, environment, and health by featuring NRCP-funded Projects on plastics in the marine environment and microplastic contamination among marine species.

Despite the convenience and other benefits brought about by the invention of plastics, shown above is the general flow of how these materials negatively affect our environment, food security, and health. A presentation of NRCP-funded project titled,  Marine Microbes and Plastic Debris: Research Status and Opportunities in the Philippines  by Balik Scientist and UP Diliman Associate Professor in Marine Science Institute Dr. Deo Florence Onda, the plastic-microbe interactions in marine environments and its implications with the unresolved plastic pollution issues in the country was discussed.

Dr. Onda’s team sampled 240 mussels in eight (8) study sites such as the wet market in Marikina, fish port in Navotas, fish landing center in Bacoor, riverside in Obando, aquaculture farms in Antique, Bayabay, Macelelon, and Bicol. Dismally, 100% of the samples have tested positive for microplastics. Most of the plastics found in their study are type 4 plastics such as thin plastic wraps, labels, packaging, foamed fragments, fishing lines, nets and ropes, bags, straws, and pipettes.

The Balik Scientist speaker, Dr. Onda, reiterated that there is a need to support and strengthen plastic research in the Philippines given the implications of plastics and microplastics in various aspects of our lives.

It is even more alarming to know that pieces of evidence from the study led by NRCP Regular Member from the Division of Engineering and Industrial Research, Dr. Rey Y. Capangpangan, proves that plastic debris and microplastics are present in various fish, sediment, water, and benthic organisms.

Through the NRCP-funded project titled,  Assessment of plastic debris and of microplastics in different specimen (fish, sediment, water, benthic organisms) in selected aquatic environments in Mindanao and exploration of relative stress biomarkers,  Dr, Capangpangan and his research team discovered that “microplastics are found in cultured and in wild and in nekton and benthos organisms.”

Of the 383 extracted particles collected from 30 bangus samples in Butuan and Nasipit Fish Cage, 235 were confirmed to be microplastics. Meanwhile, out of 163 extracted particles from 135 individual mud clams in mangrove stations along Butuan Bay, 30 were also confirmed as microplastics.

DOST Secretary Dr. Renato U. Solidum, Jr. stated the importance of the NRCP’s NSTW webinar as this is a step to ensure that while we profit from our natural resources, we should also ensure its sustainability for the benefit of Filipinos in the future.

Indeed, “Big threats come in small particles” National Research Council of the Philippines’ Executive Director Dr. Marieta Bañez-Sumagaysay emphasized as she closed the hybrid event. 

Written By: Regine Pustadan, Information Officer II

Measurement of light pollution in PAGASA Astronomical Observatory before and after the 2020 Taal phreatic eruption through luminance

• Ronah Ceniza Rollan Department of Physical Sciences, Polytechnic University of the Philippines
• Rosenel Dahipon Department of Physical Sciences, Polytechnic University of the Philippines
• Alleah Garzon Department of Physical Sciences, Polytechnic University of the Philippines

Light pollution causes inability to clearly observe astronomical bodies at night due to anthropogenic light sources especially in urban areas. Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) Observatory is an astronomical observatory situated in the light polluted city of Metro Manila. Light pollution was quantified in the said observatory before and after the Taal volcano phreatic eruption, situated approximately 109 kilometers from PAGASA Observatory, through luminance using a Digital Single-Lens Reflex (DSLR) camera. The magnitude of the light pollution before and after the said eruption was 16.63 and 17.22 mag/arsec 2 , respectively, an increase of 3.50%. Furthermore, it showed that the night sky in PAGASA Observatory is under "City Scale – Level 8" according to Bortle Dark Sky Scale.

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Published by the Samahang Pisika ng Pilipinas ISSN 2719-1621 (online)

A survey of the ocean's plastic waste problem, and some policy developments of the Philippines

• October 2019

• University of the Philippines Los Baños

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East Palestine train derailment spread 'hazardous' pollution to 16 states: Study

In Feb. 2023, a freight train carrying hazardous materials derailed in Ohio.

The destruction from a massive train derailment in East Palestine, Ohio, spread far beyond the initial wreckage site, spewing "hazardous" pollution across 16 states, according to a newly released study.

On Feb. 3, 2023, a Norfolk Southern freight train carrying hazardous materials derailed in East Palestine -- a village on the border of Ohio and Pennsylvania -- sending toxic chemicals into the air, soil, creeks and lakes in the region, according to the study published in Environmental Research Letters on Wednesday.

In total, the pollution from the wreckage and subsequent controlled burn of several of the train's cars spread over 16 states in the Midwest, Northeast and Southern U.S., reaching 540,000 square miles or 14% of the U.S. land area, according to the study.

Researchers estimate that 110 million residents, or one-third of the nation's population, were impacted by pollution.

Eleven of the derailed cars were transporting hazardous materials , five of which contained vinyl chloride, a highly volatile colorless gas produced for commercial uses, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the National Institutes for Health, at the time.

Several cars were also carrying ethyl acrylate and isobutylene, which are considered to be very toxic and possibly carcinogenic, the agencies reported.

Three days after the initial crash, officials authorized an hours-long controlled release and burn of vinyl chloride in five derailed tanker cars, "due to fear of an explosion of one or all of these cars," according to the study, noting, the cars were carrying 115,580 gallons of the flammable gas.

A large ball of fire and a plume of black smoke filled with contaminants could be seen billowing out from the derailment site as the controlled burn took place. This prompted concerns from residents about the potential negative health effects of the burn.

In the study published Wednesday, researchers analyzed rain and snow water samples collected at 260 sites from surrounding states the week of the derailment (Jan. 31) and the week after (Feb 14).

MORE: East Palestine derailment: Timeline of key events in toxic train disaster

"Our measurements revealed a large areal impact from the Midwest through the Northeast and likely Canada, and perhaps as far south as North Carolina," according to the study.

Researchers discovered that "exceptionally elevated levels" of Chloride and pH levels were found in northern Pennsylvania and along the U.S.-Canada border, compared to historic data.

Pennsylvania, Michigan, Massachusetts, Wisconsin and almost every site in New York were flagged as having soot ash and dirt in the samples, according to the study.

Pollutants in the air reached southern states including Virginia, Tennessee and Kentucky, according to the study.

Researchers found that 19 sites had at least one chemical compound in the 99th percentile, while eight sites had four or more compounds in the 99th percentile.

"The impacts of the fire were larger in scale and scope than the initial predictions, and likely due to the uplift from the fire itself entraining pollutants into the atmosphere," researchers wrote.

Following the derailment, Dr. Erin Haynes, chair of the University of Kentucky's Department of Epidemiology and Environmental Health, surveyed approximately 400 adults in the East Palestine area about their health effects after the accident.

MORE: Norfolk Southern agrees to $600 million settlement in East Palestine train derailment

Haynes found that three out of four residents suffered health impacts after the derailment and over half of the residents reported their conditions continued through fall of 2023.

Nose and eye irritation, coughing and wheezing, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, rashes and feeling weak and tired were among the symptoms reported, according to Haynes.

In April 2024, Norfolk Southern agreed to a $600 million settlement to resolve a class action lawsuit related to the train derailment.

Related Topics

• Ohio Train Derailment

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