case study advantages disadvantages

Case Study Method – 18 Advantages and Disadvantages

The case study method uses investigatory research as a way to collect data about specific demographics. This approach can apply to individuals, businesses, groups, or events. Each participant receives an equal amount of participation, offering information for collection that can then find new insights into specific trends, ideas, of hypotheses.

Interviews and research observation are the two standard methods of data collection used when following the case study method.

Researchers initially developed the case study method to develop and support hypotheses in clinical medicine. The benefits found in these efforts led the approach to transition to other industries, allowing for the examination of results through proposed decisions, processes, or outcomes. Its unique approach to information makes it possible for others to glean specific points of wisdom that encourage growth.

Several case study method advantages and disadvantages can appear when researchers take this approach.

List of the Advantages of the Case Study Method

1. It requires an intensive study of a specific unit. Researchers must document verifiable data from direct observations when using the case study method. This work offers information about the input processes that go into the hypothesis under consideration. A casual approach to data-gathering work is not effective if a definitive outcome is desired. Each behavior, choice, or comment is a critical component that can verify or dispute the ideas being considered.

Intensive programs can require a significant amount of work for researchers, but it can also promote an improvement in the data collected. That means a hypothesis can receive immediate verification in some situations.

2. No sampling is required when following the case study method. This research method studies social units in their entire perspective instead of pulling individual data points out to analyze them. That means there is no sampling work required when using the case study method. The hypothesis under consideration receives support because it works to turn opinions into facts, verifying or denying the proposals that outside observers can use in the future.

Although researchers might pay attention to specific incidents or outcomes based on generalized behaviors or ideas, the study itself won’t sample those situations. It takes a look at the “bigger vision” instead.

3. This method offers a continuous analysis of the facts. The case study method will look at the facts continuously for the social group being studied by researchers. That means there aren’t interruptions in the process that could limit the validity of the data being collected through this work. This advantage reduces the need to use assumptions when drawing conclusions from the information, adding validity to the outcome of the study over time. That means the outcome becomes relevant to both sides of the equation as it can prove specific suppositions or invalidate a hypothesis under consideration.

This advantage can lead to inefficiencies because of the amount of data being studied by researchers. It is up to the individuals involved in the process to sort out what is useful and meaningful and what is not.

4. It is a useful approach to take when formulating a hypothesis. Researchers will use the case study method advantages to verify a hypothesis under consideration. It is not unusual for the collected data to lead people toward the formulation of new ideas after completing this work. This process encourages further study because it allows concepts to evolve as people do in social or physical environments. That means a complete data set can be gathered based on the skills of the researcher and the honesty of the individuals involved in the study itself.

Although this approach won’t develop a societal-level evaluation of a hypothesis, it can look at how specific groups will react in various circumstances. That information can lead to a better decision-making process in the future for everyone involved.

5. It provides an increase in knowledge. The case study method provides everyone with analytical power to increase knowledge. This advantage is possible because it uses a variety of methodologies to collect information while evaluating a hypothesis. Researchers prefer to use direct observation and interviews to complete their work, but it can also advantage through the use of questionnaires. Participants might need to fill out a journal or diary about their experiences that can be used to study behaviors or choices.

Some researchers incorporate memory tests and experimental tasks to determine how social groups will interact or respond in specific situations. All of this data then works to verify the possibilities that a hypothesis proposes.

6. The case study method allows for comparisons. The human experience is one that is built on individual observations from group situations. Specific demographics might think, act, or respond in particular ways to stimuli, but each person in that group will also contribute a small part to the whole. You could say that people are sponges that collect data from one another every day to create individual outcomes.

The case study method allows researchers to take the information from each demographic for comparison purposes. This information can then lead to proposals that support a hypothesis or lead to its disruption.

7. Data generalization is possible using the case study method. The case study method provides a foundation for data generalization, allowing researches to illustrate their statistical findings in meaningful ways. It puts the information into a usable format that almost anyone can use if they have the need to evaluate the hypothesis under consideration. This process makes it easier to discover unusual features, unique outcomes, or find conclusions that wouldn’t be available without this method. It does an excellent job of identifying specific concepts that relate to the proposed ideas that researchers were verifying through their work.

Generalization does not apply to a larger population group with the case study method. What researchers can do with this information is to suggest a predictable outcome when similar groups are placed in an equal situation.

8. It offers a comprehensive approach to research. Nothing gets ignored when using the case study method to collect information. Every person, place, or thing involved in the research receives the complete attention of those seeking data. The interactions are equal, which means the data is comprehensive and directly reflective of the group being observed.

This advantage means that there are fewer outliers to worry about when researching an idea, leading to a higher level of accuracy in the conclusions drawn by the researchers.

9. The identification of deviant cases is possible with this method. The case study method of research makes it easier to identify deviant cases that occur in each social group. These incidents are units (people) that behave in ways that go against the hypothesis under consideration. Instead of ignoring them like other options do when collecting data, this approach incorporates the “rogue” behavior to understand why it exists in the first place.

This advantage makes the eventual data and conclusions gathered more reliable because it incorporates the “alternative opinion” that exists. One might say that the case study method places as much emphasis on the yin as it does the yang so that the whole picture becomes available to the outside observer.

10. Questionnaire development is possible with the case study method. Interviews and direct observation are the preferred methods of implementing the case study method because it is cheap and done remotely. The information gathered by researchers can also lead to farming questionnaires that can farm additional data from those being studied. When all of the data resources come together, it is easier to formulate a conclusion that accurately reflects the demographics.

Some people in the case study method may try to manipulate the results for personal reasons, but this advantage makes it possible to identify this information readily. Then researchers can look into the thinking that goes into the dishonest behaviors observed.

List of the Disadvantages of the Case Study Method

1. The case study method offers limited representation. The usefulness of the case study method is limited to a specific group of representatives. Researchers are looking at a specific demographic when using this option. That means it is impossible to create any generalization that applies to the rest of society, an organization, or a larger community with this work. The findings can only apply to other groups caught in similar circumstances with the same experiences.

It is useful to use the case study method when attempting to discover the specific reasons why some people behave in a specific way. If researchers need something more generalized, then a different method must be used.

2. No classification is possible with the case study method. This disadvantage is also due to the sample size in the case study method. No classification is possible because researchers are studying such a small unit, group, or demographic. It can be an inefficient process since the skills of the researcher help to determine the quality of the data being collected to verify the validity of a hypothesis. Some participants may be unwilling to answer or participate, while others might try to guess at the outcome to support it.

Researchers can get trapped in a place where they explore more tangents than the actual hypothesis with this option. Classification can occur within the units being studied, but this data cannot extrapolate to other demographics.

3. The case study method still offers the possibility of errors. Each person has an unconscious bias that influences their behaviors and choices. The case study method can find outliers that oppose a hypothesis fairly easily thanks to its emphasis on finding facts, but it is up to the researchers to determine what information qualifies for this designation. If the results from the case study method are surprising or go against the opinion of participating individuals, then there is still the possibility that the information will not be 100% accurate.

Researchers must have controls in place that dictate how data gathering work occurs. Without this limitation in place, the results of the study cannot be guaranteed because of the presence of bias.

4. It is a subjective method to use for research. Although the purpose of the case study method of research is to gather facts, the foundation of what gets gathered is still based on opinion. It uses the subjective method instead of the objective one when evaluating data, which means there can be another layer of errors in the information to consider.

Imagine that a researcher interprets someone’s response as “angry” when performing direct observation, but the individual was feeling “shame” because of a decision they made. The difference between those two emotions is profound, and it could lead to information disruptions that could be problematic to the eventual work of hypothesis verification.

5. The processes required by the case study method are not useful for everyone. The case study method uses a person’s memories, explanations, and records from photographs and diaries to identify interactions on influences on psychological processes. People are given the chance to describe what happens in the world around them as a way for researchers to gather data. This process can be an advantage in some industries, but it can also be a worthless approach to some groups.

If the social group under study doesn’t have the information, knowledge, or wisdom to provide meaningful data, then the processes are no longer useful. Researchers must weigh the advantages and disadvantages of the case study method before starting their work to determine if the possibility of value exists. If it does not, then a different method may be necessary.

6. It is possible for bias to form in the data. It’s not just an unconscious bias that can form in the data when using the case study method. The narrow study approach can lead to outright discrimination in the data. Researchers can decide to ignore outliers or any other information that doesn’t support their hypothesis when using this method. The subjective nature of this approach makes it difficult to challenge the conclusions that get drawn from this work, and the limited pool of units (people) means that duplication is almost impossible.

That means unethical people can manipulate the results gathered by the case study method to their own advantage without much accountability in the process.

7. This method has no fixed limits to it. This method of research is highly dependent on situational circumstances rather than overarching societal or corporate truths. That means the researcher has no fixed limits of investigation. Even when controls are in place to limit bias or recommend specific activities, the case study method has enough flexibility built into its structures to allow for additional exploration. That means it is possible for this work to continue indefinitely, gathering data that never becomes useful.

Scientists began to track the health of 268 sophomores at Harvard in 1938. The Great Depression was in its final years at that point, so the study hoped to reveal clues that lead to happy and healthy lives. It continues still today, now incorporating the children of the original participants, providing over 80 years of information to sort through for conclusions.

8. The case study method is time-consuming and expensive. The case study method can be affordable in some situations, but the lack of fixed limits and the ability to pursue tangents can make it a costly process in most situations. It takes time to gather the data in the first place, and then researchers must interpret the information received so that they can use it for hypothesis evaluation. There are other methods of data collection that can be less expensive and provide results faster.

That doesn’t mean the case study method is useless. The individualization of results can help the decision-making process advance in a variety of industries successfully. It just takes more time to reach the appropriate conclusion, and that might be a resource that isn’t available.

The advantages and disadvantages of the case study method suggest that the helpfulness of this research option depends on the specific hypothesis under consideration. When researchers have the correct skills and mindset to gather data accurately, then it can lead to supportive data that can verify ideas with tremendous accuracy.

This research method can also be used unethically to produce specific results that can be difficult to challenge.

When bias enters into the structure of the case study method, the processes become inefficient, inaccurate, and harmful to the hypothesis. That’s why great care must be taken when designing a study with this approach. It might be a labor-intensive way to develop conclusions, but the outcomes are often worth the investments needed.

10 Case Study Advantages and Disadvantages

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

Learn about our Editorial Process

A case study in academic research is a detailed and in-depth examination of a specific instance or event, generally conducted through a qualitative approach to data.

The most common case study definition that I come across is is Robert K. Yin’s (2003, p. 13) quote provided below:

“An empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident.”

Researchers conduct case studies for a number of reasons, such as to explore complex phenomena within their real-life context, to look at a particularly interesting instance of a situation, or to dig deeper into something of interest identified in a wider-scale project.

While case studies render extremely interesting data, they have many limitations and are not suitable for all studies. One key limitation is that a case study’s findings are not usually generalizable to broader populations because one instance cannot be used to infer trends across populations.

Case Study Advantages and Disadvantages

1. in-depth analysis of complex phenomena.

Case study design allows researchers to delve deeply into intricate issues and situations.

By focusing on a specific instance or event, researchers can uncover nuanced details and layers of understanding that might be missed with other research methods, especially large-scale survey studies.

As Lee and Saunders (2017) argue,

“It allows that particular event to be studies in detail so that its unique qualities may be identified.”

This depth of analysis can provide rich insights into the underlying factors and dynamics of the studied phenomenon.

2. Holistic Understanding

Building on the above point, case studies can help us to understand a topic holistically and from multiple angles.

This means the researcher isn’t restricted to just examining a topic by using a pre-determined set of questions, as with questionnaires. Instead, researchers can use qualitative methods to delve into the many different angles, perspectives, and contextual factors related to the case study.

We can turn to Lee and Saunders (2017) again, who notes that case study researchers “develop a deep, holistic understanding of a particular phenomenon” with the intent of deeply understanding the phenomenon.

3. Examination of rare and Unusual Phenomena

We need to use case study methods when we stumble upon “rare and unusual” (Lee & Saunders, 2017) phenomena that would tend to be seen as mere outliers in population studies.

Take, for example, a child genius. A population study of all children of that child’s age would merely see this child as an outlier in the dataset, and this child may even be removed in order to predict overall trends.

So, to truly come to an understanding of this child and get insights into the environmental conditions that led to this child’s remarkable cognitive development, we need to do an in-depth study of this child specifically – so, we’d use a case study.

4. Helps Reveal the Experiences of Marginalzied Groups

Just as rare and unsual cases can be overlooked in population studies, so too can the experiences, beliefs, and perspectives of marginalized groups.

As Lee and Saunders (2017) argue, “case studies are also extremely useful in helping the expression of the voices of people whose interests are often ignored.”

Take, for example, the experiences of minority populations as they navigate healthcare systems. This was for many years a “hidden” phenomenon, not examined by researchers. It took case study designs to truly reveal this phenomenon, which helped to raise practitioners’ awareness of the importance of cultural sensitivity in medicine.

5. Ideal in Situations where Researchers cannot Control the Variables

Experimental designs – where a study takes place in a lab or controlled environment – are excellent for determining cause and effect . But not all studies can take place in controlled environments (Tetnowski, 2015).

When we’re out in the field doing observational studies or similar fieldwork, we don’t have the freedom to isolate dependent and independent variables. We need to use alternate methods.

Case studies are ideal in such situations.

A case study design will allow researchers to deeply immerse themselves in a setting (potentially combining it with methods such as ethnography or researcher observation) in order to see how phenomena take place in real-life settings.

6. Supports the generation of new theories or hypotheses

While large-scale quantitative studies such as cross-sectional designs and population surveys are excellent at testing theories and hypotheses on a large scale, they need a hypothesis to start off with!

This is where case studies – in the form of grounded research – come in. Often, a case study doesn’t start with a hypothesis. Instead, it ends with a hypothesis based upon the findings within a singular setting.

The deep analysis allows for hypotheses to emerge, which can then be taken to larger-scale studies in order to conduct further, more generalizable, testing of the hypothesis or theory.

7. Reveals the Unexpected

When a largescale quantitative research project has a clear hypothesis that it will test, it often becomes very rigid and has tunnel-vision on just exploring the hypothesis.

Of course, a structured scientific examination of the effects of specific interventions targeted at specific variables is extermely valuable.

But narrowly-focused studies often fail to shine a spotlight on unexpected and emergent data. Here, case studies come in very useful. Oftentimes, researchers set their eyes on a phenomenon and, when examining it closely with case studies, identify data and come to conclusions that are unprecedented, unforeseen, and outright surprising.

As Lars Meier (2009, p. 975) marvels, “where else can we become a part of foreign social worlds and have the chance to become aware of the unexpected?”

Disadvantages

1. not usually generalizable.

Case studies are not generalizable because they tend not to look at a broad enough corpus of data to be able to infer that there is a trend across a population.

As Yang (2022) argues, “by definition, case studies can make no claims to be typical.”

Case studies focus on one specific instance of a phenomenon. They explore the context, nuances, and situational factors that have come to bear on the case study. This is really useful for bringing to light important, new, and surprising information, as I’ve already covered.

But , it’s not often useful for generating data that has validity beyond the specific case study being examined.

2. Subjectivity in interpretation

Case studies usually (but not always) use qualitative data which helps to get deep into a topic and explain it in human terms, finding insights unattainable by quantitative data.

But qualitative data in case studies relies heavily on researcher interpretation. While researchers can be trained and work hard to focus on minimizing subjectivity (through methods like triangulation), it often emerges – some might argue it’s innevitable in qualitative studies.

So, a criticism of case studies could be that they’re more prone to subjectivity – and researchers need to take strides to address this in their studies.

3. Difficulty in replicating results

Case study research is often non-replicable because the study takes place in complex real-world settings where variables are not controlled.

So, when returning to a setting to re-do or attempt to replicate a study, we often find that the variables have changed to such an extent that replication is difficult. Furthermore, new researchers (with new subjective eyes) may catch things that the other readers overlooked.

Replication is even harder when researchers attempt to replicate a case study design in a new setting or with different participants.

Comprehension Quiz for Students

Question 1: What benefit do case studies offer when exploring the experiences of marginalized groups?

a) They provide generalizable data. b) They help express the voices of often-ignored individuals. c) They control all variables for the study. d) They always start with a clear hypothesis.

Question 2: Why might case studies be considered ideal for situations where researchers cannot control all variables?

a) They provide a structured scientific examination. b) They allow for generalizability across populations. c) They focus on one specific instance of a phenomenon. d) They allow for deep immersion in real-life settings.

Question 3: What is a primary disadvantage of case studies in terms of data applicability?

a) They always focus on the unexpected. b) They are not usually generalizable. c) They support the generation of new theories. d) They provide a holistic understanding.

Question 4: Why might case studies be considered more prone to subjectivity?

a) They always use quantitative data. b) They heavily rely on researcher interpretation, especially with qualitative data. c) They are always replicable. d) They look at a broad corpus of data.

Question 5: In what situations are experimental designs, such as those conducted in labs, most valuable?

a) When there’s a need to study rare and unusual phenomena. b) When a holistic understanding is required. c) When determining cause-and-effect relationships. d) When the study focuses on marginalized groups.

Question 6: Why is replication challenging in case study research?

a) Because they always use qualitative data. b) Because they tend to focus on a broad corpus of data. c) Due to the changing variables in complex real-world settings. d) Because they always start with a hypothesis.

Lee, B., & Saunders, M. N. K. (2017). Conducting Case Study Research for Business and Management Students. SAGE Publications.

Meir, L. (2009). Feasting on the Benefits of Case Study Research. In Mills, A. J., Wiebe, E., & Durepos, G. (Eds.). Encyclopedia of Case Study Research (Vol. 2). London: SAGE Publications.

Tetnowski, J. (2015). Qualitative case study research design.  Perspectives on fluency and fluency disorders ,  25 (1), 39-45. ( Source )

Yang, S. L. (2022). The War on Corruption in China: Local Reform and Innovation . Taylor & Francis.

Yin, R. (2003). Case Study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 19 Top Cognitive Psychology Theories (Explained)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 119 Bloom’s Taxonomy Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ All 6 Levels of Understanding (on Bloom’s Taxonomy)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 15 Self-Actualization Examples (Maslow's Hierarchy)

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Home » Pros and Cons » 12 Case Study Method Advantages and Disadvantages

12 Case Study Method Advantages and Disadvantages

A case study is an investigation into an individual circumstance. The investigation may be of a single person, business, event, or group. The investigation involves collecting in-depth data about the individual entity through the use of several collection methods. Interviews and observation are two of the most common forms of data collection used.

The case study method was originally developed in the field of clinical medicine. It has expanded since to other industries to examine key results, either positive or negative, that were received through a specific set of decisions. This allows for the topic to be researched with great detail, allowing others to glean knowledge from the information presented.

Here are the advantages and disadvantages of using the case study method.

List of the Advantages of the Case Study Method

1. it turns client observations into useable data..

Case studies offer verifiable data from direct observations of the individual entity involved. These observations provide information about input processes. It can show the path taken which led to specific results being generated. Those observations make it possible for others, in similar circumstances, to potentially replicate the results discovered by the case study method.

2. It turns opinion into fact.

Case studies provide facts to study because you’re looking at data which was generated in real-time. It is a way for researchers to turn their opinions into information that can be verified as fact because there is a proven path of positive or negative development. Singling out a specific incident also provides in-depth details about the path of development, which gives it extra credibility to the outside observer.

3. It is relevant to all parties involved.

Case studies that are chosen well will be relevant to everyone who is participating in the process. Because there is such a high level of relevance involved, researchers are able to stay actively engaged in the data collection process. Participants are able to further their knowledge growth because there is interest in the outcome of the case study. Most importantly, the case study method essentially forces people to make a decision about the question being studied, then defend their position through the use of facts.

4. It uses a number of different research methodologies.

The case study method involves more than just interviews and direct observation. Case histories from a records database can be used with this method. Questionnaires can be distributed to participants in the entity being studies. Individuals who have kept diaries and journals about the entity being studied can be included. Even certain experimental tasks, such as a memory test, can be part of this research process.

5. It can be done remotely.

Researchers do not need to be present at a specific location or facility to utilize the case study method. Research can be obtained over the phone, through email, and other forms of remote communication. Even interviews can be conducted over the phone. That means this method is good for formative research that is exploratory in nature, even if it must be completed from a remote location.

6. It is inexpensive.

Compared to other methods of research, the case study method is rather inexpensive. The costs associated with this method involve accessing data, which can often be done for free. Even when there are in-person interviews or other on-site duties involved, the costs of reviewing the data are minimal.

7. It is very accessible to readers.

The case study method puts data into a usable format for those who read the data and note its outcome. Although there may be perspectives of the researcher included in the outcome, the goal of this method is to help the reader be able to identify specific concepts to which they also relate. That allows them to discover unusual features within the data, examine outliers that may be present, or draw conclusions from their own experiences.

List of the Disadvantages of the Case Study Method

1. it can have influence factors within the data..

Every person has their own unconscious bias. Although the case study method is designed to limit the influence of this bias by collecting fact-based data, it is the collector of the data who gets to define what is a “fact” and what is not. That means the real-time data being collected may be based on the results the researcher wants to see from the entity instead. By controlling how facts are collected, a research can control the results this method generates.

2. It takes longer to analyze the data.

The information collection process through the case study method takes much longer to collect than other research options. That is because there is an enormous amount of data which must be sifted through. It’s not just the researchers who can influence the outcome in this type of research method. Participants can also influence outcomes by given inaccurate or incomplete answers to questions they are asked. Researchers must verify the information presented to ensure its accuracy, and that takes time to complete.

3. It can be an inefficient process.

Case study methods require the participation of the individuals or entities involved for it to be a successful process. That means the skills of the researcher will help to determine the quality of information that is being received. Some participants may be quiet, unwilling to answer even basic questions about what is being studied. Others may be overly talkative, exploring tangents which have nothing to do with the case study at all. If researchers are unsure of how to manage this process, then incomplete data is often collected.

4. It requires a small sample size to be effective.

The case study method requires a small sample size for it to yield an effective amount of data to be analyzed. If there are different demographics involved with the entity, or there are different needs which must be examined, then the case study method becomes very inefficient.

5. It is a labor-intensive method of data collection.

The case study method requires researchers to have a high level of language skills to be successful with data collection. Researchers must be personally involved in every aspect of collecting the data as well. From reviewing files or entries personally to conducting personal interviews, the concepts and themes of this process are heavily reliant on the amount of work each researcher is willing to put into things.

These case study method advantages and disadvantages offer a look at the effectiveness of this research option. With the right skill set, it can be used as an effective tool to gather rich, detailed information about specific entities. Without the right skill set, the case study method becomes inefficient and inaccurate.

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Case Study Research Method in Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. Typically, data is gathered from various sources using several methods (e.g., observations & interviews).

The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e., the patient’s personal history). In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual.

The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual’s past (i.e., retrospective), as well as to significant events that are currently occurring in his or her everyday life.

The case study is not a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies.

Freud (1909a, 1909b) conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist, therapist, or psychiatrist, i.e., someone with a professional qualification.

There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (i.e., abnormal) behavior or atypical development.

 Famous Case Studies

• Anna O – One of the most famous case studies, documenting psychoanalyst Josef Breuer’s treatment of “Anna O” (real name Bertha Pappenheim) for hysteria in the late 1800s using early psychoanalytic theory.
• Little Hans – A child psychoanalysis case study published by Sigmund Freud in 1909 analyzing his five-year-old patient Herbert Graf’s house phobia as related to the Oedipus complex.
• Bruce/Brenda – Gender identity case of the boy (Bruce) whose botched circumcision led psychologist John Money to advise gender reassignment and raise him as a girl (Brenda) in the 1960s.
• Genie Wiley – Linguistics/psychological development case of the victim of extreme isolation abuse who was studied in 1970s California for effects of early language deprivation on acquiring speech later in life.
• Phineas Gage – One of the most famous neuropsychology case studies analyzes personality changes in railroad worker Phineas Gage after an 1848 brain injury involving a tamping iron piercing his skull.

Clinical Case Studies

• Studying the effectiveness of psychotherapy approaches with an individual patient
• Assessing and treating mental illnesses like depression, anxiety disorders, PTSD
• Neuropsychological cases investigating brain injuries or disorders

Child Psychology Case Studies

• Studying psychological development from birth through adolescence
• Cases of learning disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, ADHD
• Effects of trauma, abuse, deprivation on development

Types of Case Studies

• Explanatory case studies : Used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles. Helpful for doing qualitative analysis to explain presumed causal links.
• Exploratory case studies : Used to explore situations where an intervention being evaluated has no clear set of outcomes. It helps define questions and hypotheses for future research.
• Descriptive case studies : Describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred. It is helpful for illustrating certain topics within an evaluation.
• Multiple-case studies : Used to explore differences between cases and replicate findings across cases. Helpful for comparing and contrasting specific cases.
• Intrinsic : Used to gain a better understanding of a particular case. Helpful for capturing the complexity of a single case.
• Collective : Used to explore a general phenomenon using multiple case studies. Helpful for jointly studying a group of cases in order to inquire into the phenomenon.

Where Do You Find Data for a Case Study?

There are several places to find data for a case study. The key is to gather data from multiple sources to get a complete picture of the case and corroborate facts or findings through triangulation of evidence. Most of this information is likely qualitative (i.e., verbal description rather than measurement), but the psychologist might also collect numerical data.

1. Primary sources

• Interviews – Interviewing key people related to the case to get their perspectives and insights. The interview is an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person’s friends, parents, employer, workmates, and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself.
• Observations – Observing behaviors, interactions, processes, etc., related to the case as they unfold in real-time.
• Documents & Records – Reviewing private documents, diaries, public records, correspondence, meeting minutes, etc., relevant to the case.

2. Secondary sources

• News/Media – News coverage of events related to the case study.
• Academic articles – Journal articles, dissertations etc. that discuss the case.
• Government reports – Official data and records related to the case context.
• Books/films – Books, documentaries or films discussing the case.

3. Archival records

Searching historical archives, museum collections and databases to find relevant documents, visual/audio records related to the case history and context.

Public archives like newspapers, organizational records, photographic collections could all include potentially relevant pieces of information to shed light on attitudes, cultural perspectives, common practices and historical contexts related to psychology.

4. Organizational records

Organizational records offer the advantage of often having large datasets collected over time that can reveal or confirm psychological insights.

Of course, privacy and ethical concerns regarding confidential data must be navigated carefully.

However, with proper protocols, organizational records can provide invaluable context and empirical depth to qualitative case studies exploring the intersection of psychology and organizations.

• Organizational/industrial psychology research : Organizational records like employee surveys, turnover/retention data, policies, incident reports etc. may provide insight into topics like job satisfaction, workplace culture and dynamics, leadership issues, employee behaviors etc.
• Clinical psychology : Therapists/hospitals may grant access to anonymized medical records to study aspects like assessments, diagnoses, treatment plans etc. This could shed light on clinical practices.
• School psychology : Studies could utilize anonymized student records like test scores, grades, disciplinary issues, and counseling referrals to study child development, learning barriers, effectiveness of support programs, and more.

How do I Write a Case Study in Psychology?

Follow specified case study guidelines provided by a journal or your psychology tutor. General components of clinical case studies include: background, symptoms, assessments, diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes. Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always clarify which information is the factual description and which is an inference or the researcher’s opinion.

1. Introduction

• Provide background on the case context and why it is of interest, presenting background information like demographics, relevant history, and presenting problem.
• Compare briefly to similar published cases if applicable. Clearly state the focus/importance of the case.

2. Case Presentation

• Describe the presenting problem in detail, including symptoms, duration,and impact on daily life.
• Include client demographics like age and gender, information about social relationships, and mental health history.
• Describe all physical, emotional, and/or sensory symptoms reported by the client.
• Use patient quotes to describe the initial complaint verbatim. Follow with full-sentence summaries of relevant history details gathered, including key components that led to a working diagnosis.
• Summarize clinical exam results, namely orthopedic/neurological tests, imaging, lab tests, etc. Note actual results rather than subjective conclusions. Provide images if clearly reproducible/anonymized.
• Clearly state the working diagnosis or clinical impression before transitioning to management.

3. Management and Outcome

• Indicate the total duration of care and number of treatments given over what timeframe. Use specific names/descriptions for any therapies/interventions applied.
• Present the results of the intervention,including any quantitative or qualitative data collected.
• For outcomes, utilize visual analog scales for pain, medication usage logs, etc., if possible. Include patient self-reports of improvement/worsening of symptoms. Note the reason for discharge/end of care.

4. Discussion

• Analyze the case, exploring contributing factors, limitations of the study, and connections to existing research.
• Analyze the effectiveness of the intervention,considering factors like participant adherence, limitations of the study, and potential alternative explanations for the results.
• Identify any questions raised in the case analysis and relate insights to established theories and current research if applicable. Avoid definitive claims about physiological explanations.
• Offer clinical implications, and suggest future research directions.

5. Additional Items

• Thank specific assistants for writing support only. No patient acknowledgments.
• References should directly support any key claims or quotes included.
• Use tables/figures/images only if substantially informative. Include permissions and legends/explanatory notes.
• Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
• Provides insight for further research.
• Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.

Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach, case studies often shed light on aspects of human thinking and behavior that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways.

Research that only looks into the measurable aspects of human behavior is not likely to give us insights into the subjective dimension of experience, which is important to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.

Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person’s life are related to each other.

The method is, therefore, important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e., humanistic psychologists ).

Limitations

• Lacking scientific rigor and providing little basis for generalization of results to the wider population.
• Researchers’ own subjective feelings may influence the case study (researcher bias).
• Difficult to replicate.
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources.

Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group, we can never be sure if the case study investigated is representative of the wider body of “similar” instances. This means the conclusions drawn from a particular case may not be transferable to other settings.

Because case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e., descriptive) data , a lot depends on the psychologist’s interpretation of the information she has acquired.

This means that there is a lot of scope for Anna O , and it could be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means.

For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies in which the information was sometimes distorted to fit particular behavioral theories (e.g., Little Hans ).

This is also true of Money’s interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against his theory.

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Freud, S. (1909a). Analysis of a phobia of a five year old boy. In The Pelican Freud Library (1977), Vol 8, Case Histories 1, pages 169-306

Freud, S. (1909b). Bemerkungen über einen Fall von Zwangsneurose (Der “Rattenmann”). Jb. psychoanal. psychopathol. Forsch ., I, p. 357-421; GW, VII, p. 379-463; Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis, SE , 10: 151-318.

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Further Information

• Case Study Approach
• Case Study Method
• Enhancing the Quality of Case Studies in Health Services Research
• “We do things together” A case study of “couplehood” in dementia
• Using mixed methods for evaluating an integrative approach to cancer care: a case study

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Cite this chapter

• R. M. Channaveer 4 &
• Rajendra Baikady 5  

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This chapter reviews the strengths and limitations of case study as a research method in social sciences. It provides an account of an evidence base to justify why a case study is best suitable for some research questions and why not for some other research questions. Case study designing around the research context, defining the structure and modality, conducting the study, collecting the data through triangulation mode, analysing the data, and interpreting the data and theory building at the end give a holistic view of it. In addition, the chapter also focuses on the types of case study and when and where to use case study as a research method in social science research.

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case study advantages and disadvantages

A case study is a research method used in various disciplines to analyze a particular instance or phenomenon. It involves in-depth investigation and detailed analysis of a specific subject, typically aiming to provide a comprehensive understanding of the topic under investigation. Like any research method, case studies have both advantages and disadvantages that researchers must consider. In this article, we explore the advantages and disadvantages of case studies, providing insights into when and how to use this research method effectively.

Detailed and In-depth Analysis

One of the main advantages of case studies is the ability to conduct a detailed and in-depth analysis of a specific subject. Researchers can explore the complexities and nuances of the case, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. This depth of analysis allows for the discovery of unique insights that may not have been possible through other research methods.

Rich Source of Qualitative Data

Case studies provide researchers with a rich source of qualitative data. Through interviews, observations, and document analysis, researchers can gather detailed information about the case. This qualitative data allows for a deeper understanding of the context, experiences, and perspectives of the individuals involved. It can provide valuable insights into the motivations, beliefs, and behaviors of the participants.

Enables Exploration of Complex Phenomena

Case studies are particularly useful when studying complex phenomena that cannot be easily analyzed through quantitative research methods. They allow researchers to delve into intricate relationships, interactions, and processes that may be challenging to capture using other approaches. As such, case studies enable the exploration of multifaceted issues and contribute to the development of new theories or frameworks.

Allows for the Study of Rare or Unique Cases

Case studies offer an opportunity to study rare or unique cases that may have limited available data. Researchers can investigate unusual situations or events that occur infrequently, providing valuable insights into these exceptional instances. These studies help expand the knowledge base within a field, offering new perspectives and generating hypotheses for further research.

Provides a Holistic View of the Subject

By examining a case in its entirety, researchers can gain a holistic view of the subject. Case studies take into account multiple variables and their interactions, allowing for a comprehensive analysis of the case. This comprehensive approach helps researchers understand the complexity and interconnectedness of different factors, providing a more nuanced understanding of the topic.

Limited Generalizability

One of the key disadvantages of case studies is their limited generalizability. Since case studies focus on specific instances or events, the findings may not be applicable to a broader population or situation. The unique characteristics and circumstances of the case may limit the ability to generalize the findings to other contexts. It is crucial to recognize the limitations of generalizability when interpreting and applying the results of case studies.

Time-consuming

Another drawback of case studies is the time and resources required for conducting thorough research. Case studies involve extensive data collection, analysis, and interpretation processes. Researchers often spend a significant amount of time in the field, conducting interviews and observations. The comprehensive nature of case studies means that they can be time-consuming, particularly when dealing with complex phenomena or multiple cases.

Subject to Researcher Bias

Researchers must be aware of the potential for bias in case studies. Since researchers are actively involved in data collection and interpretation, their personal beliefs, perspectives, and experiences may influence the findings. It is essential to maintain objectivity and employ appropriate rigorous methods to minimize researcher bias. Additionally, utilizing different sources of data, employing multiple researchers, and conducting member checks can help strengthen the validity and reliability of the findings.

Limited Control Over Variables

Case studies are often conducted in real-world settings where researchers have limited control over variables. Unlike experimental studies, researchers cannot manipulate or control certain factors or conditions. This lack of control introduces the possibility of confounding variables or external influences that may impact the results. While researchers can strive to minimize these limitations through careful selection and data analysis, it is essential to acknowledge and address potential confounding factors.

Difficulty in Replication

Replication is a crucial aspect of scientific research to validate findings and ensure reliability. However, case studies can be challenging to replicate due to their unique and context-specific nature. The specific circumstances, individuals, and events involved may not be easily replicated in other settings. The difficulty in replication limits the ability to verify the findings and highlights the importance of combining case study evidence with other research methods to strengthen the overall understanding of the topic.

The Benefits of Knowing the Case Study Advantages and Disadvantages

Understanding the advantages and disadvantages of case studies can help researchers make informed decisions when selecting a research method. By recognizing the strengths and limitations of case studies, researchers can design studies that align with their research goals and questions. They can determine when case studies are the most appropriate method to employ and how to address potential challenges effectively. Ultimately, a comprehensive understanding of case study advantages and disadvantages enhances the quality and rigor of research, contributing to the advancement of knowledge in various fields.

In conclusion, case studies offer numerous advantages, including detailed analysis, rich qualitative data, exploration of complex phenomena, and the study of rare cases. However, they also have limitations, such as limited generalizability, time-consuming nature, researcher bias, limited control over variables, and difficulties in replication. By understanding these advantages and disadvantages, researchers can navigate the complexities of case studies and leverage their strengths while mitigating the associated challenges.

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What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

• Nitin Nohria

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

• Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Jr. and Distinguished Service University Professor. He served as the 10th dean of Harvard Business School, from 2010 to 2020.

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What are the benefits and drawbacks of case study research?

Posted by Mark Murphy | May 24, 2014 | Method , Research Students | 0

There should be no doubt that with case studies what you gain in depth you lose in breadth – this is the unavoidable compromise that needs to be understood from the beginning of the research process. So this is neither an advantage nor a disadvantage as one aspect cancels out the benefits/drawbacks of the other – there are other benefits and drawbacks that need attention however …

• Their flexibility: case studies are popular for a number of reasons, one being that they can be conducted at various points in the research process. Researchers are known to favour them as a way to develop ideas for more extensive research in the future – pilot studies often take the form of case studies. They are also effective conduits for a broad range of research methods; in that sense they are non-prejudicial against any particular type of research – focus groups are just as welcome in case study research as are questionnaires or participant observation.
• Capturing reality: One of their key benefits is their ability to capture what Hodkinson and Hodkinson call ‘lived reality’ (2001: 3). As they put it, case studies have the potential, when applied successfully, to ‘retain more of the “noise” of real life than many other types of research’ (Hodkinson and Hodkinson, 2001: 3). The importance of ‘noise’ and its place in research is especially important in contexts such as education, for example in schools where background noise is unavoidable. Educational contexts are always complex, and as a result it is difficult to exclude other unwanted variables, ‘some of which may only have real significance for one of their students’ (Hodkinson and Hodkinson, 2001, 4).
• The challenge of generality: At the same time, given their specificity, care needs to be taken when attempting to generalise from the findings. While there’s no inherent flaw in case study design that precludes its broader application, it is preferable that researchers choose their case study sites carefully, while also basing their analysis within existing research findings that have been generated via other research designs. No design is infallible but so often has the claim against case studies been made, that some of the criticism (unwarranted and unfair in many cases) has stuck.
• Suspicion of amateurism: Less partisan researchers might wonder whether the case study offers the time and finance-strapped researcher a convenient and pragmatic source of data, providing findings and recommendations that, given the nature of case studies, can neither be confirmed nor denied, in terms of utility or veracity. Who is to say that case studies offer anything more than a story to tell, and nothing more than that?
• But alongside this suspicion is another more insiduous one – a notion that ‘stories’ are not what social science research is about. This can be a concern for those who favour  case study research, as the political consequences can be hard to ignore. That said, so much research is based either on peoples’ lives or the impact of other issues (poverty, institutional policy) on their lives, so the stories of what actually occurs in their lives or in professional environments tend to be an invaluable source of evidence. The fact is that stories (individual, collective, institutional) have a vital role to play in the world of research. And to play the specific v. general card against case study design suggests a tendency towards forms of research fundamentalism as opposed to any kind of rational and objective take on case study’s strengths and limitations.
• Preciousness: Having said that, researchers should not fall into the trap (surprising how often this happens) of assuming that case study data speaks for itself – rarely is this ever the case, an assumption that is as patronising to research subjects as it is false. The role of the researcher is both to describe social phenomena and also to explain – i.e., interpret. Without interpretation the research findings lack meaningful presentation – they present themselves as fact when of course the reality of ‘facts’ is one of the reasons why such research is carried out.
• Conflation of political/research objectives: Another trap that case study researchers sometimes fall into is presenting research findings as if they were self-evidently true, as if the stories were beyond criticism. This is often accompanied by a vague attachment to the notion that research is a political process – one that is performed as a form of liberation against for example policies that seek to ignore the stories of those who ‘suffer’ at the hands of overbearing political or economic imperatives. Case study design should not be viewed as a mechanism for providing a ‘local’ bulwark against the ‘global’ – bur rather as a mechanism for checking the veracity of universalist claims (at least one of its objectives). The valorisation of particularism can only get you so far in social research.

[This post is adapted from material in ‘Research and Education’ (Curtis, Murphy and Shields , Routledge 2014), pp. 80-82].

Reference: Hodkinson, P. and H. Hodkinson (2001). The strengths and limitations of case study research. Paper presented to the Learning and Skills Development Agency conference, Making an impact on policy and practice , Cambridge, 5-7 December 2001, downloaded from h ttp://education.exeter.ac.uk/tlc/docs/publications/LE_PH_PUB_05.12.01.rtf.26.01.2013

About The Author

Mark Murphy

Mark Murphy is a Reader in Education and Public Policy at the University of Glasgow. He previously worked as an academic at King’s College, London, University of Chester, University of Stirling, National University of Ireland, Maynooth, University College Dublin and Northern Illinois University. Mark is an active researcher in the fields of education and public policy. His research interests include educational sociology, critical theory, accountability in higher education, and public sector reform.

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Case Study Method: Definition, Research Types, Advantages

by  Antony W

May 29, 2024

Case study method, or simply case study research methodology, is a technique that employs investigative inquiry to get data from specific individuals, organizations, groups, events, or demography.

Every participant in a case study method gets a similar engagement with hopes that he or she will provide information that helps with the discovery of novel insights on patterns, ideas, or hypothesis.

What’s The Origin of Case Study Method?

Frederic Le Play in France developed the case study method in sociology in 1829. Field workers would stay with families for a specific time and gather significant data such as income, expenditure, and interaction to understand the family in question.

The case study method was equally popular in clinical medicine, as it helped to generate, analyze, and support hypotheses .

Researchers adapted and integrated the technique to other sectors because of the benefits it uncovered in sociology, anthropology, and clinical medicine. The technique allows for the analysis of outcome through suggested decisions, procedures, and outcomes. 

What Research Types are Used in Case Study Method?

Your case study can be collective, descriptive, exploratory, explanatory, instrumental, or intrinsic.

These case study types require a comprehensive research methodology, which refers to procedures and techniques used to process and evaluate data to solve a problem and achieve a specific goal.

There are 2 types of research approaches for case studies: qualitative and quantitative research . These methods focus on different goals, data, and study.

Qualitative Research for Case Study

Qualitative research focuses on the collection and analysis of non-numerical data and it mostly applies to health sciences, anthropology, history, sociology, and education.

Examples of non-numerical data include audio, text, and video. You can collect qualitative data from focus groups, interviews, surveys, and observations.

Qualitative research for case studies enables you to generate new ideas and helpful insights with relevance and meaning.

Quantitative Research for Case Study

Quantitative research focuses on the collection and analysis of numbers, and it’s common in marketing, psychology, political science, economics, and sociology. Researchers use qualitative research to measure relationships and to test and track averages and patterns.

To do a comprehensive quantitative research:

• Come up with a theory.
• Develop a hypothesis.
• Create a research pattern.
• Operationalize a concept.
• Find a research environment (site).
• Choose your responders.
• Gather, process, and analyze data.
• Record your key findings and publish the results.

What are the Advantages of Case Study Methodology?

The following are the six advantages of the case study methodology:

1. Detailed Examination of a Specific Unit

The case study method enables researchers to document independently verifiable data from firsthand observations. The results provide information on the input mechanism that contributes to a proposed explanation under consideration.

2. Formation of Hypothesis

Researchers use the case study method to test a proposed hypothesis . More often than not, the information acquired from the study may inspire the formation of new concepts and allow further research because it supports change in social and physical settings.

You may collect a comprehensive data set depending on your ability and the openness of the study participants.

3. Constant Examination of Facts

You can use the case study methodology to examine facts about a social group continuously. The constant examination of facts ensures no disruption compromises the authenticity of the data obtained for the project.

Here, researchers don’t need to make assumptions when making conclusions from the collected data, thus ensuring the long-term validity of the findings. The conclusion made becomes significant to both sides of the equation, as it may confirm or reject the theory under investigation.

The constant examination of facts in case study methodology is subject to inefficiency because of the sheer volume of data under examination. Therefore, researchers have the responsibility to determine what information is helpful and what is insignificant.

4. Case Study Method Supports Comparison

Every demographic thinks, behaves, and responds to stimuli in unique ways, but each member of the group will contribute a little portion to a whole. Ideally, individual insights from different settings are a culmination of unique human experiences.

In this case, the case study method allows researchers to compare information from each demographic group, leading to ideas that either support or disapprove a theory.

5. Support for Knowledge Expansion

Researchers can use the case study methodology to expand their knowledge through analysis thanks to the range of methods used to collect data and evaluate hypothesis.

Many researchers collect data from interviews and observations, but even surveys can be just as useful. They may record participants’ experiences and use the information to analyze behavior and decisions. In some instances, a researcher may use memory test and experimental activities to predict how social groups would interact with or respond to given situations.

The information collected then serves to confirm the hypothesized possibilities.

6. Data Sampling Isn’t a Requirement

The case study method looks at social units holistically rather than isolating and analyzing individual data pieces. Therefore, the technique doesn’t require any sampling. The case study method supports the proposition under examination, as it transforms views into facts by validating or rejecting ideas that outside observers may use.

You may heed to specific incidences or results based on broader behavior or concepts. However, the study itself will not sample such instance. The methodology looks at the larger picture instead.

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About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

Case Control Study | Definition, Examples & Tips

Introduction

What is a case control study in research, when would you use a case control study, examples of case control studies, advantages of case control studies, disadvantages of case control studies.

A case control study is a type of observational research commonly used in the field of epidemiology. It is designed to help researchers identify factors that may contribute to a particular outcome, such as a disease or condition, by comparing subjects who have that outcome (cases) with those who do not (controls). The analysis approach is usually quantitative , but it's helpful to understand this research design , because this method is particularly useful for studying rare diseases or outcomes and can provide valuable insights into potential risk factors.

In this article, we will define what a case control study is, discuss when it is most appropriately used, and provide examples, along with the advantages and disadvantages of this research approach.

A case control study is a type of observational study commonly used to compare two groups of individuals who are largely similar except for the fact that one group has a specific condition or outcome while the second group of individuals, called the controls, do not have that condition or outcome. The primary goal of this study design is to compare factors between the two groups to identify what may be potentially contributing to the outcome or condition being studied.

Case control studies are usually retrospective, meaning they look backward and can use existing data to examine multiple risk factors that might explain why certain individuals developed the condition. In contrast, cohort studies are usually prospective, following individuals over a long period of time and analyzing an outcome, such as the development of a disease.

In a case control study, researchers first identify the cases, which are individuals who have the condition of interest. They then construct a second, very similar group of controls , who share many characteristics with the case group but do not have the condition. Researchers collect data on past exposures, behaviors, and other relevant variables from both the cases and the healthy controls.

By comparing the frequency and patterns of these exposures between an appropriate control group and a corresponding case group, researchers can identify any potentially relative risk factors associated with the condition. The quantitative measure commonly used to compare the strength of association between exposures and outcomes in case control studies is the odds ratio. Odds ratios are used for informing public health interventions and guiding future research.

This type of study is particularly valuable when studying rare diseases or conditions, as it allows researchers to gather data more quickly and efficiently than would be possible with a prospective cohort study. Additionally, case control studies are often less expensive and require fewer resources, making them a practical choice for many research questions .

However, it is important to note that case control studies can be prone to certain biases , such as recall bias and selection bias. Recall bias occurs when participants do not accurately remember past exposures, while selection bias can arise if cases and controls are not properly matched. Despite these limitations, case control studies remain a crucial method in health and epidemiological research, offering insights into the potential causes and risk factors of various health outcomes.

A case control study is particularly useful in several research scenarios, especially when the goal is to look at factors associated with rare diseases or conditions. This type of study is an efficient way to identify and evaluate risk factors associated with specific outcomes. Researchers often use case control studies when the condition under investigation has a low incidence rate, making it impractical to follow a large cohort over time to observe the development of the condition. By focusing on individuals who already have the condition and comparing them to those who do not, researchers can gain insights more quickly and with fewer resources.

This study design is also advantageous when time and funding are limited. Prospective studies can be time-consuming and costly, requiring long-term follow-up and extensive data collection. In contrast, case control studies are retrospective and can be conducted relatively quickly, as they rely on existing records and participant recall of past exposures. This makes them a cost-effective choice for preliminary investigations, allowing researchers to identify potential associations before committing to more extensive and expensive studies.

Case control studies are also appropriate when exploring multiple potential risk factors simultaneously. Since researchers collect detailed exposure information from both cases and controls, they can examine a wide range of variables and their potential associations with the condition. This flexibility is particularly useful in the early stages of research when the exact causes of a condition are not well understood.

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Case control studies have been instrumental in uncovering and evaluating factors associated with diseases and understanding potential underlying causes of various health conditions. These observational studies compare individuals with the outcome of interest to a comparison group of controls without the outcome, providing valuable insights into potential risk factors. Below are two examples that illustrate how case control studies can be used in different contexts.

Investigating lung cancer

One example of case control studies looks at historical factors of lung cancer such as smoking. Researchers select individuals diagnosed with lung cancer as the cases and a control group of individuals without lung cancer, matched by age, sex, and other relevant variables. Both groups are questioned about their smoking habits, including the duration and intensity of smoking.

The study can report a significantly higher prevalence of smoking among the cases compared to the controls, suggesting a strong association between smoking and lung cancer. Such findings can be crucial in establishing smoking as a major risk factor for lung cancer, leading to public health initiatives aimed at reducing smoking rates to improve health outcomes.

Exploring risk factors for myocardial infarction

Another important case control study might explore the risk factors for myocardial infarction (heart attack). Researchers select patients who had experienced a myocardial infarction as the cases and match them with a control group of individuals without a history of heart attacks but with similar health status and demographic characteristics. Data is collected on various exposures, such as diet, physical activity, family history of heart disease, and other historical factors to identify potential causes.

The analysis in this example reveals that factors like high cholesterol levels, hypertension, and lack of physical activity are more common among the cases than the controls. These findings can highlight the importance of managing cholesterol, blood pressure, and maintaining an active lifestyle to reduce the risk of myocardial infarction.

Case control studies offer several advantages that make them a valuable research method in epidemiology and public health. They are particularly useful when investigating rare diseases, working with limited resources, or exploring multiple risk factors. Below are three key advantages of case control studies.

Efficient for studying rare diseases

One of the primary advantages of case control studies is their efficiency in studying rare diseases. Since these studies start with individuals who already have the outcome of interest, researchers can gather sufficient data without needing to follow a large cohort over time. This is particularly beneficial when the condition is uncommon, as it allows researchers to focus their efforts on a smaller, more manageable sample size. By comparing these cases to a control group , researchers can quickly identify potential risk factors associated with the disease, accelerating the discovery of novel findings that might be difficult to obtain through other study designs like prospective cohort studies and retrospective cohort studies, which are designed around already established exposure or risk factors.

Cost-effective and time-efficient

Case control studies are generally more cost-effective and time-efficient compared to other epidemiological study designs, such as cohort studies. Because they are retrospective, case control studies utilize existing records and participant recall, reducing the need for long-term follow-up and extensive data collection. This makes them a practical choice for researchers with limited budgets and time constraints. The ability to conduct these studies relatively quickly allows for faster generation of insights and can inform the design of future, more comprehensive studies if necessary.

Ability to study multiple risk factors

Another significant advantage of case control studies is their ability to examine multiple risk factors simultaneously. When collecting data from both cases and controls, researchers can gather information on a wide range of exposures, behaviors, and other variables. This comprehensive data collection enables the analysis of various potential risk factors and their associations with the outcome of interest. This flexibility is particularly useful in the early stages of research when the exact causes of a condition are not well understood. By identifying several possible risk factors, case control studies can provide a broader understanding of the disease and guide further investigation.

While case control studies offer several advantages, they also come with notable disadvantages that researchers must consider. Below are two major disadvantages of case control studies.

Susceptibility to recall bias

One significant drawback of case control studies is their susceptibility to recall bias . Since these studies are retrospective, they rely on participants' memory and self-reported data regarding past exposures and behaviors. Cases and controls may recall information differently, especially if the condition being studied is severe or has a significant impact on the individual's life. Such recall bias may introduce effects from confounding variables and other factors to an analysis.

For example, individuals with a disease might be more likely to remember and report certain exposures they believe contributed to their condition, while controls may not recall these details as accurately. This discrepancy can lead to biased results, as the data collected may not accurately reflect actual past exposures. One way to minimize effects from recall bias is to collect data from multiple sources to triangulate findings.

Potential for selection bias

Another major disadvantage of case control studies is the potential for selection bias. Properly selecting and matching cases and controls is critical to ensure that the two groups are comparable in all relevant aspects except for the outcome of interest. If cases and controls are not appropriately matched, the contrasts observed between the groups may be due to systematic differences in who was selected rather than true associations between exposures and the outcome.

For instance, if the controls are not representative of the population that gave rise to the cases, the findings may not be generalizable. Additionally, the methods used to identify and recruit participants can also introduce bias, further complicating the interpretation of results. Selection bias can be mitigated by transparently describing the methods and assessing how representative the control group is of the population from which the cases emerged.

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5 Benefits of Learning Through the Case Study Method

• 28 Nov 2023

While several factors make HBS Online unique —including a global Community and real-world outcomes —active learning through the case study method rises to the top.

In a 2023 City Square Associates survey, 74 percent of HBS Online learners who also took a course from another provider said HBS Online’s case method and real-world examples were better by comparison.

Here’s a primer on the case method, five benefits you could gain, and how to experience it for yourself.

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What Is the Harvard Business School Case Study Method?

The case study method , or case method , is a learning technique in which you’re presented with a real-world business challenge and asked how you’d solve it. After working through it yourself and with peers, you’re told how the scenario played out.

HBS pioneered the case method in 1922. Shortly before, in 1921, the first case was written.

“How do you go into an ambiguous situation and get to the bottom of it?” says HBS Professor Jan Rivkin, former senior associate dean and chair of HBS's master of business administration (MBA) program, in a video about the case method . “That skill—the skill of figuring out a course of inquiry to choose a course of action—that skill is as relevant today as it was in 1921.”

Originally developed for the in-person MBA classroom, HBS Online adapted the case method into an engaging, interactive online learning experience in 2014.

In HBS Online courses , you learn about each case from the business professional who experienced it. After reviewing their videos, you’re prompted to take their perspective and explain how you’d handle their situation.

You then get to read peers’ responses, “star” them, and comment to further the discussion. Afterward, you learn how the professional handled it and their key takeaways.

HBS Online’s adaptation of the case method incorporates the famed HBS “cold call,” in which you’re called on at random to make a decision without time to prepare.

“Learning came to life!” said Sheneka Balogun , chief administration officer and chief of staff at LeMoyne-Owen College, of her experience taking the Credential of Readiness (CORe) program . “The videos from the professors, the interactive cold calls where you were randomly selected to participate, and the case studies that enhanced and often captured the essence of objectives and learning goals were all embedded in each module. This made learning fun, engaging, and student-friendly.”

If you’re considering taking a course that leverages the case study method, here are five benefits you could experience.

5 Benefits of Learning Through Case Studies

1. take new perspectives.

The case method prompts you to consider a scenario from another person’s perspective. To work through the situation and come up with a solution, you must consider their circumstances, limitations, risk tolerance, stakeholders, resources, and potential consequences to assess how to respond.

Taking on new perspectives not only can help you navigate your own challenges but also others’. Putting yourself in someone else’s situation to understand their motivations and needs can go a long way when collaborating with stakeholders.

2. Hone Your Decision-Making Skills

Another skill you can build is the ability to make decisions effectively . The case study method forces you to use limited information to decide how to handle a problem—just like in the real world.

Throughout your career, you’ll need to make difficult decisions with incomplete or imperfect information—and sometimes, you won’t feel qualified to do so. Learning through the case method allows you to practice this skill in a low-stakes environment. When facing a real challenge, you’ll be better prepared to think quickly, collaborate with others, and present and defend your solution.

3. Become More Open-Minded

As you collaborate with peers on responses, it becomes clear that not everyone solves problems the same way. Exposing yourself to various approaches and perspectives can help you become a more open-minded professional.

When you’re part of a diverse group of learners from around the world, your experiences, cultures, and backgrounds contribute to a range of opinions on each case.

On the HBS Online course platform, you’re prompted to view and comment on others’ responses, and discussion is encouraged. This practice of considering others’ perspectives can make you more receptive in your career.

“You’d be surprised at how much you can learn from your peers,” said Ratnaditya Jonnalagadda , a software engineer who took CORe.

In addition to interacting with peers in the course platform, Jonnalagadda was part of the HBS Online Community , where he networked with other professionals and continued discussions sparked by course content.

“You get to understand your peers better, and students share examples of businesses implementing a concept from a module you just learned,” Jonnalagadda said. “It’s a very good way to cement the concepts in one's mind.”

4. Enhance Your Curiosity

One byproduct of taking on different perspectives is that it enables you to picture yourself in various roles, industries, and business functions.

“Each case offers an opportunity for students to see what resonates with them, what excites them, what bores them, which role they could imagine inhabiting in their careers,” says former HBS Dean Nitin Nohria in the Harvard Business Review . “Cases stimulate curiosity about the range of opportunities in the world and the many ways that students can make a difference as leaders.”

Through the case method, you can “try on” roles you may not have considered and feel more prepared to change or advance your career .

5. Build Your Self-Confidence

Finally, learning through the case study method can build your confidence. Each time you assume a business leader’s perspective, aim to solve a new challenge, and express and defend your opinions and decisions to peers, you prepare to do the same in your career.

According to a 2022 City Square Associates survey , 84 percent of HBS Online learners report feeling more confident making business decisions after taking a course.

“Self-confidence is difficult to teach or coach, but the case study method seems to instill it in people,” Nohria says in the Harvard Business Review . “There may well be other ways of learning these meta-skills, such as the repeated experience gained through practice or guidance from a gifted coach. However, under the direction of a masterful teacher, the case method can engage students and help them develop powerful meta-skills like no other form of teaching.”

How to Experience the Case Study Method

If the case method seems like a good fit for your learning style, experience it for yourself by taking an HBS Online course. Offerings span seven subject areas, including:

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No matter which course or credential program you choose, you’ll examine case studies from real business professionals, work through their challenges alongside peers, and gain valuable insights to apply to your career.

Are you interested in discovering how HBS Online can help advance your career? Explore our course catalog and download our free guide —complete with interactive workbook sections—to determine if online learning is right for you and which course to take.

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The Advantages and Limitations of Single Case Study Analysis

As Andrew Bennett and Colin Elman have recently noted, qualitative research methods presently enjoy “an almost unprecedented popularity and vitality… in the international relations sub-field”, such that they are now “indisputably prominent, if not pre-eminent” (2010: 499). This is, they suggest, due in no small part to the considerable advantages that case study methods in particular have to offer in studying the “complex and relatively unstructured and infrequent phenomena that lie at the heart of the subfield” (Bennett and Elman, 2007: 171). Using selected examples from within the International Relations literature[1], this paper aims to provide a brief overview of the main principles and distinctive advantages and limitations of single case study analysis. Divided into three inter-related sections, the paper therefore begins by first identifying the underlying principles that serve to constitute the case study as a particular research strategy, noting the somewhat contested nature of the approach in ontological, epistemological, and methodological terms. The second part then looks to the principal single case study types and their associated advantages, including those from within the recent ‘third generation’ of qualitative International Relations (IR) research. The final section of the paper then discusses the most commonly articulated limitations of single case studies; while accepting their susceptibility to criticism, it is however suggested that such weaknesses are somewhat exaggerated. The paper concludes that single case study analysis has a great deal to offer as a means of both understanding and explaining contemporary international relations.

The term ‘case study’, John Gerring has suggested, is “a definitional morass… Evidently, researchers have many different things in mind when they talk about case study research” (2006a: 17). It is possible, however, to distil some of the more commonly-agreed principles. One of the most prominent advocates of case study research, Robert Yin (2009: 14) defines it as “an empirical enquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident”. What this definition usefully captures is that case studies are intended – unlike more superficial and generalising methods – to provide a level of detail and understanding, similar to the ethnographer Clifford Geertz’s (1973) notion of ‘thick description’, that allows for the thorough analysis of the complex and particularistic nature of distinct phenomena. Another frequently cited proponent of the approach, Robert Stake, notes that as a form of research the case study “is defined by interest in an individual case, not by the methods of inquiry used”, and that “the object of study is a specific, unique, bounded system” (2008: 443, 445). As such, three key points can be derived from this – respectively concerning issues of ontology, epistemology, and methodology – that are central to the principles of single case study research.

First, the vital notion of ‘boundedness’ when it comes to the particular unit of analysis means that defining principles should incorporate both the synchronic (spatial) and diachronic (temporal) elements of any so-called ‘case’. As Gerring puts it, a case study should be “an intensive study of a single unit… a spatially bounded phenomenon – e.g. a nation-state, revolution, political party, election, or person – observed at a single point in time or over some delimited period of time” (2004: 342). It is important to note, however, that – whereas Gerring refers to a single unit of analysis – it may be that attention also necessarily be given to particular sub-units. This points to the important difference between what Yin refers to as an ‘holistic’ case design, with a single unit of analysis, and an ’embedded’ case design with multiple units of analysis (Yin, 2009: 50-52). The former, for example, would examine only the overall nature of an international organization, whereas the latter would also look to specific departments, programmes, or policies etc.

Secondly, as Tim May notes of the case study approach, “even the most fervent advocates acknowledge that the term has entered into understandings with little specification or discussion of purpose and process” (2011: 220). One of the principal reasons for this, he argues, is the relationship between the use of case studies in social research and the differing epistemological traditions – positivist, interpretivist, and others – within which it has been utilised. Philosophy of science concerns are obviously a complex issue, and beyond the scope of much of this paper. That said, the issue of how it is that we know what we know – of whether or not a single independent reality exists of which we as researchers can seek to provide explanation – does lead us to an important distinction to be made between so-called idiographic and nomothetic case studies (Gerring, 2006b). The former refers to those which purport to explain only a single case, are concerned with particularisation, and hence are typically (although not exclusively) associated with more interpretivist approaches. The latter are those focused studies that reflect upon a larger population and are more concerned with generalisation, as is often so with more positivist approaches[2]. The importance of this distinction, and its relation to the advantages and limitations of single case study analysis, is returned to below.

Thirdly, in methodological terms, given that the case study has often been seen as more of an interpretivist and idiographic tool, it has also been associated with a distinctly qualitative approach (Bryman, 2009: 67-68). However, as Yin notes, case studies can – like all forms of social science research – be exploratory, descriptive, and/or explanatory in nature. It is “a common misconception”, he notes, “that the various research methods should be arrayed hierarchically… many social scientists still deeply believe that case studies are only appropriate for the exploratory phase of an investigation” (Yin, 2009: 6). If case studies can reliably perform any or all three of these roles – and given that their in-depth approach may also require multiple sources of data and the within-case triangulation of methods – then it becomes readily apparent that they should not be limited to only one research paradigm. Exploratory and descriptive studies usually tend toward the qualitative and inductive, whereas explanatory studies are more often quantitative and deductive (David and Sutton, 2011: 165-166). As such, the association of case study analysis with a qualitative approach is a “methodological affinity, not a definitional requirement” (Gerring, 2006a: 36). It is perhaps better to think of case studies as transparadigmatic; it is mistaken to assume single case study analysis to adhere exclusively to a qualitative methodology (or an interpretivist epistemology) even if it – or rather, practitioners of it – may be so inclined. By extension, this also implies that single case study analysis therefore remains an option for a multitude of IR theories and issue areas; it is how this can be put to researchers’ advantage that is the subject of the next section.

Having elucidated the defining principles of the single case study approach, the paper now turns to an overview of its main benefits. As noted above, a lack of consensus still exists within the wider social science literature on the principles and purposes – and by extension the advantages and limitations – of case study research. Given that this paper is directed towards the particular sub-field of International Relations, it suggests Bennett and Elman’s (2010) more discipline-specific understanding of contemporary case study methods as an analytical framework. It begins however, by discussing Harry Eckstein’s seminal (1975) contribution to the potential advantages of the case study approach within the wider social sciences.

Eckstein proposed a taxonomy which usefully identified what he considered to be the five most relevant types of case study. Firstly were so-called configurative-idiographic studies, distinctly interpretivist in orientation and predicated on the assumption that “one cannot attain prediction and control in the natural science sense, but only understanding ( verstehen )… subjective values and modes of cognition are crucial” (1975: 132). Eckstein’s own sceptical view was that any interpreter ‘simply’ considers a body of observations that are not self-explanatory and “without hard rules of interpretation, may discern in them any number of patterns that are more or less equally plausible” (1975: 134). Those of a more post-modernist bent, of course – sharing an “incredulity towards meta-narratives”, in Lyotard’s (1994: xxiv) evocative phrase – would instead suggest that this more free-form approach actually be advantageous in delving into the subtleties and particularities of individual cases.

Eckstein’s four other types of case study, meanwhile, promote a more nomothetic (and positivist) usage. As described, disciplined-configurative studies were essentially about the use of pre-existing general theories, with a case acting “passively, in the main, as a receptacle for putting theories to work” (Eckstein, 1975: 136). As opposed to the opportunity this presented primarily for theory application, Eckstein identified heuristic case studies as explicit theoretical stimulants – thus having instead the intended advantage of theory-building. So-called p lausibility probes entailed preliminary attempts to determine whether initial hypotheses should be considered sound enough to warrant more rigorous and extensive testing. Finally, and perhaps most notably, Eckstein then outlined the idea of crucial case studies , within which he also included the idea of ‘most-likely’ and ‘least-likely’ cases; the essential characteristic of crucial cases being their specific theory-testing function.

Whilst Eckstein’s was an early contribution to refining the case study approach, Yin’s (2009: 47-52) more recent delineation of possible single case designs similarly assigns them roles in the applying, testing, or building of theory, as well as in the study of unique cases[3]. As a subset of the latter, however, Jack Levy (2008) notes that the advantages of idiographic cases are actually twofold. Firstly, as inductive/descriptive cases – akin to Eckstein’s configurative-idiographic cases – whereby they are highly descriptive, lacking in an explicit theoretical framework and therefore taking the form of “total history”. Secondly, they can operate as theory-guided case studies, but ones that seek only to explain or interpret a single historical episode rather than generalise beyond the case. Not only does this therefore incorporate ‘single-outcome’ studies concerned with establishing causal inference (Gerring, 2006b), it also provides room for the more postmodern approaches within IR theory, such as discourse analysis, that may have developed a distinct methodology but do not seek traditional social scientific forms of explanation.

Applying specifically to the state of the field in contemporary IR, Bennett and Elman identify a ‘third generation’ of mainstream qualitative scholars – rooted in a pragmatic scientific realist epistemology and advocating a pluralistic approach to methodology – that have, over the last fifteen years, “revised or added to essentially every aspect of traditional case study research methods” (2010: 502). They identify ‘process tracing’ as having emerged from this as a central method of within-case analysis. As Bennett and Checkel observe, this carries the advantage of offering a methodologically rigorous “analysis of evidence on processes, sequences, and conjunctures of events within a case, for the purposes of either developing or testing hypotheses about causal mechanisms that might causally explain the case” (2012: 10).

Harnessing various methods, process tracing may entail the inductive use of evidence from within a case to develop explanatory hypotheses, and deductive examination of the observable implications of hypothesised causal mechanisms to test their explanatory capability[4]. It involves providing not only a coherent explanation of the key sequential steps in a hypothesised process, but also sensitivity to alternative explanations as well as potential biases in the available evidence (Bennett and Elman 2010: 503-504). John Owen (1994), for example, demonstrates the advantages of process tracing in analysing whether the causal factors underpinning democratic peace theory are – as liberalism suggests – not epiphenomenal, but variously normative, institutional, or some given combination of the two or other unexplained mechanism inherent to liberal states. Within-case process tracing has also been identified as advantageous in addressing the complexity of path-dependent explanations and critical junctures – as for example with the development of political regime types – and their constituent elements of causal possibility, contingency, closure, and constraint (Bennett and Elman, 2006b).

Bennett and Elman (2010: 505-506) also identify the advantages of single case studies that are implicitly comparative: deviant, most-likely, least-likely, and crucial cases. Of these, so-called deviant cases are those whose outcome does not fit with prior theoretical expectations or wider empirical patterns – again, the use of inductive process tracing has the advantage of potentially generating new hypotheses from these, either particular to that individual case or potentially generalisable to a broader population. A classic example here is that of post-independence India as an outlier to the standard modernisation theory of democratisation, which holds that higher levels of socio-economic development are typically required for the transition to, and consolidation of, democratic rule (Lipset, 1959; Diamond, 1992). Absent these factors, MacMillan’s single case study analysis (2008) suggests the particularistic importance of the British colonial heritage, the ideology and leadership of the Indian National Congress, and the size and heterogeneity of the federal state.

Most-likely cases, as per Eckstein above, are those in which a theory is to be considered likely to provide a good explanation if it is to have any application at all, whereas least-likely cases are ‘tough test’ ones in which the posited theory is unlikely to provide good explanation (Bennett and Elman, 2010: 505). Levy (2008) neatly refers to the inferential logic of the least-likely case as the ‘Sinatra inference’ – if a theory can make it here, it can make it anywhere. Conversely, if a theory cannot pass a most-likely case, it is seriously impugned. Single case analysis can therefore be valuable for the testing of theoretical propositions, provided that predictions are relatively precise and measurement error is low (Levy, 2008: 12-13). As Gerring rightly observes of this potential for falsification:

“a positivist orientation toward the work of social science militates toward a greater appreciation of the case study format, not a denigration of that format, as is usually supposed” (Gerring, 2007: 247, emphasis added).

In summary, the various forms of single case study analysis can – through the application of multiple qualitative and/or quantitative research methods – provide a nuanced, empirically-rich, holistic account of specific phenomena. This may be particularly appropriate for those phenomena that are simply less amenable to more superficial measures and tests (or indeed any substantive form of quantification) as well as those for which our reasons for understanding and/or explaining them are irreducibly subjective – as, for example, with many of the normative and ethical issues associated with the practice of international relations. From various epistemological and analytical standpoints, single case study analysis can incorporate both idiographic sui generis cases and, where the potential for generalisation may exist, nomothetic case studies suitable for the testing and building of causal hypotheses. Finally, it should not be ignored that a signal advantage of the case study – with particular relevance to international relations – also exists at a more practical rather than theoretical level. This is, as Eckstein noted, “that it is economical for all resources: money, manpower, time, effort… especially important, of course, if studies are inherently costly, as they are if units are complex collective individuals ” (1975: 149-150, emphasis added).

Limitations

Single case study analysis has, however, been subject to a number of criticisms, the most common of which concern the inter-related issues of methodological rigour, researcher subjectivity, and external validity. With regard to the first point, the prototypical view here is that of Zeev Maoz (2002: 164-165), who suggests that “the use of the case study absolves the author from any kind of methodological considerations. Case studies have become in many cases a synonym for freeform research where anything goes”. The absence of systematic procedures for case study research is something that Yin (2009: 14-15) sees as traditionally the greatest concern due to a relative absence of methodological guidelines. As the previous section suggests, this critique seems somewhat unfair; many contemporary case study practitioners – and representing various strands of IR theory – have increasingly sought to clarify and develop their methodological techniques and epistemological grounding (Bennett and Elman, 2010: 499-500).

A second issue, again also incorporating issues of construct validity, concerns that of the reliability and replicability of various forms of single case study analysis. This is usually tied to a broader critique of qualitative research methods as a whole. However, whereas the latter obviously tend toward an explicitly-acknowledged interpretive basis for meanings, reasons, and understandings:

“quantitative measures appear objective, but only so long as we don’t ask questions about where and how the data were produced… pure objectivity is not a meaningful concept if the goal is to measure intangibles [as] these concepts only exist because we can interpret them” (Berg and Lune, 2010: 340).

The question of researcher subjectivity is a valid one, and it may be intended only as a methodological critique of what are obviously less formalised and researcher-independent methods (Verschuren, 2003). Owen (1994) and Layne’s (1994) contradictory process tracing results of interdemocratic war-avoidance during the Anglo-American crisis of 1861 to 1863 – from liberal and realist standpoints respectively – are a useful example. However, it does also rest on certain assumptions that can raise deeper and potentially irreconcilable ontological and epistemological issues. There are, regardless, plenty such as Bent Flyvbjerg (2006: 237) who suggest that the case study contains no greater bias toward verification than other methods of inquiry, and that “on the contrary, experience indicates that the case study contains a greater bias toward falsification of preconceived notions than toward verification”.

The third and arguably most prominent critique of single case study analysis is the issue of external validity or generalisability. How is it that one case can reliably offer anything beyond the particular? “We always do better (or, in the extreme, no worse) with more observation as the basis of our generalization”, as King et al write; “in all social science research and all prediction, it is important that we be as explicit as possible about the degree of uncertainty that accompanies out prediction” (1994: 212). This is an unavoidably valid criticism. It may be that theories which pass a single crucial case study test, for example, require rare antecedent conditions and therefore actually have little explanatory range. These conditions may emerge more clearly, as Van Evera (1997: 51-54) notes, from large-N studies in which cases that lack them present themselves as outliers exhibiting a theory’s cause but without its predicted outcome. As with the case of Indian democratisation above, it would logically be preferable to conduct large-N analysis beforehand to identify that state’s non-representative nature in relation to the broader population.

There are, however, three important qualifiers to the argument about generalisation that deserve particular mention here. The first is that with regard to an idiographic single-outcome case study, as Eckstein notes, the criticism is “mitigated by the fact that its capability to do so [is] never claimed by its exponents; in fact it is often explicitly repudiated” (1975: 134). Criticism of generalisability is of little relevance when the intention is one of particularisation. A second qualifier relates to the difference between statistical and analytical generalisation; single case studies are clearly less appropriate for the former but arguably retain significant utility for the latter – the difference also between explanatory and exploratory, or theory-testing and theory-building, as discussed above. As Gerring puts it, “theory confirmation/disconfirmation is not the case study’s strong suit” (2004: 350). A third qualification relates to the issue of case selection. As Seawright and Gerring (2008) note, the generalisability of case studies can be increased by the strategic selection of cases. Representative or random samples may not be the most appropriate, given that they may not provide the richest insight (or indeed, that a random and unknown deviant case may appear). Instead, and properly used , atypical or extreme cases “often reveal more information because they activate more actors… and more basic mechanisms in the situation studied” (Flyvbjerg, 2006). Of course, this also points to the very serious limitation, as hinted at with the case of India above, that poor case selection may alternatively lead to overgeneralisation and/or grievous misunderstandings of the relationship between variables or processes (Bennett and Elman, 2006a: 460-463).

As Tim May (2011: 226) notes, “the goal for many proponents of case studies […] is to overcome dichotomies between generalizing and particularizing, quantitative and qualitative, deductive and inductive techniques”. Research aims should drive methodological choices, rather than narrow and dogmatic preconceived approaches. As demonstrated above, there are various advantages to both idiographic and nomothetic single case study analyses – notably the empirically-rich, context-specific, holistic accounts that they have to offer, and their contribution to theory-building and, to a lesser extent, that of theory-testing. Furthermore, while they do possess clear limitations, any research method involves necessary trade-offs; the inherent weaknesses of any one method, however, can potentially be offset by situating them within a broader, pluralistic mixed-method research strategy. Whether or not single case studies are used in this fashion, they clearly have a great deal to offer.

References 

Bennett, A. and Checkel, J. T. (2012) ‘Process Tracing: From Philosophical Roots to Best Practice’, Simons Papers in Security and Development, No. 21/2012, School for International Studies, Simon Fraser University: Vancouver.

Bennett, A. and Elman, C. (2006a) ‘Qualitative Research: Recent Developments in Case Study Methods’, Annual Review of Political Science , 9, 455-476.

Bennett, A. and Elman, C. (2006b) ‘Complex Causal Relations and Case Study Methods: The Example of Path Dependence’, Political Analysis , 14, 3, 250-267.

Bennett, A. and Elman, C. (2007) ‘Case Study Methods in the International Relations Subfield’, Comparative Political Studies , 40, 2, 170-195.

Bennett, A. and Elman, C. (2010) Case Study Methods. In C. Reus-Smit and D. Snidal (eds) The Oxford Handbook of International Relations . Oxford University Press: Oxford. Ch. 29.

Berg, B. and Lune, H. (2012) Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences . Pearson: London.

Bryman, A. (2012) Social Research Methods . Oxford University Press: Oxford.

David, M. and Sutton, C. D. (2011) Social Research: An Introduction . SAGE Publications Ltd: London.

Diamond, J. (1992) ‘Economic development and democracy reconsidered’, American Behavioral Scientist , 35, 4/5, 450-499.

Eckstein, H. (1975) Case Study and Theory in Political Science. In R. Gomm, M. Hammersley, and P. Foster (eds) Case Study Method . SAGE Publications Ltd: London.

Flyvbjerg, B. (2006) ‘Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research’, Qualitative Inquiry , 12, 2, 219-245.

Geertz, C. (1973) The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays by Clifford Geertz . Basic Books Inc: New York.

Gerring, J. (2004) ‘What is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?’, American Political Science Review , 98, 2, 341-354.

Gerring, J. (2006a) Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

Gerring, J. (2006b) ‘Single-Outcome Studies: A Methodological Primer’, International Sociology , 21, 5, 707-734.

Gerring, J. (2007) ‘Is There a (Viable) Crucial-Case Method?’, Comparative Political Studies , 40, 3, 231-253.

King, G., Keohane, R. O. and Verba, S. (1994) Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research . Princeton University Press: Chichester.

Layne, C. (1994) ‘Kant or Cant: The Myth of the Democratic Peace’, International Security , 19, 2, 5-49.

Levy, J. S. (2008) ‘Case Studies: Types, Designs, and Logics of Inference’, Conflict Management and Peace Science , 25, 1-18.

Lipset, S. M. (1959) ‘Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy’, The American Political Science Review , 53, 1, 69-105.

Lyotard, J-F. (1984) The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge . University of Minnesota Press: Minneapolis.

MacMillan, A. (2008) ‘Deviant Democratization in India’, Democratization , 15, 4, 733-749.

Maoz, Z. (2002) Case study methodology in international studies: from storytelling to hypothesis testing. In F. P. Harvey and M. Brecher (eds) Evaluating Methodology in International Studies . University of Michigan Press: Ann Arbor.

May, T. (2011) Social Research: Issues, Methods and Process . Open University Press: Maidenhead.

Owen, J. M. (1994) ‘How Liberalism Produces Democratic Peace’, International Security , 19, 2, 87-125.

Seawright, J. and Gerring, J. (2008) ‘Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research: A Menu of Qualitative and Quantitative Options’, Political Research Quarterly , 61, 2, 294-308.

Stake, R. E. (2008) Qualitative Case Studies. In N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (eds) Strategies of Qualitative Inquiry . Sage Publications: Los Angeles. Ch. 17.

Van Evera, S. (1997) Guide to Methods for Students of Political Science . Cornell University Press: Ithaca.

Verschuren, P. J. M. (2003) ‘Case study as a research strategy: some ambiguities and opportunities’, International Journal of Social Research Methodology , 6, 2, 121-139.

Yin, R. K. (2009) Case Study Research: Design and Methods . SAGE Publications Ltd: London.

[1] The paper follows convention by differentiating between ‘International Relations’ as the academic discipline and ‘international relations’ as the subject of study.

[2] There is some similarity here with Stake’s (2008: 445-447) notion of intrinsic cases, those undertaken for a better understanding of the particular case, and instrumental ones that provide insight for the purposes of a wider external interest.

[3] These may be unique in the idiographic sense, or in nomothetic terms as an exception to the generalising suppositions of either probabilistic or deterministic theories (as per deviant cases, below).

[4] Although there are “philosophical hurdles to mount”, according to Bennett and Checkel, there exists no a priori reason as to why process tracing (as typically grounded in scientific realism) is fundamentally incompatible with various strands of positivism or interpretivism (2012: 18-19). By extension, it can therefore be incorporated by a range of contemporary mainstream IR theories.

— Written by: Ben Willis Written at: University of Plymouth Written for: David Brockington Date written: January 2013

Further Reading on E-International Relations

• Identity in International Conflicts: A Case Study of the Cuban Missile Crisis
• Imperialism’s Legacy in the Study of Contemporary Politics: The Case of Hegemonic Stability Theory
• Recreating a Nation’s Identity Through Symbolism: A Chinese Case Study
• Ontological Insecurity: A Case Study on Israeli-Palestinian Conflict in Jerusalem
• Terrorists or Freedom Fighters: A Case Study of ETA
• A Critical Assessment of Eco-Marxism: A Ghanaian Case Study

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• What Is a Case-Control Study? | Definition & Examples

What Is a Case-Control Study? | Definition & Examples

Published on February 4, 2023 by Tegan George . Revised on June 22, 2023.

A case-control study is an experimental design that compares a group of participants possessing a condition of interest to a very similar group lacking that condition. Here, the participants possessing the attribute of study, such as a disease, are called the “case,” and those without it are the “control.”

It’s important to remember that the case group is chosen because they already possess the attribute of interest. The point of the control group is to facilitate investigation, e.g., studying whether the case group systematically exhibits that attribute more than the control group does.

Table of contents

When to use a case-control study, examples of case-control studies, advantages and disadvantages of case-control studies, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions.

Case-control studies are a type of observational study often used in fields like medical research, environmental health, or epidemiology. While most observational studies are qualitative in nature, case-control studies can also be quantitative , and they often are in healthcare settings. Case-control studies can be used for both exploratory and explanatory research , and they are a good choice for studying research topics like disease exposure and health outcomes.

A case-control study may be a good fit for your research if it meets the following criteria.

• Data on exposure (e.g., to a chemical or a pesticide) are difficult to obtain or expensive.
• The disease associated with the exposure you’re studying has a long incubation period or is rare or under-studied (e.g., AIDS in the early 1980s).
• The population you are studying is difficult to contact for follow-up questions (e.g., asylum seekers).

Retrospective cohort studies use existing secondary research data, such as medical records or databases, to identify a group of people with a common exposure or risk factor and to observe their outcomes over time. Case-control studies conduct primary research , comparing a group of participants possessing a condition of interest to a very similar group lacking that condition in real time.

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Case-control studies are common in fields like epidemiology, healthcare, and psychology.

You would then collect data on your participants’ exposure to contaminated drinking water, focusing on variables such as the source of said water and the duration of exposure, for both groups. You could then compare the two to determine if there is a relationship between drinking water contamination and the risk of developing a gastrointestinal illness. Example: Healthcare case-control study You are interested in the relationship between the dietary intake of a particular vitamin (e.g., vitamin D) and the risk of developing osteoporosis later in life. Here, the case group would be individuals who have been diagnosed with osteoporosis, while the control group would be individuals without osteoporosis.

You would then collect information on dietary intake of vitamin D for both the cases and controls and compare the two groups to determine if there is a relationship between vitamin D intake and the risk of developing osteoporosis. Example: Psychology case-control study You are studying the relationship between early-childhood stress and the likelihood of later developing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Here, the case group would be individuals who have been diagnosed with PTSD, while the control group would be individuals without PTSD.

Case-control studies are a solid research method choice, but they come with distinct advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages of case-control studies

• Case-control studies are a great choice if you have any ethical considerations about your participants that could preclude you from using a traditional experimental design .
• Case-control studies are time efficient and fairly inexpensive to conduct because they require fewer subjects than other research methods .
• If there were multiple exposures leading to a single outcome, case-control studies can incorporate that. As such, they truly shine when used to study rare outcomes or outbreaks of a particular disease .

Disadvantages of case-control studies

• Case-control studies, similarly to observational studies, run a high risk of research biases . They are particularly susceptible to observer bias , recall bias , and interviewer bias.
• In the case of very rare exposures of the outcome studied, attempting to conduct a case-control study can be very time consuming and inefficient .
• Case-control studies in general have low internal validity  and are not always credible.

Case-control studies by design focus on one singular outcome. This makes them very rigid and not generalizable , as no extrapolation can be made about other outcomes like risk recurrence or future exposure threat. This leads to less satisfying results than other methodological choices.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Student’s  t -distribution
• Normal distribution
• Null and Alternative Hypotheses
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Data cleansing
• Reproducibility vs Replicability
• Peer review
• Prospective cohort study

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Placebo effect
• Hawthorne effect
• Hindsight bias
• Affect heuristic
• Social desirability bias

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A case-control study differs from a cohort study because cohort studies are more longitudinal in nature and do not necessarily require a control group .

While one may be added if the investigator so chooses, members of the cohort are primarily selected because of a shared characteristic among them. In particular, retrospective cohort studies are designed to follow a group of people with a common exposure or risk factor over time and observe their outcomes.

Case-control studies, in contrast, require both a case group and a control group, as suggested by their name, and usually are used to identify risk factors for a disease by comparing cases and controls.

A case-control study differs from a cross-sectional study because case-control studies are naturally retrospective in nature, looking backward in time to identify exposures that may have occurred before the development of the disease.

On the other hand, cross-sectional studies collect data on a population at a single point in time. The goal here is to describe the characteristics of the population, such as their age, gender identity, or health status, and understand the distribution and relationships of these characteristics.

Cases and controls are selected for a case-control study based on their inherent characteristics. Participants already possessing the condition of interest form the “case,” while those without form the “control.”

Keep in mind that by definition the case group is chosen because they already possess the attribute of interest. The point of the control group is to facilitate investigation, e.g., studying whether the case group systematically exhibits that attribute more than the control group does.

The strength of the association between an exposure and a disease in a case-control study can be measured using a few different statistical measures , such as odds ratios (ORs) and relative risk (RR).

No, case-control studies cannot establish causality as a standalone measure.

As observational studies , they can suggest associations between an exposure and a disease, but they cannot prove without a doubt that the exposure causes the disease. In particular, issues arising from timing, research biases like recall bias , and the selection of variables lead to low internal validity and the inability to determine causality.

Sources in this article

We strongly encourage students to use sources in their work. You can cite our article (APA Style) or take a deep dive into the articles below.

George, T. (2023, June 22). What Is a Case-Control Study? | Definition & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved June 24, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/case-control-study/

Schlesselman, J. J. (1982). Case-Control Studies: Design, Conduct, Analysis (Monographs in Epidemiology and Biostatistics, 2) (Illustrated). Oxford University Press.

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Case Study: Types, Advantages And Disadvantages

  Case Study: Types, Advantages And Disadvantages 

Case study is both method and tool for research. Case study is the intensive study of a phenomenon, but it gives subjective information rather than objective. It gives detailed knowledge about the phenomena and is not able to generalize beyond the knowledge.

Case studies aim to analyze specific issues within the boundaries of a specific environment, situation or organization. According to its design, case study research method can be divided into three categories: explanatory, descriptive and exploratory.

Explanatory case studies aim to answer ‘how’ or ‘why’ questions with little control on behalf of the researcher over occurrence of events. This type of case study focuses on phenomena within the contexts of real-life situations.

Descriptive case studies aim to analyze the sequence of interpersonal events after a certain amount of time has passed. Case studies belonging to this category usually describe culture or sub-culture, and they attempt to discover the key phenomena.

Exploratory case studies aim to find answers to the questions of ‘what’ or ‘who’. Exploratory case study data collection method is often accompanied by additional data collection method(s) such as interviews, questionnaires, experiments etc.

DEFINITION OF CASE STUDY

The case study or case history method is not a newer thing, but it is a linear descendent of very ancient methods of sociological description and generalization namely, the ‘parable’, the ‘allegory’, the ‘story’ and the ‘novel’.

According to P.V. Young . “A fairly exhaustive study of a person or group is called a life of case history.”

Thus, the case study is more intensive in nature; the field of study is comparatively limited but has more depth in it.

TYPES OF CASE STUDY

Six types of case studies are conducted which are as follows:

Community Studies: The community study is a careful description and analysis of a group of people living together in a particular geographic location in a corporative way. The community study deals with such elements of the community as location, appearance, prevailing economic activity, climate and natural sources, historical development, how the people live, the social structure, goals and life values, an evaluation of the social institutions within the community that meet the human needs etc. Such studies are case studies, with the community serving as the case under investigation.

Casual Comparative Studies: Another type of study seeks to find the answers to the problems through the analysis of casual relationships. What factors seem to be associated with certain occurrences, conditions or types of behaviour? By the methodology of descriptive research, the relative importance of these factors may be investigated.

Activity Analysis: The analysis of the activities or processes that an individual is called upon to perform is important, both in industry and in various types of social agencies. This process of analysis is appropriate in any field of work and at all levels of responsibility. In social system, the roles of superintendent, the principal, the teacher and the custodian have been carefully analyzed to discover what these individuals do and need to be able to do.

Content or Document Analysis: Content analysis, sometimes known as document analysis. Deals with the systematic examination of current records or documents as sources of data. In documentary analysis, the following may be used as sources of data: official records and reports, printed forms, text-books, reference books, letters, autobiographies diaries, pictures, films and cartoons etc . But in using documentary sources, one must bear in mind the fact that data appearing in print is not necessarily trustworthy. This content or document analysis should serve a useful purpose in research, adding important knowledge to a field to study or yielding information that is helpful in evaluating and improving social or educational practices.

A Follow-up Study: A follow-up study investigates individuals who have left an institution after having completed programme, a treatment or a course of study, to know what has been the impact of the institutions and its programme upon them. By examining their status or seeking their opinions, one may get some idea of the adequacy or inadequacy of the institutes programme. Studies of this type enable an institution to evaluate various aspects of its programme in the light of actual results.

Trend Studies: The trend or predictive study is an interesting application of the descriptive method. In essence, it is based upon a longitudinal consideration of recorded data, indicating what has been happening in the past, what does the present situation reveal and on the basis of these data, what will be likely to happen in the future.

Whatever type of case study is to conduct, it’s important to first identify the purpose, goals, and approach for conducting methodologically sound research.

ADVANTAGES OF CASE STUDY

The main points of advantages of case study are given below:

Formation of valid hypothesis: Case study helps in formulating valid hypothesis. Once the various cases are extensively studied and analyze, the researcher can deduce various generalizations, which may be developed into useful hypotheses. It is admitted by all that the study of relevant literature and case study form the only potent sources of hypothesis.

  Useful in framing questionnaires and schedules: Case study is of great help in framing questionnaires, schedules or other forms. When a questionnaire is prepared after thorough case study the peculiarities of the group as well as individual units, become known also the type of response likely to be available, liking and aversions of the people. This helps in getting prompt response.

Sampling: Case study is of help in the stratification of the sample. By studying the individual units the researcher can put them in definite classes or types and thereby facilitate the perfect stratification of the sample.

Location of deviant cases: The case study makes it possible to locate deviant cases. There exists a general tendency to ignore them, but for scientific analysis, they are very important. The analysis of such cases is of valuable help in clarifying the theory itself.

Study of process: In cases where the problem under study constitutes a process and not one incident e.g. courtship process, clique formation etc., case study is the appropriate method as the case data is essential for valid study of such problems.

Enlarges experience: The range of personal experience of the researcher is enlarged by the case study on the other hand in statistical methods a narrow range of topics is selected, and the researcher’s knowledge is restricted to the particular aspect only.

Qualitative analysis in actual situation: Case study enables the establishment of the significance of the recorded data when the individual is alive and later on within the life of the classes of individuals. The researcher has the opportunity to come into contact with different classes of people and he is in a position to watch their life and hear their experiences. This provides him with an opportunity to acquire experiences of such life situations which he is never expected to lead.

This discussion highlights the advantages of the case data in social research. Social scientists developed the techniques to make it more perfect and remove the chances of bias.

LIMITATIONS/DISADVANTAGES OF CASE STUDY METHOD

Subjective bias: Research subjectivity in collecting data for supporting or refuting a particular explanation, personal view of investigation influences the findings and conclusion of the study.

Problem of objectivity: Due to excessive association with the social unit under investigation the researcher may develop self-justificatory data which are far from being factual.

Difficulty in comparison: Because of wide variations among human beings in terms of their response and behaviour, attitudes and values, social setting and circumstances, etc., the researcher actually finds it difficult to trace out two social units which are identical in all respects. This hinders proper comparison of cases.

A time, energy and money consuming method: The preparation of a case history involves a lot of time and expenditure of human energy, therefore, there is every possibility that most of the cases may get stray. Due to such difficulties, only a few researchers can afford to case study method.

Time span: Long time span may be another factor that is likely to distort the information provided by the social unit to the researcher.

Unreliable source material: The two major sources of case study are: Personal documents and life history. But in both these cases, the records or the own experience of the social units may not present a true picture. On the contrary, the social unit may try to suppress his unpleasant facts or add colour to them. As a result, the conclusions drawn do not give a true picture and dependable findings.

Scope for wrong conclusions: The case study is laden with inaccurate observation, wrong inferences, faulty reporting, memory failure, repression or omission of unpleasant facts in an unconscious manner, dramatization of facts, more imaginary description, and difficulty in choosing a case typical of the group. All these problems provide the researcher with every possibility of drawing wrong conclusions and errors.

Case studies are complex because they generally involve multiple sources of data, may include multiple cases within a study and produce large amounts of data for analysis. Researchers from many disciplines use the case study method to build upon theory, to produce new theory, to dispute or challenge theory, to explain a situation, to provide a basis to apply solutions to situations, to explore, or to describe an object or phenomenon. The advantages of the case study method are its applicability to real-life, contemporary, human situations and its public accessibility through written reports. Case study results relate directly to the common readers everyday experience and facilitate an understanding of complex real-life situations.

__________________________________________________________________________

Research Methodology Methods and Techniques~C. R. Kothari (p.113) - Link

Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistics~Yogesh Kumar Singh (Chapter–10: Case Study Method p. 147) - Link

Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches~W. Lawrence Neuman (p.42) - Link

The Basics of Social Research~Earl Babbie (p.280) - Link

Social Science Research Principles, Methods, and Practices~Anol Bhattacherjee (93) - Link

PREPARING A CASE STUDY: A Guide for Designing and Conducting a Case Study for Evaluation Input - Link

A Case in Case Study Methodology - Link

Case Study Method - Link1 & Link 2

Unit-4 Case Study - Link

Case study as a research method - Link

Case_Study~Tanya Sammut-Bonnici and John McGee - Link

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Definition of case study along with its advantages and disadvantages

Case study is defined as “An event, an entity, an individual or even a unit of analysis” (Yin, 1989). A case study is also defined as an “Empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context using multiple sources of evidence” (Anderson, 1993). The case is also concerned on the reasoning of why and how the events happen so that the contextual realities could be captured and the variations in what was initially planned and what actually occurred could be perceived.

The case study is qualitative type of method; therefore, it has the same advantages as that of qualitative method. Case study can be either single or multiple cases. Single case is the analysis of one single phenomenon. According to Yin, Single cases are the most appropriate to confirm or challenge a theory or to represent a unique or extreme case.

Advantages of the case study:

• As we can observe the case directly and relate it to theoretical part, we can get the data directly from the case and analyse it.
• Results obtained through case study are more practical than ideal. As a researcher we observe and read the case directly: it is direct and simple method.
• It is a flexible method of doing research, because researcher is free to discover and address issues as they arrive in their experiments.

Limitations of case study:

It narrows down the area of research: the research is limited to an individual or group individuals the results inferred by research are not universal. So it is difficult to generalise the results.

Anderson, G.J. (1993). Fundamentals of Educational Research. Falmer Press teachers’ library series. [Online]. Taylor & Francis Group. Available from: https://books.google.co.in/books?id=B5CGPwAACAAJ. Yin, R.K. (1989). Case study research: Design and methods. Applied Social Research Series. [Online]. London: Sage. Available from: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.461.5170&rep=rep1&type=pdf.

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• Published: 20 June 2024

Students’ perception of peer teaching in engineering education: a mixed–method case study

• Constantin Cătălin Dosoftei 1 &
• Lidia Alexa 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  793 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Science, technology and society

Background : Engineering education is constantly evolving and adapting to meet the demand for diverse skills and competencies in graduates, in response to the changing global economy and technological advancements. This requires shifting from a traditional content-oriented and professor-focused approach towards a more interactive, student-centered approach in which students actively engage in all process stages. The study’s main objective was to examine the students’ perceptions of peer teaching and better understand the method’s perceived advantages and disadvantages. The research was conducted over two academic years (2021 and 2022) and involved 96 students. The research incorporated quantitative and qualitative data collected through online questionnaires completed by the students at the end of the semester. The results showed a cumulative positive response rate for all close-ended questions of over 60%. The correlation analysis revealed medium positive relationships among the variables, including self-confidence, academic performance, communication and active listening, teamwork, knowledge consolidation, student-teacher benefits, and teaching activity. The thematic analysis of the open-ended questions showed that 87% of the respondents perceived the peer-teaching experience as positive and valuable. The main advantages listed by students were better communication, practicality, increased attention and interaction, and overcoming student-teacher anxiety. The main disadvantage was the perceived lack of structure and experience in coordinating laboratory work. The study results indicate that peer-based instructional methods can lead to more effective dissemination of knowledge among students, as evidenced by the high percentage of respondents who reported improved comprehension through peer-to-peer explanations. At the same time, the efficacy of this approach is contingent upon the instructor’s preparation and support, which facilitates the learning process and enhances the classroom’s social dynamics.

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Principal component analysis

Introduction.

The engineering educational landscape has undergone significant shifts in recent years, with a growing emphasis on developing a broad range of skills and competencies in engineering students beyond technical expertise. The demand for engineers with diverse skills and competencies has risen in response to the increasing complexity of the global economy and technological advancement (Jamieson and Lohman, 2012 ).

This poses multiple challenges for more traditional and content-focused engineering education institutions, which predominately use lectures and demonstrations, teaching methods that no longer meet students’ 21st-century competencies and academic needs (Orji and Ogbuanya, 2018 ). To meet this demand, educational institutions have had to adapt curricula and teaching methods to better prepare students for success in the modern workforce.

Changes have been made in the instructional process in engineering schools worldwide, recognising the need for a more holistic approach to preparing engineers for the challenges and opportunities of the modern world. This has involved a shift from the content-oriented and instructor-focused approach (Lindblom-Ylänne et al. 2006 ) towards a more hands-on, active learning approach, such as cooperative learning and peer teaching, which effectively develops critical thinking, problem-solving, and communication skills in engineers, essential for success in the 21st century (Lima et al. 2017 ; Hartikainen et al. 2019 ; Tomkin et al. 2019 ; Tullis and Goldstone, 2020 ).

In this study, we investigate using a specific active learning technique, namely student peer teaching, in the context of an elective laboratory class on Hydropneumatics Drives offered within the bachelor’s degree program in Automation and Applied Informatics at the Faculty of Automatic Control and Computer Engineering. The course aims to give students a comprehensive understanding of pneumatic drives and their advantages over mechanical, hydraulic, or electrical equipment. The study was conducted over two consecutive academic years, 2021 and 2022, and focuses specifically on the laboratory component of the course.

The current paper is structured into five sections, each providing a comprehensive overview of the study’s objectives and methods. The first section examines the literature on peer learning and peer teaching in higher education. The second section presents the research setting and the specific peer teaching process and activities utilized in the Hydropneumatics Drives laboratory. The third section describes the methodology employed throughout the study, including the techniques and methods used to collect and analyse data. The fourth section presents the study’s findings, including a detailed discussion of the outcomes. Finally, the fifth section concludes the paper by highlighting the study’s limitations, providing recommendations for future research, and discussing the implications of the findings for Higher Education Institution (HEI) professors.

Peer learning and peer teaching

The word “peer” comes from the Latin word “par,” meaning equal and describes someone who is a member of the same social group, profession, or age range as oneself. Learning with and from one’s peers is a natural and common human activity, and this type of learning has been proven to be very beneficial for all parties involved (Meeuwisse et al. 2010 ; Soldner et al. 2012 ; Snyder et al. 2016 ; Gong et al. 2020 ).

Peer learning can be defined as “the use of teaching and learning strategies in which students learn with and from each other without the immediate intervention of a teacher” (Boud et al. 1999 ).

Peer learning is becoming increasingly popular in various disciplines and contexts because it offers many advantages for students as it allows them to learn by explaining their ideas to others and engaging in activities where they can learn from their peers. It creates a non-competitive empowering environment (Egbochuku and Obiunu, 2006 ) and helps them to develop skills such as organizing and planning learning activities, working effectively in teams, providing and receiving feedback, and evaluating their learning (Boud, 2001 ; Bene and Bergus, 2014 ; Williams and Reddy, 2016 ).

One critical benefit of peer learning is that it allows students to take on active roles in their education rather than being passive recipients of information. This can increase motivation and engagement, as students are more likely to be invested in the material when actively participating in the learning process (Glynn et al. 2006 ; Lucas, 2009 ; Rusli et al. 2020 ). Multiple previous studies have demonstrated that these programs not only enhance students’ self-assurance and better equip them for assessments/exams but also enhance academic achievements and encourage further academic pursuits (Altintas et al. 2016 ; Rohrbeck et al. 2003 ; Elshami et al. 2020 ; Williams and Reddy, 2016 ; Porter et al. 2013 ).

At the same time, peer teaching is a mutually beneficial process for both student learners and student teachers as it allows for revising and deepening knowledge (Boud, 2001 ; Capstick, 2004 ; Ramaswamy et al. 2001 ; Tullis and Goldstone, 2020 ; Boud, 2001 ). Student-teachers can improve their communication skills by explaining complex ideas to others, which is crucial for working in groups and with colleagues. The need to explain the material to others can increase both the willingness to acquire knowledge (Daud and Ali, 2014 ) and actual learning by allowing one to understand better, clarify, and internalize the information, identify misconceptions, and gain new perspectives (Webb, et al. 2009 ; Bene and Bergus, 2014 ; Erlich and Shaughnessy, 2014 ).

A widely recognized educational tool, the Learning Pyramid, suggests that the most effective way to learn and gain skills so necessary in engineering is by practicing or actively participating - with the most significant value of 90% retention, teaching the material to someone else - with 70% retention, and discussing the material with others - with 50% retention (Al-Badrawy, 2017 ; Gabor et al. 2022 ).

These methods have been the subject of significant research in recent years, with studies showing that they can effectively enhance student engagement, motivation, and achievement in various educational contexts (Felder and Silverman, 1988 ; Prince, 2004 ; Roseth et al. 2008 ; Secomb, 2008 ).

The studies focusing on engineering education revealed that active learning methods and, significantly, peer teaching effectively improved engineering students’ conceptual understanding and problem-solving skills (Felder and Silverman, 1988 ; Smith, et al. 2009 ), overall academic performance, and attitude toward learning (Prince, 2004 ; Freeman, et al. 2014 ; Tullis and Goldstone, 2020 ; Bene and Bergus, 2014 ; Hailikari et al. 2021 ).

The research setting

In the era of rapid technological advancement, engineering graduates are expected to have a strong innovative mindset and be equipped to tackle complex challenges posed by new technologies. The quality of education students receive during their studies, including acquiring essential skills and competencies, will play a significant role in meeting these demands. Revamping the way laboratory hours are conducted, using new and effective methods, provides students with an in-depth understanding of their chosen engineering field and boosts their confidence in their abilities. Therefore, laboratories are considered essential to engineering programs and are used as part of an active learning strategy (Rodgers, et al. 2020 ).

The experimental laboratory is critical to engineering education as it enables students to apply theoretical concepts to real-life scenarios. By allowing students to observe, measure, and analyse real-world phenomena, they gain a deeper understanding of engineering principles. Hands-on learning opportunities and exposure to the dynamic engineering field through the laboratory can significantly enhance student engagement and intrinsic motivation (Snětinová and Kácovský, 2019 ).

The Hydropneumatics Drives laboratory is used to test and study pneumatic drive systems. Pneumatic drives use pressurized gas, typically air, to power and control mechanical devices. These systems are used in various applications, including manufacturing, material handling, and automation. In a hydropneumatics drives laboratory, future engineers might test and analyse the performance of pneumatic actuators, valves, and other components and study the design and operation of pneumatic drive systems.

The Hydropneumatics Drives laboratory is a “hands-on” lab where the students learn through interactive activities or exercises that allow them to gain practical experience by performing a task or series of tasks, typically using didactic or industrial equipment and/or software for pneumatic circuit designing. With access to the latest equipment and technology, students can conduct experiments and research that would otherwise not be possible, providing a more authentic and valuable learning experience. In parallel with the new setting and equipment, in 2021, reciprocal peer teaching was introduced as a learning method. This approach can be effective in helping students to better understand concepts and retain information, as it allows them to actively engage with the material and learn from a peer who may have a different perspective or approach to the subject (Deslauriers et al. 2011 ).

Additionally, reciprocal peer teaching helps students develop essential soft skills, such as communication, critical thinking, problem-solving, teamwork, and collaboration, which are becoming more important in the new economic and industrial context (Tullis and Goldstone, 2020 ).

The laboratory is conducted with a group of students (usually four groups) formed out of 12–15, divided into three teams according to the student’s preferences. It is necessary to make an appointment for each student to take on the laboratory teacher role. Each student must take on this role at least once. After a complete rotation, when each student has taken on this role, for the remaining laboratory sessions, it is up to them to select the role, no longer being a requirement.

Considering an experimental laboratory’s complexity, the student-teachers must prepare for the working lab in advance. This training consists of two parts: first, they must read the laboratory description independently. In the second part, all student-teachers meet with the professor to highlight essential things from the next lab, starting with the learning goals and students’ expectations and ending with the results of the experiments and conclusions drawn from the results of the laboratory assignment. The entire process is presented in Fig. 1 .

The workflow in the experimental laboratory for Student Peer Teaching.

Through performing experiments and collecting data before the lab, student-teachers can apply and reinforce their understanding of scientific concepts and principles, which they will present and discuss with their colleagues in time of the laboratory. In the equipment portfolio, there are transparent or cut-away versions of teaching equipment which are imperative for understanding the principles of operation of a particular piece of equipment. These allow students to visualize the concepts they are learning about and can be used to demonstrate the principles of operation in a safe and controlled environment. It also allows peer teachers in the laboratory to focus on specific parts of the equipment, making the explanation more detailed and accurate for their colleagues to understand. Another tool for learning is the animation of working for each piece of equipment available from the equipment producer or the Internet.

However, the student-teachers can still use various other online resources to enhance their explanations and make them more detailed and precise, so that their colleagues can better understand.

During the labs, when the weight centre is shifted from the professor to the student-teachers, the professor can observe the entire learning process and act as a guide and facilitator, helping student-teachers present the procedures of the laboratory and providing guidance as needed. This is the basis of the pedagogy of engagement in which the professor assumes the role of designing and facilitating the learning experiences (Smith et al. 2005 ).

The study’s main objective was to examine the computer science student’s perception of peer teaching and better understand the method’s perceived advantages and disadvantages in a Hydropneumatics Drives laboratory context.

To evaluate the effectiveness of the chosen method of instruction, the research team aimed to provide answers to two research questions:

How do students perceive the peer-teaching experience?

What are the perceived advantages and disadvantages of the method from the student’s perspective?

To achieve this objective, the research team employed a pragmatic approach, incorporating both quantitative and qualitative data, to gain deeper insight into students’ views on the peer-teaching process.

Participants

The study participants were computer science students enrolled in the Hydropneumatics Drives laboratory course during two consecutive academic years: 2021 and 2022. There were 96 students in total, 42 students in the 2021 academic year and 54 students in the 2022 academic year. All students participated in the peer teaching process as both student teachers and learners, and therefore, they all had to complete the two questionnaires.

As seen from Tables 1 and 2 , 59 students completed the student-learner questionnaire, representing a 61% response rate, while 62 students completed the student–teacher questionnaire, representing a 65% response rate.

For context, 30.5% of the respondents completed the course in the 1st Semester of 2021, while 69.5% completed the course in the 1st Semester of 2022.

The student–teacher questionnaire is presented in Table 2 .

For the second questionnaire, 27.4% of the respondents completed the course in the 1st Semester of 2021, and 72.6% of the students completed the course in the 1st Semester of 2022.

Data collection

In the data collection stage, the students completed two questionnaires, one from the student-learner perspective and one from the student-teacher perspective. The students were asked to complete the online survey at the end of the semester, and the data was collected via Google Forms.

Both questionnaires had two parts, one that included close-ended questions using a 5-point liker scale (1 = Strongly disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Neither agree nor disagree; 4 = Agree; 5 = Strongly agree) and open-ended questions regarding the advantages and disadvantages of the instructional process and recommendations.

The student-learners questionnaire included:

13 close-ended questions using a 5-point Likert scale for each evaluation criteria (see Table 3 ).

One open-ended question referred to the perceived advantages and disadvantages of the peer teaching method.

The student–teachers’ questionnaire included:

10 close-ended questions using a 5-point Likert scale for each evaluation criteria (see Table 4 ).

4 open-ended questions referred to the reasons they chose/did not choose to teach more than one seminar, the difficulties they faced, and the things they would do differently if given the opportunity.

Data analysis

The analysis was based on two main categories: quantitative and qualitative.

The quantitative analysis was executed using multiple tests in SPSS, while the qualitative one used manual coding in Excel on both student-teacher and student-learner questionnaires, with the same analysis steps being considered. For the quantitative analysis, 13 questions were designed to be studied on the student-learners scale and 10 for the student-teachers scale, respectively. As a first step, to validate the questionnaire items, a Reliability Analysis was run and the Cronbach’s Alpha values indicate there is a correspondence between the questions selected and they are relevant for the survey. The Alpha values being compared with the 0.8 threshold (0.891 > 0.8 for student-learners), (0.818 > 0.8 for student-teachers). Based on the validated items, a series of Descriptive Statistics determined an average cumulative positive impact on student-teachers of 74.66% based on the interval (62.9–95.1%) and the same average cumulative positive impact had a value of 80.12% (60.4% - 100%) for the student-learners scale. The last step in the quantitative section was to apply a correlation analysis to measure the strength of the relationship between the variables. Testing the Pearson Correlation Coefficient with a significance level chosen ( p -value < 0.05), a group of positive, strong relationships (r > 0.5) were described on both scales. For the student-learner questionnaire, 6 relationships are identified, with Pearson Correlation values between (r = 0.516 – r = 0.625) and 14 relationships for the student-teacher scale, having values between (r = 0.503 – r = 0.654).

The qualitative analysis reports four main themes grouped as two factors on each scale: the student-teacher scale describes Advantages and Disadvantages, and the student-learners define Difficulties and Improvements. The first step outlines going through the open-ended questions and manually coding the responses into keywords. Following this, each keyword, based on frequency, is grouped within its relevant theme.

Results and discussions

Insights from the quantitative analysis.

As presented in Table 3 , the cumulative positive response rate for all close-ended questions was over 60%.

According to the table, the positive response regarding the laboratory room was 100%, followed by the laboratory equipment used, with a cumulative positive value of 98.3%. The results show the importance of the laboratory setting and equipment for technical labs. The correlation analysis also supports this, as medium positive relationships ( > 0.5) between the following variables were identified: a strong relationship between laboratory equipment (Q10) and laboratory room (Q12) (r = 0.625) and a medium relationship between the number of students (Q11) and laboratory room (Q12) (r = 0.622). Other relevant statistical relationships were between the following variables: a medium relationship between student-teaching methods (Q2) and training (Q8) (r = 0.546), a medium relationship between preparation and knowledge (Q9), and an explanation by a colleague of the material (Q4) (r = 0.516), a medium relationship between expectations (Q6) and training (Q8) (r = 0.593) and medium relationship between expectations (Q6) and peer-led laboratories (Q13) (r = 0.572).

According to the data in Table 4 , a positive impact was observed for all questions regarding the respondents’ opinions, with a cumulative value of the first two response options (Agree and Strongly Agree) exceeding 60%.

According to the Pearson correlation coefficient (r), medium relationships exist among the items used in the analysis. Medium relationships were identified between self-confidence (Q1) and each of the following variables: academic performance (Q2) (r = 0.580), communication and active listening (Q3) (r = 0.580), student-teacher benefits (Q6) (r = 0.654), and teaching activity (Q7) (r = 0.513). Additionally, medium relationships were identified for academic performance with the following variables: communication and active listening (Q3) (r = 0.543), knowledge consolidation (Q4) (r = 0.522), teamwork (Q5) (r = 0.524), and student-teacher benefits (Q6) (r = 0.605). For communication and active listening skills, medium relationships were identified with the following variables: knowledge consolidation (Q4) (r = 0.576), teamwork (Q5) (r = 0.594), and teaching activity (Q7) (r = 0.503). For the knowledge consolidation variable, medium relationships were identified with teamwork (Q5) (r = 0.573) and student-learner benefits (Q10) (r = 0.554). A medium relationship was also identified between student-teacher benefits (Q6) and teaching activity (Q7) (r = 0.642).

Insights from the qualitative analysis

The responses from the open-ended questions were transcribed, divided into meaningful fragments, coded manually, and analysed using a thematic analysis, which represents the process of “identifying, analysing, and reporting patterns (themes) within data” (Braun and Clarke, 2006 ). The first step of the process consisted of a review of the initial transcribed versions done by the authors. The goal was to better understand the students’ perceptions regarding the overall value of the peer-teaching process and the method’s strengths and weaknesses. The open-ended question in the student–learner questionnaire referred to the perceived advantages and disadvantages of the peer teaching method, and several themes emerged predominantly from the 57 valid answers received. Detailed information on the number of themes and sample responses from the respondents is presented in Tables 5 to 8 .

When asked whether they think the method has proved valuable, 87% answered that the peer-teaching experience was positive and valuable mainly because they felt more comfortable interacting and asking questions. Two students considered that there was no value in the instructional method, and two gave neutral answers (both yes and no). The thematic analysis of the main advantages of the peer-teaching process listed by students is presented in Table 5 .

The main disadvantages of the method perceived by student-learners are presented in Table 6 .

In terms of disadvantages perceived by students, some listed the difference in expertise between student-teachers and professors, leading to students not trusting their peer teachers and, consequently, not learning as much from peers as they do from professors. This result is in line with other studies (Boud et al. 2001 ; Lelis, 2017 ; Sim, 2003 ). Several students mentioned this is a valuable instructional method, but it should be used occasionally. The results also highlight the relevance of several contextual factors, such as individualized teaching-learning style, confidence level, or motivation, that significantly impact the learning-teaching process (Ramm et al. 2015 ; Zarifnejad et al. 2018 ).

The open-ended questions in the student-teacher questionnaire asked about the reasons they chose/did not choose to teach more than one seminar, the difficulties they faced, and the things they would do differently if given the opportunity.

Out of the 62 students who completed the questionnaire, only 34% chose to teach a second time. Over 80% of the students who chose not to teach again did this due to busy academic schedules and inability to participate in the training sessions with the professor (10), impossibility due to activity format and team organization (10), lack of perceived incentives (2), lack of enjoyment of teaching activity (2), perceived lack of talent and lack of confidence (2). An important aspect to mention is the extra work and time student-teachers must put into participating in and delivering the class.

Out of the 34% who decided to teach more than one laboratory, most listed that they learn better when explaining the subject to a colleague because they feel a certain responsibility toward their peers.

However, the main advantages perceived by most peer teachers, regardless of whether they taught more than one laboratory, revolved around two aspects: gaining an in-depth understanding of the subject and developing better communication and presentation skills, both elements confirmed by previous studies on the matter (Tullis and Goldstone, 2020 ; Daud and Ali, 2014 ; Smith, et al. 2009 ).

In terms of the difficulties encountered in the teaching process, 20 students declared that they encountered no difficulties; for the other answers, the main categories identified are listed in Table 7 .

Although the instructional method has multiple benefits, the study revealed a series of drawbacks and challenges.

The first refers to the level of expertise and the need for consistent preparation to deliver quality content. Student responses reinforce the findings of prior research that emphasize the importance for peer-teachers to thoroughly understand the subject matter in order to teach effectively (Stigmar, 2016 ; Menezes and Premnath, 2016 ). The lack of confidence and perceived authority among their peers have also been listed in previous studies as challenges of the method (Irvine et al. 2018 ), as students are sometimes unsure of the tone to use to appear knowledgeable on the subject without seeming arrogant.

When asked what they would do differently if given the opportunity to teach again, nine out of 62 students said that they wouldn’t change anything, while the rest of the 53 listed aspects are included in the categories presented in Table 8 .

After looking across all the comments and comparing the perspectives from both roles, student and teacher, some interesting results arose on the perceived value of the peer teaching instructional method. First, from the student-learner perspective, the aspect of increased engagement and better communication mentioned by students participating in the study was listed by other studies as well (Boud, 2001 ; Lelis, 2017 ; Bulte et al. 2007 ; Lucas, 2009 ; Tullis and Goldstone, 2020 ). Another relevant aspect refers to the student-teacher benefits, namely, learning better by explaining the subject to a colleague. Through teaching, they gained an in-depth understanding of the subject and developed better communication and presentation skills.

The positive impact is also highlighted by the fact that students who participated in the laboratory sessions in the previous academic year showed an increased interest in pursuing bachelor thesis projects related to the pneumatic automation field over the past year.

Conclusions

This study aimed to examine engineering students’ perceptions of the advantages and disadvantages of peer teaching after implementing the method in a specific setting, namely a Hydropneumatics Drives laboratory. Although the analysis is limited to a specific context, the results are promising and support the available literature on peer teaching methods in engineering education.

The results show that students respond positively to the social elements of the peer teaching process, as many highlighted positive aspects related to „better communication” or „increased attention and interaction.” These outcomes are confirmed by previous studies on this matter (Hammond et al. 2010 ; Tullis and Goldstone, 2020 ) and highlight the importance of feeling comfortable asking questions and receiving answers in relevant and applicable terms. Furthermore, the fact that over 70% of respondents declared that they understood the laboratory better when a classmate explained it reinforces the results of previous research highlighting the impact of peer teaching on academic performance (Tullis and Goldstone, 2020 ; Rusli et al. 2020 ). However, the fact that there is a strong positive relationship between preparation and knowledge (Q9) and explanation by a colleague of the material (Q4), means that the success of the instructional method is highly dependent on the preparation of all stages and the professor’s ability to guide and provide support for student-teachers in the preparation and delivering process. An additional benefit of this method lies in the enhancement of empathy between students and professors, as the practicality of the teaching experience offers students a different viewpoint and promotes a deeper understanding of the pedagogical process.

An effective learning process is characterized by its ability to foster student independence, enhance confidence, and elevate motivation. Our results show that peer teaching can be a valuable method for training students to develop independence, enhance their confidence, and increase their enthusiasm to learn, as these are directly related to students assuming responsibility for their own learning. Overall, the study reveals that taking on the teacher role comes with both academic benefits (gaining an in-depth understanding of the subject) and personal benefits (developing better communication and presentation skills). This can further lead to another benefit for the students and the institution: opening the possibility to follow an academic career. This is important as the industry represents a more appealing option, especially for computer science graduates, and fewer decide to continue with a Ph.D. and remain as professors.

The study also has some limitations as it was conducted in a specific setting with a restricted number of computer science students who enrolled in the Hydropneumatics Drives laboratory. Students were all assigned both roles as teachers and as learners, and the demographic data was not included in the analysis. Future studies should be conducted on other courses with larger sample sizes and random assignments. Another useful direction for future studies is investigating the long-term effects of peer teaching on students’ academic performance and retention rates. This can provide valuable information regarding the long-term sustainability of this instructional method, as more research is needed to fully understand its potential impact and optimal implementation strategies.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

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All procedures performed in our study were in accordance with the ethical standards of the Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iasi. The research was conducted in accordance with the Code of ethics and professional deontology of the Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iasi - TUIASI.COD.01, approved on 21.01.2016, edition 3, rev. 0.

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Dosoftei, C.C., Alexa, L. Students’ perception of peer teaching in engineering education: a mixed–method case study. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 793 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03349-y

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Environmental considerations and sustainable solutions for outdoor advertising banners.

1. Introduction

2. advantages, disadvantages, and environmental impact of banners, 2.1. overview of the outdoor advertising industry, 2.2. flex banners and the environmental impact, 3. models and strategies for extending banner lifespan and promoting the circular economy, 3.1. rethink, reduce, 3.2. upcycling, reuse, repurpose, 3.3. remanufacturing, 4. case study—transforming a banner into a raincoat, 5. discussion.

• MCost—Material cost, the cost of the main material per square meter (in local currency). In our case, it is the recycled banner.
• MC—Material consumption, calculated with Formula (3) M C = ( L × W ) + ∑ i = 1 n A i (3) where length (L) and width (W) of the material needed for one raincoat (in meters) and A—Quantity and types of accessories required (e.g., zippers, snaps, drawstrings)
• AC—Accessories Cost: cost of accessories per piece (in local currency)
• LC—Labor Cost per hour (in local currency)
• WT—Work Time: total work time for one raincoat (in hours). It is calculated with Formula (4) WT = MCut + AS + F (4) where:
• MCut—Material Cutting: time needed to cut the material (in minutes)
• AS—Assembly: time needed to assemble the pieces (in minutes)
• F—Finishing: time for final touches and inspections (in minutes)

6. Conclusions

Author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Cuc, S.; Secan, C. Environmental Considerations and Sustainable Solutions for Outdoor Advertising Banners. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 5366. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16135366

Cuc S, Secan C. Environmental Considerations and Sustainable Solutions for Outdoor Advertising Banners. Sustainability . 2024; 16(13):5366. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16135366

Cuc, Sunhilde, and Cristina Secan. 2024. "Environmental Considerations and Sustainable Solutions for Outdoor Advertising Banners" Sustainability 16, no. 13: 5366. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16135366

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