how to write an cultural anthropology essay

How to Write an Anthropology Essay

17 February, 2022

49 minutes read

Author:  Josh Carlyle

College years are a vibrant, exciting period of ardent studies and professional growth. Still, students often experience an overload with lectures, home tasks, and non-educational activities. So, they quickly get frustrated and fail to manage all their pressing duties and responsibilities. Anthropology studies are not an exception. No matter how attractive studying people and cultures […]

College years are a vibrant, exciting period of ardent studies and professional growth. Still, students often experience an overload with lectures, home tasks, and non-educational activities. So, they quickly get frustrated and fail to manage all their pressing duties and responsibilities. Anthropology studies are not an exception. No matter how attractive studying people and cultures is, the academic workload often gets too tough and non-manageable, pushing students to extremes.

When you’re confused about how to compose an assignment, it’s better to look for an anthropology essay example online to see how others have done that before you. Or you may look for anthropology essay topics when your inspiration abandons you and offers no fresh ideas to start with. In any of these cases, we have a solution. Our company has a large team of experts able to cover any topic and subject, be it cultural anthropology or some exotic anthropological assignment. We have you covered, and you can rest assured that all texts will be completed in line with the best academic writing standards.

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Common Types of Writing Assignments on Anthropology Courses

Throughout your study at the anthropology department, you will be asked to perform an anthropological writing exercise of various kinds now and then. Some anthropology essays may be assigned with a specific topic and subject, while others will be left to your discretion, urging you to develop a critical insight into the surrounding community and approaching social issues around you from the standpoint of an anthropologist.

The most common types of anthropological writing you will come across at any college or university include:

• Response papers . It’s a frequent assignment for students of all departments, but an anthropology essay requiring a student’s response will definitely possess its specifics. The purpose of such assignments is to show their serious engagement with the assigned readings and the provision of a balanced, critical summary and analysis of the studied content.
• Precis . A precis paper is a specific type of response task that requires students to provide a high-quality interpretative summary of the studied material. Students are required to identify the central issue of the author’s concern, dwell on the text’s development, and shape a competent critical analysis of the content to share their personal, subjective stand on the issue of interest.
• Term papers are another frequently assigned work type. Term papers are meant to check the students’ ability to synthesize the learned material, reflect on their learning progress during the term, and pick a relevant subject for an in-depth academic inquiry. It may be a task that cultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and physical anthropology students alike can get.

What Is Ethnography?

When you study at an anthropology course, you should naturally be able to conduct competent, professional anthropological essay writing. Such assignments are typically based on a scholarly inquiry – a systematic approach to data available in the environment on the subject of the student’s interest.

This data is collected with the help of an anthropology-specific approach, ethnography. In a nutshell, ethnography stands for a research strategy that enables anthropologists to explore and examine the surrounding cultures and societies. As a rule, ethnographers come to the communities of their interest and observe them in the course of people’s natural interactions. The researcher also becomes a part of the community they research, trying to learn how to do things, interact with people, take interviews, and ask questions.

The basic premise of anthropology is that people’s cultural and social dimensions can be understood only in action. It is impossible to embrace any culture or way of doing things in theory. An anthropologist should get immersed into the community of focus and study their life in an uncontrolled, natural environment. With such specifics in mind, one can see that the primary focus of ethnography is to get a non-evaluative, first-hand impression of a specific social group as a result of in-depth, careful participant observation.

The primary precondition for an ethnographic study is the researcher’s presence in the site of interest and careful observation and recording of social interactions in the group of interest. In most cases, it presupposes fieldwork and takes the anthropologists to distant locations, such as Indigenous islands or communities of indigenous peoples in Canada and the USA. However, it is still possible to conduct high-quality ethnographic research even in your educational settings or neighborhood. 

Like any other kind of academic writing, anthropology essay writing follows a specific set of parameters and conventions. Be it cultural anthropology or physical anthropology task, your assignment should still include the essential elements of an academic composition, such as an introduction, a body, and a conclusion of the paper. 

Introduction

This part of your essay should clearly communicate the subject and its broad context, introducing the reader to the topic and helping them get all the information from your paper. It’s vital to introduce a problem statement in the form of a concise statement or statistics to show why your inquiry is important.

The body of your anthropology essay is the most significant part of the assignment. It should include all significant arguments you have about your topic. Organize the body logically and consistently, thus helping the readers follow through.

This is the final part of your assignment that contains a set of inferences and takeaways at which you arrive in the process of essay composition and research. Don’t repeat your arguments overall; just make it a logical continuation of your inquiry and a reference to the broader significance of this research.

Besides, the process of anthropological writing involves taking the following steps to make your work worth a high grade:

• Topic selection
• Research for arguments
• Draft composition
• Revision and editing

100 Anthropology Essay Topics

Are you looking for a well-written anthropology essay example to guide you through the writing process? You can find tons of valuable materials on this subject on our website.

Here we offer you something better – a list of exciting, thought-provoking anthropology essay topics to jumpstart your writing.

• The modern use of anthropological methods in forensic science.
• How have human beings evolved over time?
• What impact does technological progress have on people in developed and developing countries today?
• What are the implications of genetic engineering for the future of humankind?
• What is the best definition of culture in the modern globalized world?
• What beliefs about supernatural forces do modern communities still hold?
• How has literature affected human development?
• The social preconditions for the rise of terrorism in particular communities.
• Is the 21 st century the time for abandoning social ranks and chaste?
• How does the approach to clothing design in specific cultures reflect their deeper cultural traits and features?
• Is it possible to get familiar with a specific culture by watching films and reading books about it?
• How can the study of ancient cultures help us understand modern socio-cultural trends?
• What role do ancestors play in the lives of specific communities? Has the modern developed society lost its connection with ancestors?
• Cultural differences in approaches to death.
• The tradition of body modification across the globe.
• The concept of race in the global society. What gives rise to racism?
• The place of mythology in modern communities.
• What role does storytelling play in child education around the globe?
• Is the time of closed societies coming to an end? Or is the post-globalization era signaling the new rise of closed communities?
• How do the features of society affect the rise of specific political movements and structures in those communities?
• How do modern societies treat heroes? Who are the heroes of particular societies, and how do those heroes reflect the deeper cultural trends?
• What implications does social status have in the modern world?
• How does the modern developed society treat health and well-being?
• How do different communities incorporate feminism in the 21 st century?
• The impact of social traits on specific communities’ art.
• Does smoking produce a negative social effect?
• What impact did eugenics have on humanity in the 20 th and 21 st centuries?
• What are the popular theories of the human species’ emergence?
• The protective nature of cultural norms.
• The socially determined experiences of various illnesses.

Here is the list you can use to complete your assignments quickly and effectively. Still, if you feel hardships with these papers and want professional assistance from experts, it’s always a good idea to turn to us. We have a large team of anthropology experts ready to manage all kinds of assignments for you. So, contact us today to get an anthropology paper done in hours, study hassle-free, and know that your tasks are in good hands.

#1 The Neanderthals and Denisovans are practical case studies for determining whether a species is fully “human.”

The focus of this essay is on the characteristics that make a species fully “human”. In connection to this, the essay will discuss what is known about Neanderthals and Denisovans, which are practical case studies used in establishing if a species is fully human. The essay will focus more on Neanderthals and finally the paper will argue if Neanderthals were fully humans. Physical characteristics that make a human ancestor “fully human” include being more lightly built and showing extremely robust traits. Long bones of the limbs and distal bones being longer than the proximal bones, a larger fore-brain and having a chin, smaller teeth, fewer jaw muscles and smaller lower faces are atypical to fully human. Intellectual characteristics encompass ability to abstract thought, expressing cultural creativity and using language to communicate (Hawks, 2014).

Neanderthals are extinct species of human within the genus Homo. The species evolved within the last 300,000 years. In regard to the anatomy of Neanderthal, it is essentially within human scope, with the equivalent number of bones as modern humans and they also function in the same way. The anatomical differences include that Neanderthals had more robust build and distinguishing morphological features. They had shorter limbs, barrel shaped rib cage and bigger nose as compared to the modern humans. According toTrinkaus & Shipman (1992) they were much stronger when compared to modern humans with extremely strong arms and hands and had comparative height and weight with modern humans. They had bigger sockets and bigger brain sections controlling vision, the reason there are perceived to have had better eyesight than modern humans. They had a big brain capacity; approximately 1200-1750 ml and hence about 100 ml bigger than modern humans (Gibbons, 2011). In regard to culture, Neanderthal buried the dead, had controlled fire use, performed religious rituals and utilized complex sentence structure within their spoken language (Trinkaus & Shipman, 1992). Neanderthals and modern human inhabited the same cave though at different times, used similar tools and hunted same animals. Comparison of Neanderthal genomes and that of modern humans indicated only 78 new nucleotide substitutions. They also interbred with modern humans indicating some compatibility (Gibbons, 2011). Denisovans are extinct human species and were much different from modern humans. They live about 1,000,000 years ago. The finger bone that has been discovered so far was abnormally wide and robust. Denisovans lived in a caved that Neanderthals and modern humans lived. Their DNA has been found to be genetically different from that of Neanderthals and modern humans (Gibbons, 2011).

Neanderthals are fully human. They engaged in cultural habits that modern humans practice such as burying their dead, using tools, had an intricate social structure and used language. Neanderthal anatomy it is essentially within human scope and with differences that are very minor and can attributed to genetic adjustments because they were isolated individuals who lived a rigorous life within a harsh, cold climate. Their genome components also indicate similarity with that of humans where there have been only78 nucleotide substitutions within the last 78 years and such few changes indicate human lineage where only genetic modifications and mutations have occurred (Gibbons, 2011).

Characteristics atypical to a fully human consist of the ability to use language, intellectual ability, formation of social structure, and ability to perform cultural activities such as burying the dead and religious rituals. The anatomical characteristics are similar to the anatomical features found in the modern humans. In this view, Denisovans are not fully humans but Neanderthals are fully humans because they had almost all characteristics found in modern humans.

Gibbons, A. (2011). Who Were the Denisovans? Science. Vol.26 (333). Gibbons, A. (2011). Close Encounters of the Prehistoric Kind. Science. Vol.7 (328). Hawks, J. (2014). Still Evolving. Scientific American. Trinkaus, E & Shipman, P. (1992). The Neanderthals: Changing the Images of Mankind. New York: Knophf.

#2 Evolution- Summary of Learning Outcomes

Name Institutional Affiliation Instructor Course Date

Over many decades, evolution of human being has been a subjected of research and discussion among many scholars, scientists and anthropologist. However, there is no single answer to that addresses the questions surrounding evolution as new discoveries are made every other time. This paper will review the learning outcomes of the previous units by looking what was striking the most and how adds value to my understanding of human evolution.

The most striking thing in chapter four is the fact that human beings are related to gorillas and chimpanzees but not their descendants. Most interesting is the fact that chimps and humans share 98.4% of the DNA. Also, the number of primate species is very significant. Despite the fact that the number is estimated to be between 250 and 300, only six of the species are apes while humans have only one species. Monkeys comprise the largest group of the species. Therefore, studying primates does not only help us understand the evolutionary lineage of human beings but also the behavioural traits that accompanied the primates in the evolutionary process. Africa is considered the cradle of mankind. This means that apes evolved first in Africa before its continuation in Europe and Asia. It is interesting to also learn that evolution can be dated back to as many years as 22 million years ago. The Proconsul was the first apes to be discovered in Africa while Sivapithecus appeared first in Europe. It is worthy to note that not all apes evolved the present day but some became extinct in the later Miocene. The few that survived gave rise to the current apes and humans, with monkeys undergoing substantial adaptive radiation hence forming a basis for the evolutionary characteristics of the modern species.

Also, different have different view of the world. There are those who view the world as a single entity while there are those whole hold on to the notion of double existence of the word. The varied views imply that different philosophies of knowledge about the world and how human beings came into existence exist. Conflicts are bound to arise given that religion believes in one supernatural being who is responsible for the creation of mankind. On the other hand, the scientist does not acknowledge this idea as they believe in evolution of human being from primitive forms to the modern being. The conclusion arrived at by the scientists is based on tangible evidence and scientific researches.

In summary, the existence of modern human beings triggers more enquiries and the need for more knowledge about the process of evolution. Different philosophies have emerged with each philosopher trying to give a justification of his or her view on human life. As far as early anthropologists like Mary Leaky and Charles Darwin believed that modern man was once an ape, it is important to note that the size of the brain or rather the level of intelligence was not the only trait that distinguished human being from apes. Other distinguishing characteristics emerged with time, thus generating other questions as to whether evolution is an endless process.

Parker, S. T., & Jaffe, K. E. (2008). Darwin’s legacy: Scenarios in human evolution. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press. Susan G., and Francis E., (2014). Early Pliocene Bipedal Apes. Online lecture.

Article Summary Your name: Institution name:

1.Representing Islam: Orientalism and its Discontents

This article is about classic orientalism about Western conceptions of “the Orient,” in particular the Islamic and Arab world. Most colonial an post colonial studies have emerged from engagements with, and elaboration of, Said’s literature. This article has criticized Said for the gender-blindness of Orientalism. This blindness refers not only to a literal blindness to the centrality of gender an sexuality in orientalist discourse, but also to Said’s assertation that orientalism has been an exclusively male province. Abu-Lughod (2001) has undermined this view by documenting and exploring the ways in which women historically have participate in the development of Orientalism. Said’s work has not only contributed to numerous debates about women’s role in orientalism and the ways in which orientalism is/was gendered, orientalism has been part and parcel of the inspiration behind important new scholarship about gender and women in Islam and Middle East, work that is sensitive to women’s experiences.

2.Islamophobia & Islamophilia

The relationship between terrorism and Islam has become a central concern following 9/11, and this has created a new round of culture argument (Mamdani, 2002). This argument has turned religious especially Islam into a political category. Differentiating a “good Muslim” from a “bad Muslim,” rather than civilians from terrorists. This article by Mamdani (2002) has suggested that people should lift the quarantine and turn the cultural theory of politics on its head. Beyond simple but radical suggestion that if there is a bad Muslim and a good Muslim, there is bad Westerners and a good Westerners. What is problematic about Islamophobia is its universalizing and essentializing quality, which has cast Islam religion and all followers of Islam as potential and real enemies of the world (Mamdani, 2002). What has been harder to assess is the challenge of countering Islamophobia impulses in ways that do not simply reinforce or invert them by cultivating their opposite: the image of the Muslim as “friend,” as a figure identified with the Self, characterized as familiar, and with whom legitimate conflict is not possible.

3. Kemalism, a Global Mode of Politics

Over the years, commentators on Middle Eastern politics have been surprised, seduced and scandalized by the contradictory and unexpected relationship between popular politics and secularism. By contrast, social movement that have been committed to the reintroduction of religion into political and public life have been made use of the media of popular politics, including the vote and mass demonstration. In Turkey, self-described Islamic movements have asserted political demands against a secularized elite or secularizing by claiming the will of the person often through democratic channels. The effort at refashioning secularism, as a form of popular rather than elitist politics, has not continued primarily through the critical discourse, self-conscious of politicians or public intellectuals. The reflections and arguments of the latter frequently reinscribe the demonstration in the regnant narrative of popular politics in Turkey.

4. Islamization, Gender and Islamic Feminism

The article by Navaro-Yashin (1999) has examined the developments in ‘Islamic feminism’. Focusing on Turkey theocracy, it can be argued that Islamization of gender relations has develop an oppressive patriarchy that cannot be replaced in a legal reforms. While a lot of women in turkey resist this patriarchal and religious regime, an increasing number of turkey activists and intellectuals have called for separations of religion and state, feminists of a cultural relativist an post-modernist persuasion don’t acknowledge the failure of the Islamic projects. The Islamization of gender relations for a long time has received strong resistance. Over the years , the Islamic regime has experienced a serious crisis; it had failed to control workers, women, students, dissident nationalities and secular intellectuals. Over the past years, some supporters of ‘Islamic feminism’ have equated it with liberation theology in the west.

5. Islam and the City

There have been a resurgence of Islamic beliefs, and once again the questions of the Islamic cities have once again come to the fore (Abu-Lughod, 1987). In many parts of the Arab world, especially in the Middle East, urban planners are searching for the way to reproduce in today’s cities patterns of city building that have been identified as Islamic. According to Marcais, Islam is an urban religion, and in support of this contention, Marcais argued that prophet Muhammad was an urbanite suspicious of nomads (Abu-Lughod, 1987). Marcais has been able to use the earlier chain of orientalism that, the mosque, like the church and synagogue are essentially urban (citadine). It is important to criticize these approaches because most Arab nations planners are trying to recreate Islamic cities- but by means which are inappropriate because these planners focus more on the outcomes, rather than the processes (Abu-Lughod, 1987). They hope, by ordinance and edict, to preserve and to build new cities on an Islamic pattern, because cities are processes and not products. The elements that catalyzed the process that give rise to Islamic cities were: a distinction between the outsiders and members of the Umma (Abu-Lughod, 1987), which led to spatial and juridical distinction by neighborhoods; the segregation of gender which gave rise to a particular solution to the question of spatial organization.

6. Islam and Fiction

Sociology of literature is more like a field of flowers than a field of battle. In the past, sociology of literature has produce impressive theoretical assertions, brilliant, but isolated insights, and rich veins of research findings, but has not been organized around key debates or questions the way a proper field ought to be organized (Griswold, 1993). The sociology of literature has not been a favorite son of organized social science. Since the emancipation of literature study from the rigid research dicta historically entitled to offer aesthetic, historical and sociological generalization and criticism (Griswold, 1993). The academic disciplines that have been charged with the analysis and history of literature have been caught unaware by the impact of best seller, mass literature, the comics, popular magazines, and so forth. Academicians have maintained an attitude of indifference to the lower depths of imagination print. A challenge and a field have been left open and the sociologists are required to do something about it. Almost all scholars who have contributed to the collection of essays are in agreement that a “scientific” approach or method to the history of literature would lead to nowhere (Griswold, 1993). Not only do they believe that each literature work contains in them some non-rational elements, scholars also consider any approach inadequate with regard to the very nature of the work under investigation (Griswold, 1993). Consequently, sociology of literature as it was developed ten decade ago is rejected and condemned as “historicizing psychologism,” as “historical pragmatism” and as “positivistic method.”

Abu-Lughod, L. (2001) ‘Orientalism and Middle East Feminist Studies’, in Feminist Studies 27, 1. Abu-Lughod, J. (1987) ‘The Islamic City: Historic Myth, Islamic Essence and Contemporary Relevance’, in International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 19, 2. Mamdani, M. (2002) ‘Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: A Political Perspective on Culture and Terrorism’, in American Anthropologist 104: 3. Navaro-Yashin, Y. (1999) ‘The Historical Construction of Local Culture: Gender and Identity in the Politics of Secularism versus Islam’, in C. Keyder (ed.) Istanbul between the Global and the Local. Rowman and Littlefield, Boulder. Seufert, G. (1999) ‘The Faculties of Divinity in the Current Tug-of-War’, in Les Annales de l’Autre Islam, No.6, 353-369. W. Griswold (1993) ‘Recent Moves in the Sociology of Literature’, in Annual Review of Sociology 19.

#4 Rights as culture

Name Tutor Course Date

Culture is one of the most important social aspects that have been guiding humans for centuries. Different people have always followed different cultures. It is through culture that people are diverse and this influences their perception of different issues. The relationship between people in the society is mainly governed by culture. Culture also influences the beliefs of the people in the society. The human rights issues are also influence by culture. Human right is considered the basic fundamental rights that should be enjoyed by all the humans regardless of their culture (Hood, 97). Some aspects of culture have been identified as the stumbling block for implementing the human rights. However human right is also a concept of culture. This creates some challenges in terms of addressing the human rights issues without considering the cultural issues and aspects. The paper thus discusses the concept of rights as a culture.

According to Cowan, right as culture is one of the conjunctions between rights and culture (10). The anthropologists consider law as culture as it is aimed at governing the daily lives of the people. The law is usually applied to certain group of people who may be diverse in nature. The citizens are required to abide by the law in all their activities. This is similar to culture where the people are required to abide by their cultural practices and beliefs. The concept of human rights is derived from the law. In most countries, the national laws have clearly defined the rights of the people. This is also the same for the international laws that have been developed by the bodies such as the United Nations. Rights are, therefore, a culture as it is derived from the laws which in itself is considered a culture. The relationship between the law and culture makes rights a cultural issue. Since the law is an object of analysis in terms of the cultural issues, the rights is also part of culture. Most of the rights that have been outlined in the laws are derived from the culture of the people. This plays an essential role in linking rights to culture. The rights in most cases are not informed by the philosophical assumptions. It is instead informed by the ideas of self and sociality. The ideals of self and sociality are closely related to the cultural aspects. In some instances, some of the rights issues have ended up being misinterpreted and misrepresented after leaving out the cultural aspects. According to Abu-Lughod, (p 784), the issues of rights and culture was misunderstood in the Afghan War. The American government insisted that it was freeing the women from the oppressive culture and upholding their rights. However, this failed to achieve any success as the culture was considered different from the rights. Most of the women still preferred their cultural practices as compared to the rights issues. The wearing of burqa which was seen as oppressive by the Americans did not stop even after the fall of the Taliban. This is a further indication that rights cannot be separated from culture. It is through culture that the people are able to understand the issues of rights. Most of the law makers are increasingly considering rights as culture. This has led to the development of a concept that is commonly referred to as human rights culture.

Cultural issues are considered as a tool for expanding legal and political apparatus. The culture of the people has to be respected in order for the aspects of rights to be successful. According to Hood, (p 102), there has been attempts to secure human rights while preserving the cultural identities of the people. This has been successful when dealing with the aspects of nature as well as political issues. The Islam world has faced some challenges in terms of maintaining the culture while securing the human rights. Most of the rights issues that have led to theses challenges are mainly associated with the western world which has totally different culture. This has led confusions and hence making it difficult to implement some of the human rights aspects. It is therefore an indication that rights is a cultural aspect. Any attempts to implement or enforce the rights issues on a particular group of people is bound to fail when culture is ignored (Calhoun, 870). However, it is also important to note that culture is not static and it undergoes changes over time. It is through the changes in the cultural aspects that the some of the countries have been able to fully embrace the rights issues that were not initially part of their culture.

The changes in culture has made is possible for some of the rights issues to be addressed. In the Arab world as well as Africa, the culture restricted some of the practices such as education of girls. However, with the changes in culture, the education for girls is currently acceptable. The concepts of equality are currently being embraced in most parts of the world as a result of culture changes. Most societies are striving to improve on the equality between men and women. There have been calls for positive cultural aspects to be maintained in order to ensure that the rights are promoted. According to Brown, (p 196), there have been calls to ensure that the culture is copyrighted. This can also play an important role in ensuring that the cultures of a particular group of people are not exploited. The rights of the sex workers have also been one of the contentious issues in most parts of the world. According to Kotiswaran, (p 582), there has been attempts to eliminate the sex trade through the implementation of strict legislations. This is as a result of how culture perceives the issues of sex trade. Most cultures have negative perceptions with regards to the sex trade and prostitution. As a result of this, it has become difficult for the rights of the sex workers to be protected. This is however practiced in the cultures that are less conservative.

In conclusion, it is evident rights can be considered as a culture. This can be attributed to the link between culture, law and rights. It is evident that the cultural issues are usually considered when developing the law which has a direct impact on the rights. The practical examples of the Afghan war indicate that rights laws and issues cannot be implemented when culture is not considered.

Works Cited

Kotiswaran, Prabha. Born unto Brothels-Toward a Legal Ethnography of Sex Work in an Indian Red-Light Area. Law & Social Inquiry Volume 33 (2008), Issue 3, 579–629. Brown, Michael. Born unto Brothels-Toward a Legal Ethnography of Sex Work in an Indian Red-Light Area. Current Anthropology Volume 39 (1998), Number 2, Cowan, Jane. Culture and Rights after Culture and Rights. American Anthropologist, Vol.108 (2006), No. 1. Calhoun, Craig. The Class Consciousness of Frequent Travelers: Toward a Critique of Actually Existing Cosmopolitanism. The South Atlantic Quarterly 101:4 (2002). Abu-Lughod, Lila. Do Muslim Women Really Need Saving? Anthropological Reflections on Cultural Relativism and its Others. American Anthropologist, 104:3 (2002), 783-790. Hood Steven. Rights Hunting in Non-Western Traditions. Human Rights Law. 1997

#5 My Soul Journey in South East Asia

[Author Name(s), First M. Last, Omit Titles and Degrees] [Institutional Affiliation(s)] Author Note Abstract

The essays below will focus on Southeast Asian geography, focusing on religious pilgrimages and reasons beyond. The paper will follow and explore four individuals as they embark on personal journeys on the holistic landscape of South East Asia. Surakarta, Central Java, Indonesia to Makam Sunan Drajat [the tomb of Sunan Drajat] Java, Indonesia.  An 18-year-old boy takes a journey after he discovers a letter from his mother who abandoned him at the doorstep of expat residents in Laos. Pakxe, Laos to Wat Xieng Thong, Khem Khong, Luang Prabang, Laos” A student at the National University of Laos. architecture faculty undertakes the journey to complete his thesis and re-link with his roots. Manila, Philippines to Kamay Ni Hesus, Lucban, Quezo A recent Social Science graduate embarks on a journey back to her homeland on a pilgrimage for mass prayer for slums in her land of origin. Mandalay, Myanmar” to Kyaiktiyo Pagoda, Mon State, Myanmar” An academic in the music field embarks on a journey to convert to Buddhism after he is drawn to subject matter of his studies.

My Soul Journey in South East Asia

My name is Widji Widodo. I was born in August 1998.I just turned 18 years old. The journey of my story began when my laminated school badge fell off my bag one day. It was picked up by a young girl. I heard someone running toward me and muttered to myself ‘I do not have extra lunch left’. Her voice droned in my ear. she shouted out in echoes. Poverty around me made me want to throw up my slices of well packed lunch box that I chewed on. The sounds and sights of poverty lingered all around me. She uttered my full name. I was surprises and numb, slowing down in my strides. Then I saw her waving my badge. I latched onto it sacredly. “Hey, are you related to…Widji Thukul, his real name was Widji Widodo! she uttered excitedly.

I was raised in the home of expats living in Indonesia in a place called ‘Solo.’ More formally known as Surakarta located in the middle of the island known as Java. The expat community in Solo retirees living mainly in the countryside and some foreign academics studying Javanese culture, language,culture and tradition was a mere distant observation, with a bundle of material in literature, video and audio all in my parents’ library. They were academics. I never questioned my original roots and succumbed to convenient sustainability. It was a life a step ahead of the contrast of daily life in Solo. My expat adoptive parents shunned off any airs of curiosity.

But that day I questioned my name. I sat in the library and found an enclosed cabinet full off publications. Who was this? I read more. Widji Widodo, he was born in Solo in 1963. He was a poet with a voice of activism in the social and political sphere. He was one of the activists Widji Thukul including who disappeared during the black period 1997-1998 when many activists were either missing or abducted, and some were even killed mysteriously. His poems are political, often critical of the Indonesian government (under Suharto) and the social conditions of the country. It’s suspected that he’s one of many anti-government protesters abducted by government forces. Vaguely I knew I was taken into this home from birth, after I was left at the doorstep of my academic and theatre inclined parents, they named me and chose that name. Why? I dug deeper. I was born in a neighbourhood close by shortly after Widjy Thukul that I was named after, went missing after a protest and there was no trace of him. My roots? Nobody really knew. I was left in their care. I questioned holding the books authored by Widji Thukul in my hand.

My first names, I was told, was given to them in a package with the books and a letter. My parents gave me the letter. The envelope italised “I leave you apart from the trenches of poverty and continue on my mission” When you are 18, take the pilgrimage to Makam Sunan Drajat.My journey to heal had sparked off. My point of departure was a pilgrimage.

I left at Surakarta and stopped at Solo Blalpan after almost four hours. Then walked for six minutes to Plaza Surabaya Gubeng and another bus from Plaza Surabaya for forty minutes. We reached the masjid Tamiriya Indrapura after one and a half hour on bus we got to the terminal Bunder and then another long ride for two hours at Pasar Waga. After a thirteen minute walk I reached my destination Makam Sunan Drajat. The tomb of Sonan Drajat is in Drajat, Lomongan. Sunan Drajat spread Islam in the island of Java. Born in 1470 AD by the name of Raden Qasim. Sunan Drajat was known for his philosophy and social awareness spirit. The Sunan Drajat philosophy of reducing poverty is enshrined in stairs to the he seventh level of the Tomb.

Memangun tyasing Sasoma recipe (we always make other people happy) Jroning like kudu Eling lan alert (in a jovial mood we should be aware and alert) Laksmitaning subrata tan nyipta marang pringgabayaning lampah (on the way to achieving the goal – a lofty we are not concerned with any form of obstacle) Mèpèr Hardaning Pancadriya (we should always suppress a surge of passions) Heneng – Hening – Henung (at rest we will get in a state of stillness and silence that we will achieve the goal – noble) Mulya to Panca Time (an inner and outer happiness can only be achieved with prayers five times a day) Mènèhana signed marang wong kang Wuta, Mènèhana manganese marang wong kang luwé, Mènèhana fashion marang wong kang Wuda, Mènèhana ngiyup marang wong kang kodanan (Give science for people to be clever, Teach morality in people who have no shame, and give the protection of people who suffer) [Article] Sunan Drajat also became known as a saint of songs of Java. Mocopat is a pickaxe that is played using a gamelan set “Singo Mengkok”. The gamelan set Sunan Drajat Kuno is stored in the museum of the Sunan Drajat complex that is located Sunan Drajat tomb. Clutching mother’s letter in my hand, I whispered out…My son…. Widji Wadoto.by the time you read this letter, arise, take a pilgrimage to Makam………hear the sounds, feel the words……. Pakxe, Laos to Wat Xieng Thong to Khem Khong, Luang Prabang, Laos My name is ……………………….. I am an architecture student at the National University of Laos (NUOL), a university located in Vientiane, the capital of Laos. I am originally from Pakse, which is predominantly Buddhist. I decided to embarked on a journey to Khem Khong, for an assignment of a thesis on architect sites in Laos. Laos had multiple architecture sites to choose from. I chose this as a particular combination as a journey of my soul. I initiated the journey with a short family visit in Pakxe. Tourists take the journey to Laos for many reasons but Laos Architecture is an exciting stimuli with the attachment to animism and Buddhism. Animal shapes and Buddha images are usually featured in Laos. Some historical constructions were damaged as a result of war but there are several remnants that wins the interest of architects, tourists, archaeologists and adventurers worldwide.

Significant attractions in Laos are influenced by the French colonial era. The city of Pakxe was founded by French administration. It was formerly a residence of King Ratsadanay (1874-1945), the father of Prince Boun Oum who became the Prime Minister between 1948–1950 and also from 1960–1962. He eventually retired from the political sphere and pursued business ventures from Pakxe and Chapassak until he went into exile, when communist forces came into power in 1975. The route northeast toward the No.38 Road, from there I was on route 13 to Vientiane where my University is based. Eventually it was Route 4 to Luang Prabang, Kingkitsarath Rd to Khem Khong. The destination was on the left of Khem Khong.

Wat Xieng Thong is at the tip of the peninsula in Luang Prabang, Laos. It is richly decorated and attractive. This royal temple was built in 1559 on the Mekong River Banks. It was one of the few temples that survived in the 1887 invasion of the Black flag army. The most attractive building is the congregation hall of the Wat Xieng Thong temple. Extensive decoration of gold stenciling on a black lacquer background covers the interior and exterior of the areas. A tree of life mosaic on a red background was created in the 1960’s with a standing Buddha picture and images of a tiger and two peacocks and a man walking. The mosaic has an entrance door intricately carved on either side. The interior consists of pillars of teak wood supporting the roof. The walls are stenciled in gold with animals, floral motifs and daily life scenes. r. Chariot Hall Tree of life Manila, Philippines to Kamay Ni Hesus, Lucban, Quezon The journey began with a traveler, Angelika Kei. She was born and raised in the Philippines but eventually moved to the USA with her parents and continued schooling there. During her last semester in Philippines college she was designated on an outreach programs in the Smokey Mountains. A slum area in the Manila, Philippines. Smokey Mountains is the largest dumpsite and impoverished area where garbage is gathered by over 250,000 people, who make a living this way. Several years have passed and she had achieved her academic levels in social sciences. She decides to embark back on a trip in a venture to take a pilgrimage of healing for the slums of Manilla. The bus journey was a three hour route. It passed Sariava and Tiaong Candelaria. There are mini buses and jeepeys that travel to Lucban. Kamay ni Hesus Shrine Kamay ni Hesus Shrine located in in Lucban Quezon is a destination for all those who seek to be part of the chapel healing mass. The journey involves climbing 305 steps to statue of Ascending Christ which is 50ft tall. The property has various sites inclusive of Noah’s Ark, Luklukan ni Maria, Resurrected Christ, Garden of Eden, The Angels Hill, Gallery of Saints, the religious Murals and The Marian Park. Noah’s Ark was intended to be spiritual retreat, for families and individuals in need of spiritual renewal. Mandalay, Myanmar” b. to “Kyaiktiyo Pagoda, Mon State, Myanmar” My Journey in Myanmar Myanmar is a country that is known for Buddhist Pagodas, natural landscapes and ancient cities with remarkable traditional ways. In an academic discourse in my music major I got drawn into an assignment. Shortly after I discovered my original heritage was linked to Myanmar. I made a bold decision to undertake a conversion to Buddhism as the insight and philosophy entered every segment of my soul, through my personal and academic journey. My Thesis was on Nandashay Sayar Tin, the composer of the national anthem. I eventually took on the initiative to name myself w Sayar, Burmese meaning “Teacher’, to link with my Mandalay roots. After high school, Tin worked at a private school and also established himself in traditional Burmese Sounds. The “young men Buddhist private school was founded by him in 1918. In 1930 the school was closed and Tin relocated to Yangon, where he had recorded music recorded, Tin joined a political movement. He composed the anthem ‘Kaba Ma Kyei’, the national Burmese anthem. “Till the end of the world’. Tin was imprisoned after patriotic lyrics of the song he composed after a ceremony rendition and accused of inciting activism by the British officers. He was eventually releases in 1946 and the song became a national anthem and he was awarded on the Independence Day on January the fourth in 1950. After I completed my thesis of Sayar Tin I undertook my journey of conversion to Buddhism. Kyaiktiyo Pagoda is perched on the edge of a cliff. It is a giant rock that is gravity defying and plastered with gold leaf. Also known as Golden Rock, it is a site of sacred pilgrimage site located in Mon State. According to legend folklore it is maintained that rock defies gravity and keeps balance as it contains a strand of Buddha’s hair that is meticulously placed. It was the day I converted to Buddhism

Evans, G (1998) The Politics of Ritual and Remembrance: Laos Since 1975 . Quin,G, Throwing money at the holy door: Commercial aspects of popular pilgrimage in Java, Fealy and Sally White (eds.) , Expressing Islam: Religious Life and Politics in Indonesia . Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies ( 2007), p 63-7 Usa International Business Publications , Laos Business Law Handbook Wilkinson,G(2015)Golden Rock, Myanmar: Asia’s mysterious giant rock defying the rules of gravity http://kamaynihesus.ph/about-us/ Jovino, S , Smokey Mountain: A walk through the slums of Manila,Philippines ,justonewayticket.com  Renown Travel ( 2010 – 2016), Wat Xieng Thong,One of Laos’ most beautiful and richly decorated temples Yampolsky,T,R,(2003) Wiji Thuku: People’s poet , Lontar Foundation, Jakarta. Article: , (Last Name, Article Title, Year),ture and Rights. American Anthropologist, Vol.108 (2006), No. 1. Calhoun, Craig. The Class Consciousness of Frequent Travelers: Toward a Critique of Actually Existing Cosmopolitanism. The South Atlantic Quarterly 101:4 (2002). Abu-Lughod, Lila. Do Muslim Women Really Need Saving? Anthropological Reflections on Cultural Relativism and its Others. American Anthropologist, 104:3 (2002), 783-790. Hood Steven. Rights Hunting in Non-Western Traditions. Human Rights Law. 1997

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Writing anthropology pdf

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Writing is key in anthropology, as one of its main modes of communication. Teaching, research, publications, and outreach all build on, or consist of, writing. This entry traces how anthropological writing styles have evolved over time according to changing politics in the discipline. It starts out in the late nineteenth century, showing how early writings in the discipline aimed to be objective. While writing anthropology in a literary mode goes a long way back, it was not until the 1970s that writing began to be collectively acknowledged as a craft to be cultivated in the discipline. This led to a boom of experimental ethnographic writing from the 1980s, as part of the ‘writing culture’ debate. The idea behind experimental narratives was that they might convey social life more accurately than conventional academic writing. Today, literary production and culture continue to be a source of inspiration for anthropologists, as well as a topic of study. Anthropological writing ranges from creative nonfiction to memoirs, journalism, and travel writing. Writing in such non-academic genres can be a way to make anthropological approaches and findings more widely known, and can inspire academic writing to become more accessible. Recent developments in anthropological writings include collaborative text production with interlocutors and artists. However, the tendency for experimentation is also held in check, as publishing in academic publication formats and featuring in citation indices is crucial for anthropologists’ careers. Still, as our writing moves increasingly online, there is a growth of flexible formats for publishing, including online books, essays on current affairs, and conversations in journals.

Introduction

Writing is essential in anthropology. As a major way of communication, teaching, research, and outreach all draw on, or result in writing. But it was not until long after anthropology emerged in the late nineteenth century that writing was first recognised as a crucial craft that required careful training. This entry spans the changing politics of writing anthropology from the late nineteenth century, when Victorian natural science notions about texts as objective was the model for scholarship, to the 1970s, when a sensitivity to style was identified, developing into a movement in the 1980s around the idea of experimental ethnographic writing as initiated by the 'writing culture’ debate (Clifford & Marcus 1986). The protagonists of that debate argued in favour of more detailed accounts of research processes, including the role of the fieldworker in the composition of anthropological writing. Moving on to the twenty-first century, this entry suggests that the understanding that anthropologists are also writers has brought a new emphasis on writing in the discipline. It includes both writing accessible academic anthropology and writing in different genres, ranging from creative nonfiction to memoir, anthropological journalism, and travel writing. Anthropology has existed in a literary mode for quite some time, but as it underwent a ‘literary turn’ (Scholte 1987), literature has become an even stronger resource for the discipline: certainly as an influence to enhance writing styles, but also as a topic for research into literary production and culture. This is made obvious by increasing requests for writing workshops for students and young scholars. Yet, writing remains constrained insofar as publishing is a must when making an anthropological career. Here it is governed by academic publication formats, readership, and citation indices. This entry is organised chronologically, discussing the changing politics of writing academic anthropology over time in terms of styles, publishing, and careers, including the impact of the ‘literary turn’, which leads to a consideration of anthropological writing genres and more recent writings for digital channels.    

Changing politics of writing anthropology  

Classic anthropological monographs, written as the discipline was getting established, were influenced by lingering natural scientific notions of objectivity. These monographs generally left the anthropologist outside the text, at least when it came to personal experiences and feelings, such as revelations, which were assumed to inhibit their scientific value. This applies to the works by founding anthropologists such as Bronislaw Malinowski and Franz Boas. Malinowski’s academic work stands in particularly stark contrast to his controversial private diaries from fieldwork in New Guinea and the Trobriand Islands in 1914-1915 and 1917-1918 (Malinowski 1967). Published posthumously by his widow, the diaries revealed his personal prejudice against interlocutors as well as other problematic attitudes.

But it was the ideal of objectivity, with what would be regarded as its constrained style, that eventually provoked anthropologists to find freer forms of writing, hoping to provide more precise reflections of the richness and complexity of fieldwork. This entailed a shift to taking writing seriously, as identified in the introduction to the volume The anthropologist as writer (Wulff 2016: 1). Prefigured by the interest in narratives of Victor Turner and Edward Bruner in the 1950s and 1960s, a careful consideration of writing became a major feature of anthropology in the 1970s with Clifford Geertz’s work, especially The interpretation of cultures (1973). It was Geertz who developed the concept of ‘thick description’ for a detailed and engaging mode of writing that provides an understanding of human action in a wider context. Geertz’s seminal essay on this topic describes a cockfight in Bali and opens as follows: ‘Early in April of 1958, my wife and I arrived, malarial and diffident, in a Balinese village we intended, as anthropologists, to study’. In this uneasy stage, as newcomers among people who did not acknowledge their presence, they learn after about ten days that ‘a large cockfight was held in the public square’. Geertz goes on to note that cockfights are mostly illegal in Bali:

In this case, however, perhaps because they were raising money for a school that the government was unable to give them, perhaps because raids had been few recently, perhaps, as I gathered from subsequent discussion, there was a notion that necessary bribes had been paid, they thought they could take a chance on the central square and draw a larger and more enthusiastic crowd without attracting the attention of the law. They were wrong...A truck full of policemen armed with machine guns roared up (Geertz 1973b: 412-15). 

The policemen ‘began to swing their guns around like gangsters in a motion picture, though not going so far as to actually fire them’. People ran, and so did the Geertzes, who found themselves hiding from the police in a courtyard with a local couple, which was what made them accepted by the villagers. It is most likely the captivating style, built with suspense and surprise, that explains why this essay has become classic, and the way the Geertzes are included in the story as protagonists who are experiencing potential danger together with locals, but then are rescued by a local couple. This turned out to be an efficient way of conveying how an ethnographic event such as an illegal cockfight could be analysed as a kind of play that mirrored major power struggles in the village.

In the 1980s, a debate known as the ‘writing culture’ debate arose, which argued for more detailed accounts of the research process, including the role of the fieldworker, in anthropological writings than what had previously been the case (Clifford & Marcus 1986). There was an expectation that the fieldwork process should include great and intimate details, including the fieldworker’s feelings and relationships, as that promised to produce a more exact account of fieldwork. A critique levelled against ‘writing culture’ was that its proponents focused too much on the activities of fieldworkers rather than on the people the research is about. The legacy of that debate is a heightened awareness of the intellectual impact of writing style, the politics of representation, and the partial truth of any account. Connected to the ‘writing culture’ debate was the idea of anthropological writing as ‘cultural critique’. It suggested that anthropology should identify alternative ways of considering what is often taken for granted in society. Anthropological writing should be part of ‘a strategy for discovering diversity in what appears to be an ever more homogenous world’ and ‘making visible to others the critical perspectives and possibilities for alternatives that exist’ (Marcus & Fischer 1987: 133). Some of those alternatives concerned the role of women in social life – insisting, for instance, that women should be given opportunities for education and careers that had of course not always been regarded as a matter of importance. Supported by the second wave of feminism, the book Women writing culture (Behar & Gordon 1995) explored issues of identity and difference in relation to sexual politics, racial history, and moral predicaments of anthropology. But its mission was a direct critique of the claim by James Clifford and George E. Marcus (1986), that feminist anthropologists had not written in interesting and experimental ways. The volume challenged the male dominance in the discipline at the time (see also Abu-Lughod 1993).

What proponents of experimental forms of writing share is that a sensitivity to style and an openness to other writing genres may produce more than just a pleasant turn of phrase. ‘Narrative and related writing genres may actually offer more accurate – hence, more scientific – means for us as scholars to convey the full range of the human experience’ (Gottlieb 2015: 742) than conventional academic writing. A defining feature of experimental writings today is their argument for accessibility, even though this was not necessarily a characteristic of all different stages of this movement. There is a growing understanding that even anthropological texts about complicated issues can preferably be phrased in a lucid way, as exemplified by Ulf Hannerz (1992) and Thomas Hylland Eriksen (2018), among many others. This goes against the traditional academic norm to write in a convoluted style which can still be regarded as a marker of prestige, more so than being straight-forward. While some very complicated issues do require a more complex writing style and specialised vocabulary, many academic topics do not. This insight is gaining ground, but it also leads to the need for (re)training academics to write in a more transparent manner. Clarity and captivating narratives are more useful both in teaching and research than the writing style of some traditional ethnographies that have been referred to as ‘boring’ and ‘virtually unreadable’ (MacClancy 1996: 237). The desire for being not only clear but also more engaging has opened up space for experimental writing, such as the early In sorcery’s shadow (1987), a memoir of an apprenticeship among the Songhay people who live in Niger and Mali in West Africa. Written by Paul Stoller and Cheryl Olkes as a literary essay informed by theory, it did not include explicit academic references: there is no bibliography. The memoir has been appreciated for its well-crafted narrative that also includes methodological points as Stoller learnt about and understood a way of life which was at first alien to him. The different stages of his training to become an apprentice sorcerer are carefully conveyed.   

With the growth of global connections came the insight that interlocutors might, and indeed should, be able to read anthropological work about themselves without the risk of being harmed personally or politically. Such ethical issues are considered in When they read what we write (Brettell 1993), which mainly focuses on how this can impact the anthropologist and the writings. There is, for instance, the devastating experience of having one’s published work contested by those it is about. Such experiences can be unexpected, which makes them even more painful. In addition, they might impact negatively the possibility for future research in the community for other colleagues, who might have had nothing to do with this work. Newspaper accounts of anthropological writings add complexity to this problem, especially when they misrepresent findings and if interlocutors read the newspapers but not the actual text. Highly politicised contexts such as conflicts over national language and between ethnic groups may feed into resulting dilemmas. While awareness of the difficulty of doing justice to divided communities is important, the necessity of including the studied people as a potential audience, and not only academics, remains a primary concern in contemporary anthropological writing. Existing concerns are fuelled by the rise of digital online journals and e-books, which can reach a vast and worldwide audience in an instant, particularly when they are Open Access.

All of this raises questions regarding publication outlets in relation to making an academic career, and negotiations over whether a monograph or journal article ranks the most highly (Wulff 2019; Boyer 2016). This has been a concern since the natural sciences, where journal articles are the prime publication format, became the model for citation indices and research assessments. As part of ‘new public management’ of European universities since the 1980s (Shore & Wright 2017), ranking systems have been in place for publishers, their books, and journals. They attempt to emulate private sector management models and business-like approaches to improve research efficiency and results. At some universities, publishing with highly ranked publishers can thus impact positively a department’s funding, as well as the anthropologist’s salary. It certainly impacts hiring practices. Rankings have also reinforced the notion of ‘publish or perish’, meaning that, even in order to keep a job, academics sometimes have to publish a certain number of high-ranking publications per year, for if not, their careers may be in jeopardy. In spite of these measures, the politics of academic publishing remain elusive as criteria keep changing, not least because what one cohort of anthropologists was trained for is bound to be different once they are exposed to assessment. There is a debate over the extent to which the quality of academic writing is and should be tailored to research assessments and evaluation formats, and what the intellectual consequences of this might be (Strathern 2000).

Anthropological writing is increasingly influenced by these managerial trends. In our discipline, journal articles continue to be important, but there is an enduring notion that long-term fieldwork can best be justified in the space of a full-length monograph. While a number of substantial journal articles might work almost as well, it may be more cumbersome to find those articles rather than reading a book where the material and analysis are all in one place. As books, edited volumes, and book chapters are less prominent in the natural sciences and thus on the ranking lists, they become less prestigious on the citation indices where anthropology is included. Moreover, the amount of work it takes to write a monograph is not rewarded, as it is often treated as just another ‘item’. What is more, appreciative references are not distinguished in the citation indices from negative ones. [1] Anthropology, in so far as it is a critical science, can also not be captured by numerical metrics (Stein 2018). The logic of such ranking lists is not in accordance either with how certain edited volumes or at least notable introductions to volumes that were published before citation indices were set up keep having a major influence on anthropology. This aspect is obviously not indicated in citation indices or as impact factors, as they only take account of recent work that is available online. Fredrik Barth’s introduction to his edited Ethnic groups and boundaries (1969) is a case in point as it keeps being a standard reference in anthropology (see also Appadurai 1986) but was published too early to be included in indices. As to the fate of books, printed or electronic, fiction or nonfiction, John Thompson, in his sociological research of the publishing business, predicts that as long as it is attractive enough to readers, the book will ‘continue to play an important role as a means of expression and communication in our cultural and public life for the foreseeable future’ (2011: 399-400).

Writing anthropology in relation to literature

Though anthropology’s literary mode is nothing new, the ‘writing culture’ debate intensified the presence of literature in anthropology, which has been identified in terms of a ‘literary turn’ because of literature’s impact on anthropological writing (Scholte 1987). This was in line with the growing awareness of the writing process. As a part of the move away from the detached textual style, as well as when it came to narrative structure, anthropologists took inspiration from fiction. Geertz (1988) even identified the ‘anthropologist as author’. [2] An anthropology of writing and writers emerged. Local literary work from a field was read as ethnography and might be included in anthropological accounts. With his background as a student of literature at University College London, Victor Turner later connected African ritual and Western literature as ‘mutually elucidating’ (1976: 77-8). Jane Austen was identified by Richard Handler and Daniel Segal (1990) as an ethnographer of marriage, kinship, and class in early eighteenth century England. In the 1990s, Nigel Rapport (1994) organised his fieldwork in the village of Wanet in England in relation to the writer E.M. Forster as an imagined fellow fieldworker. Rapport’s technique was to ‘zigzag’ between the work of Forster and his own field experience. A similar way of combining anthropology and literature, of writing anthropology together with a literary companion, is Kirin Narayan’s Alive in the writing (2012). Narayan juxtaposes her experience of ethnographic writing with that of Anton Chekhov, the renowned playwright and short story writer, as he researched and wrote about Sakhalin Island, the Russian penal colony. Recognising Chekhov as her ethnographic muse releases Narayan’s writing creativity. Inspired by Chekhov’s letter about his journey to Sakhalin, his reflections on his research, and writing process, Narayan feels an affinity with him as she finds topics and texts to include in her book. Incidentally, Chekhov’s work on Sakhalin is nonfiction, and as Naryan gets to know his literary oeuvre , she learns that he is a literary writer with an ethnographic sensibility. [3] Included in Alive in the writing, at the end of the chapters, are writing exercises, and the book concludes with a postscript with advice for different stages of the writing process, ranging from getting started and moving forward to moving past writer’s block, and revising and finishing. In response to the upsurge of non-academic writing workshops and university programs in creative writing in Euro-America during the last decades, there is a plethora of writing manuals, also by fiction writers (cf. Wulff 2017). The daughter of Alfred Kroeber, and his writer-wife Theodora, Ursula Le Guin (2015: ix, xiii, xii) was not an anthropologist herself, but there are anthropological aspects in her fiction, referred to as science fiction or fantasy. Anthropologists appear in her writings, and the ‘other worlds’ she imagined resonate with an anthropological endeavour to study very different ways of living. Le Guin also wrote a ‘handbook for storytellers – writers of narrative prose’ to go with the writing workshops she taught. Her declaration that her ‘book is not for beginners’ attests to an awareness that writing is a skill that is never fully learnt, but ideally one to keep developing. Observing that some people have a gift for writing, she points out that writing is a skill to be learnt and mastered even for those who are gifted (cf. Wulff 2018). Le Guin emphasises that reading one’s own work also requires training. This would be what Brian Moeran refers to as ‘self-editing’, the process of making choices about style, grammar, organization, and of what to include and exclude (2016: 60-5). ‘Editing’, Moeran goes on, ‘is not writing but rewriting’ and this entails being ‘tough with yourself’ (2016: 60-5). Before submitting a text to an editor at a publishing house, Moeran’s advice is to get a sympathetic colleague’s stern comments on it.     

Writing about connections between anthropology, ethnographic writing, and literature, Caroline Brettell observes that:  

The experiments with forms of ethnographic writing that might enliven the ethnographic text represent just one dimension of the way in which anthropology has engaged with literature…Some anthropologists have drawn directly on works of literature as inspiration; others have subjected these literary works to an anthropological analytical and theoretical lens (2015: 73).

Yet others, she goes on to say, ‘have found the ethnographer or the autoethnographer in the novelist’. Anthropological interest in literary production certainly exists, such as in the ethnographic study of writing as craft and career in Ireland. Taking the question ‘How come the Irish are such great writers?’ as a point of departure, I have argued that this goes back to the oral storytelling tradition in Ireland, and a culture that cultivates this practice at social gatherings, also by teaching it to younger generations. Then, there is extensive training in creative writing at schools, as well as writing competitions, and an abundance of writing workshops for adults at literary festivals and other literary events. All this fosters a habit and an urge to write (Wulff 2017: ix). Ethnographies of writing are not limited to textual analysis. They can be based on live literature events and public readings of fiction at literary festivals. Drawing on a study of one of the major literary festivals in the UK called the Hay Festival and the small Polari Salon, an LGBT literary festival at the South Bank Centre in London, Ellen Wiles conveys the value of experiential literary ethnography not only to the academic world, but also to arts practitioners, curators, and producers (2021). It was through participant observation at literary festivals that Wiles learnt that, even in our digitalising world, such live events draw big audiences, not least because they provide appreciated opportunities for face-to-face connections between authors and readers.

Another take on how literature can relate to ethnography is the conceptualisation of fiction as a written text along with songs, poetry, essays, drama, and even newspapers and letters that are produced in a society under study (Archetti 1994a). This can reveal, on one level, interpersonal relationships and, on another level, cultural and social contexts such as history and the nation. It has been suggested that there are three types of fiction: ‘The realistic historical novel that attempts to ”reconstruct” a given period in a given society; the totally imagined story set in a historical period; and the essays devoted to an interpretation of a nation, its characteristics and creed’. In addition, ‘some kind of historical and sociological knowledge is important in fiction’, which makes it similar to writing anthropology. In line with much anthropology, in this volume fiction is treated as ‘ethnographic raw material, not . . . authoritative statements about, or interpretations of, a particular society’ (Archetti 1994b: 16-17).

Many anthropologists have expressed a sense of being confined by the rigidity of the academic style, which has led them to seek refuge in fiction writing. This has been a way to complement what has been found to be unsatisfactory with producing dissertations or other academic writing (Stankiewicz 2012). Reflecting on fiction versus anthropology, there is a common notion that ‘anthropology is unique in its specification of dimensions for comparison and its standards for ethnographic descriptions. Are such dimensions and standards straitjackets? If one thinks so, one might turn to fiction for consolation’ (Eriksen 1994: 192; see also Narayan 1999). This advice seems to be both about reading fiction, also from one’s field, and writing fiction by drawing on fieldwork, such as In an antique land (Ghosh 1992). It turns out that ethnographic novels abound. They were (and are) written by authors who were trained in anthropology, and in some cases pursued an academic career while others went into writing fiction full time. An early ethnographic novel is The delight makers (Bandelier 1890), making use of many years of fieldwork with Pueblo Indians. Their eyes were watching God (Hurston 1937) also has an anthropological perspective. In 1954, the bestseller Return to laughter was published by Laura Bohannan under the pseudonym Elenore Smith Bowen. This is a fictionalised story about Bohannan’s fieldwork in Africa, including aspects of tribal life such as the impact of witchcraft. The novel has been widely read not only by students and scholars, but also by a general audience. It is a testimony to the efficacy of conveying anthropological insights through fiction. It is common that social scientists and anthropologists, including those who drive their disciplines, appreciate fiction writers’ ‘capacity to depict the real and unveil truths’ (Fassin 2014: 52). It is even the case that ‘distinguished anthropologists and sociologists have admitted that they find, in the works of these authors, more compelling, more accurate, and more profound accounts of the social worlds they explore than in those proposed by the scholars who study them’ (Fassin 2014: 52; see also McLean 2017). In this spirit, a new brand of ethnographic writing has emerged, one that experiments with various literary styles, not just as embellishment, but also as a way of writing anthropology through creative writing and thereby conveying otherwise unconveyable truths. The volume Crumpled paper boat (Pandian & McLean 2017: 1-2), for example, is composed of ethnographic writing in the form of poetry, fiction, memoir, and scriptwriting, among others. The title is a line from a poem by Arthur Rimbaud and refers in the volume to ethnographic writing as a journey, ‘a transformative passage’ indicated by ‘a little lost boat’ and ‘the frustrations that lead writers to crumple and scrap the slips of paper on which they work’ until their texts will ‘float… to unforeseeable destinations’ (Pandian & McLean 2017: 1-2). Here, writing is about transformations of the author and saying the unsayable, rather merely conveying what social life is like.     

Anthropological writing genres                                                                   

It is obvious that academic scholarly writing is the major genre for anthropologists, and that it is supported by the art of writing field notes (Sanjek 1990, 2015; Andersen et al. 2020). Still, anthropologists do much writing in other genres, not only literary fiction, as discussed above, but also poetry (Rosaldo 2013, among many others). An anthropological career inevitably includes writing academic administrative texts such as a variety of reports and evaluations, but also writing grant proposals, yet another genre (Brenneis 2009; Finnström 2016). Contrary to many fiction writers, anthropologists tend to learn a certain writing style marked by academic strictness and cues such as aim, argument, engagement with debates and/or earlier research, theory, ethnography, method, conclusions, and bibliography. Anthropologists then tend to keep that style, rather than developing in new directions. Some of them, though, see an opportunity for changing track and tone as they move on to new research topics. Others switch between different genres, bringing back stylistic features from creative nonfiction, memoir, autoethnography, travel writing, journalism, and even fiction, poetry, and crime novel writing to their academic writing (Wulff 2016; Barton & Papen 2010).

Creative nonfiction, which tells stories about real events with fiction techniques, has been especially popular among anthropologists in the United States. This genre can be understood as ‘making the reading experience vivid, emotionally compelling, and enjoyable while sticking to the facts’ (Cheney 2001: 2). Originating in the 1960s New Journalism, this writing genre is often connected with the highly successful In cold blood (Capote 1965), a true crime story about the murder of a family on a farm in Kansas in the United States. The book builds on interviews with local people and police investigators, newspaper articles, and observation of the court case. Creative nonfiction has, since it was formulated, ‘gained momentum in subsequent years to inform assorted kinds of writing’ (Narayan 2007a: 130). The movement has come to include a variety of genres and is now established through ‘courses, grants, writing degree tracks, and journals’ (Narayan 2007a: 130). So what can ethnographers learn from creative nonfiction? One point is to strike a balance of writing about social life in an absorbing way without making things up. Another is to think of how to include and deal with situation, story, character, scenes, summaries, and so called ‘expository lumps’ (i.e. dense and heavy background information) when writing up their work (Narayan 2007a: 136-139). The advice to deal with the latter is to ‘break it up, spread it out, slip it into conversation’ (Le Guin 1998: 114).

Following up on writing anthropology in relation to literature, and in different genres, finding publishing outlets for work that is not strictly academic may be an issue. Yet some specialised journals for this exist, such as Anthropology & Humanism , the journal of the Society for Humanistic Anthropology, which publishes traditional academic articles as well as other anthropological writing genres: poetry, short fiction, and creative nonfiction essays in every issue. [4] These essays often take ethnographic or personal experiences as points of departure and move into more or less imagined realms. The vulnerable observer (Behar 1996), for example, is the story of how a Cuban-American anthropologist was away doing fieldwork on funeral practices in Spain, when her own grandfather died back in Miami. This experience made her argue for the emotional, subjective nature of fieldwork: the ethnographer cannot be detached, nor fully objective, in relation to their field. Spanning different genres, this book is also a kind of memoir, which has itself become a substantial genre in anthropology, primarily recalling events from the field but often going back to the personal life of the anthropologist (Jackson 2006; Narayan 2007b; Stoller 2008; Collins & Gallinat 2010). While memoirs can be expected to be written by older people who have lived long and eventful lives, it turns out that many anthropological memoirs are composed by writers who are still relatively young, or at least middle aged in their 40s or 50s, such as The power of the between (Stoller 2008: 4), triggered by the turmoil of a cancer diagnosis, which entailed a space ‘in-between’ life and death.

My father’s wars (Waterston 2014) is a daughter’s account about her father’s fate as told to her mainly by him, but also by her mother. This was a life course that was driven by dramatic historical events: Alisse Waterston's father had to flee the Holocaust in Poland with his family to Cuba. Eventually he joins the US Army, meets and marries an American woman, and finds himself commuting between Havana and New York, until Castro’s revolution forces the family to leave Cuba for Puerto Rico. This memoir exemplifies how an eventful personal story defined by dangers can convey major political events. Another kind of memoir is My life as a spy (Verdery 2018). When the secret police files in Eastern Europe became available after 1989, Katherine Verdery, an American anthropologist who had spent frequent long research stints studying political economy of social inequality, ethnic relations, and nationalism in communist Romania, discovered in her file that she had been surveilled by the secret police, the Securitate, and accused of being a spy. In this case, the memoir was a way to correct and contextualise a faulty local image of an anthropologist. At the same time, it is an important piece of information about how Romania operated during communism.

Travel writing is yet another form of memoir, as heralded in the classic Tristes tropiques (Lévi-Strauss 1992 [1955]) which documents travels and fieldwork in Brazil. Its proximity to travel writing was later problematised, when travel accounts about the colonies were critiqued for conveying a Western imperial perspective (Pratt 1992). Even though early travel writing relied too much on exoticisation, this is now changing (Nyqvist 2018). Yet travel writing continues to be a way to explore the world on behalf of people ‘at home’, to tell them about places elsewhere, often far away, thereby mediating the world. In addition to describing places and people, as well as the travel itself, travel writing also tends to address the conditions of travel.

Related to anthropological memoir as a genre is the notion of ‘autoethnography’, defined as ‘referring either to the ethnography of one’s own group or to autobiographical writing that has ethnographic interest’ – indeed, the two types can be related (Reed-Danahay 1997: 2). An autoethnography of borders is ‘ Illegal’ traveller , which combines fieldwork on undocumented immigrants with descriptions of the personal experience of having to flee Iran during dangerous circumstances. The preface, dated 1987, begins:

One cold night in late February, in a barren land surrounded by huge rugged mountains, I stood on a gravel road, like any other road in this rural area. Midnight passed; the whole landscape was wrapped in silence. The road separated Iran from Afghanistan. It was the border. Shrouded in a deadly stillness was the road, one of the most sanguinary roads in the world laid in wait for its next prey. It was a moonless night. “Good! The darkness shelters us,” said my smuggler… “If I take this step, I will be an ‘illegal’ person and the world will never be the same again.” That night I took that step and my odyssey of “illegality” began (Khosravi 2010: ix).

There are, again, overlaps between memoirs and autoethnography, yet an anthropological autoethnography is usually distinguished by an explicit and systematic theoretical structure which is intended to explain how a personal story that acknowledges power and inequality has a general ethnographic interest. This has been referred to as critical autoethnography (Reed-Danahay 2019). The experiences in the quote above, and subsequent ones about what it is like to be a refugee in Stockholm, also go into opinion pieces for newspapers such as The Guardian and The New York Times (Khosravi 2020). Contrary to writing anthropology, writing journalism always requires an accessible style, short sentences, and a key point introduced early in the text. If anthropological ideas are used, they have to be explained to a general audience. More often than not, journalistic articles connect to an urgent event in the news. They tend to be much shorter and limited in scope than most academic ones. In addition, editors often decide on the headline, which is drastically different from what academics are used to. Again, the boundaries with anthropological writing are blurred, as some anthropologists who keep writing influential journalistic comments on current affairs become public intellectuals, thereby potentially enhancing their academic reputation. This is at times called public anthropology, considered by many to be crucial for an understanding of public life but requiring a refinement of the art of narrative as well as a relinquishing of dry analysis (Eriksen 2005). Moreover, anthropologists who write journalism can be seen to bring back stylistic traits such as lucidity to their anthropological writing. Journalism in anthropology is – as is so often the case – a twofold topic, comprising both anthropologists writing journalism, and the anthropological study of worlds of journalism and journalistic writing (Boyer 2005, 2013; Hannerz 2004; Boyer & Hannerz 2006). Writing future worlds (Hannerz 2016) investigates the new genre of speculative future scenarios, such as the idea of ‘the clash of civilizations’, having impact on global debate and understandings. As to ethnographies of journalism, there is, for instance, a study of former East German journalists and their attempts at explaining life in post-unification Germany which raises complicated issues about the nation and modernity (Boyer 2005). Still in Germany, another study focuses on news organizations, and how digital information and communication technologies have transformed how journalists work there (as elsewhere): they find themselves in a quickly changing landscape where social media is a major actor and contributes to the fact that their authority, expertise, and skills are challenged (Boyer 2013). More in line with travel writers, foreign correspondents, in a study conducted mainly in Jerusalem, Tokyo, and Johannesburg, report from one part of the world to another. It turns out that unique story lines emerge in different correspondent ‘beats’, yet what they write is also shaped by their home country and personal interest. One insight of this study is that both anthropologists and foreign correspondents have a lot to learn from each other when it comes to illuminating the general public about events and peoples in faraway places (Hannerz 2004).

The frequent blurring of writing genres has attracted a lot of attention. In fact ‘there has been an enormous amount of genre mixing in social science, as in intellectual life generally, and such blurring of kinds is continuing apace’ (Geertz 1980: 1659). One type of genre mixing is the monograph Lost in transition (Ghodsee 2011), on the downfall of communism in Bulgaria, where ethnographic chapters take turns with chapters written as ethnographic fiction. More often, genre mixing in anthropology takes the form of single texts, identified as combinations of ethnography and creative nonfiction, memoir and opinion pieces. Genre mixing has been pivotal for anthropology’s development both intellectually and methodologically. It fosters creativity, and suggests a language to approximate saying the unsayable as well as generating new approaches and ideas for research, even if that is often overlooked on academic ranking lists and citation indices.

Conclusions and looking ahead

As a discipline, anthropology builds on academic writing. Yet a focus on the craft of writing is relatively recent in the discipline’s history. Anthropologists continue to accentuate their identity as writers, drawing on literature, as well as different anthropological writing genres such as creative nonfiction, memoir, autoethnography, travel writing, and journalism. Our on-going sharpening of writing as a skill improves the knowledge that we are able to produce and convey, sometimes even providing more accurate accounts of social life than conventional academic work. Collaborative writing has increased both with the people we study, as an attempt to empower them and to draw on their expertise, and with colleagues from other disciplines, partly in response to requests from research funding agencies. There is also a growing interest in working with visual artists, especially graphic artists, as exemplified by Light in dark times (Waterston & Hollands 2020). Publication formats have equally become more flexible: featuring small books, essays on current affairs, and conversations in journals among many other types of outlets. The rise of digital publishing increases this flexibility, as anthropological discussions are now had on Twitter, and blogs such as AnthroDendum. [5] There is an upswing in honest accounts of how anthropological texts are actually composed that describe the role of personal creativity, academic training, and biography in the way arguments are formulated, as well as the impact of writing routines. They combine writing with a personal touch in combination with a scholarly responsibility, while calling for accessible styles (Nielsen & Rapport 2018; McGranahan 2020). With more diversity in anthropological writing styles, formats, and outlets in the future, questions of how to assess quality will be even more accentuated and debated. Importantly, there is a quickly-expanding realization that writing can and should be a driving force in the process of decolonising anthropology (Pandian 2017; Ulysse 2020; Tapsell 2020), indicating that this is a defining moment for reconsidering writing styles.

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Note on Contributor

Helena Wulff is Professor in the Department of Social Anthropology at Stockholm University. Her current research engages with migrant writing in Sweden. She is editor of The anthropologist as writer: genres and contexts in the twenty-first century (2016, Berghahn) and author of Rhythms of writing: an anthropology of Irish Literature (2017, Bloomsbury).

Professor Helena Wulff, Department of Social Anthropology, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden. [email protected]

[1] Tichenor, M. 2020. Metrics. In The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Anthropology (eds) F. Stein, S. Lazar, M. Candea, H. Diemberger, J. Robbins, A. Sanchez & R. Stasch (available on-line: http://doi.org/10.29164/20metrics ).

[2] Clifford Geertz (1988) considered especially Bronislaw Malinowski, Ruth Benedict, E.E. Evans-Pritchard, and Claude Lévi-Strauss as authors.

[3] A number of volumes combine anthropology with literature such as Dennis & Aycock 1989, Benson 1993, Daniel & Peck 1996, De Angelis 2002, and Cohen 2013.

[4] The Society for Humanistic Anthropology is a section of the American Anthropological Association. See also the online magazine, Otherwise ( https://www.otherwisemag.com/ ).

[5] https://anthrodendum.org/

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Writing Ethnography

Learning objectives.

• Summarize how anthropologists transform their fieldwork data into a story that communicates meaning.

WRITING ETHNOGRAPHY by Katie Nelson

Analysis and interpretation of research findings.

Once all or most of the fieldwork is complete, ethnographers analyze their data and research findings before beginning to write. There are many techniques for data analysis from which to choose based on the strategy and goals of the research. Regardless of the particular technique, data analysis involves a systematic interpretation of what the researcher thinks the data mean. The ethnographer reviews all of the data collected, synthesizes findings from the review, and integrates those findings with prior studies on the topic. Once the analysis is complete, the ethnographer is ready to write an account of the fieldwork.

Thick Description

Ethnography produces a detailed description of the studied group at a particular time and location, also known as a “thick description,” a term coined by anthropologist Clifford Geertz in his 1973 book The Interpretation of Cultures to describe this type of research and writing. A thick description explains not only the behavior or cultural event in question but also the context in which it occurs and anthropological interpretations of it. Such descriptions help readers better understand the internal logic of why people in a culture behave as they do and why the behaviors are meaningful to them. This is important because understanding the attitudes, perspectives, and motivations of cultural insiders is at the heart of anthropology.

Ethnographic Authority

In recent years, anthropologists have expressed concern about how ethnographies should be written in terms of ethnographic authority: how ethnographers present themselves and their informants in text. In a nonfiction text, the author is a mediator between readers and the topic and the text is written to help readers understand an unfamiliar topic. In an ethnography, the topic is people, and people naturally vary in terms of their thoughts, opinions, beliefs, and perspectives. That is, they have individual voices. In the past, anthropologists commonly wrote ethnographic accounts as if they possessed the ultimate most complete scientific knowledge on the topic. Subsequently, anthropologists began to challenge that writing style, particularly when it did not include the voices of their informants in the text and analysis. Some of this criticism originated with feminist anthropologists who noted that women’s experiences and perspectives frequently were omitted and misrepresented in this style of writing. Others believed that this style of writing reinforced existing global power dynamics and privileges afforded to Western anthropologists’ voices as most important.

Polyvocality

In response to criticisms about ethnographic authority, anthropologists have begun to include polyvocality. A polyvocal text is one in which more than one person’s voice is presented, and its use can range from ensuring that informants’ perspectives are presented in the text while still writing in the researcher’s voice to including informants’ actual words rather than paraphrasing them and co-authoring the ethnography with an informant. A good example of polyvocality is anthropologist Ruth Behar’s book Translated Woman: Crossing the Border with Esperanza’s Story (1993). Behar’s book documents the life story of a Mexican street peddler, Esperanza Hernández, and their unique friendship. Large sections of the book are in Esperanza’s own words and discuss issues that are important to her. Behar also includes pieces of her own life story and an anthropological analysis of Esperanza’s story.

By using polyvocality, researchers can avoid writing from the perspective of the ultimate ethnographic authority. A polyvocal style also allows readers to be more involved in the text since they have the opportunity to form their own opinions about the ethnographic data and perhaps even critique the author’s analysis. It also encourages anthropologists to be more transparent when presenting their methods and data.

Reflexivity

Reflexivity is another relatively new approach to ethnographic research and writing. Beginning in the 1960s, social science researchers began to think more carefully about the effects of their life experiences, status, and roles on their research and analyses. They began to insert themselves into their texts, including information about their personal experiences, thoughts, and life stories and to analyze in the accounts how those characteristics affected their research and analysis.

Adoption of reflexivity is perhaps the most significant change in how ethnography is researched and written in the past 50 years. It calls on anthropologists to acknowledge that they are part of the world they study and thus can never truly be objective. Reflexivity has also contributed to anthropologists’ appreciation of the unequal power dynamics of research and the effects those dynamics can have on the results. Reflexivity reminds the ethnographer that there are multiple ways to interpret any given cultural scenario. By acknowledging how their backgrounds affect their interpretations, anthropologists can begin to remove themselves from the throne of ethnographic authority and allow other, less-empowered voices to be heard.

Avoiding “Otherizing” People in Ethnographic Writing

A classic example of a style of anthropological writing that attempted to make the familiar strange ( rather than the strange familiar) and encouraged readers to consider their own cultures in a different way is Horace Miner’s Body Ritual among the Nacirema (1956). The essay described oral hygiene practices of the Nacirema (“American” spelled backward) in a way that, to cultural insiders, sounded extreme, exaggerated, and out of context. He presented the Nacirema as if they were a little-known cultural group with strange, exotic practices. Miner wrote the essay during an era in which anthropologists were just beginning to expand their focus beyond small-scale traditional societies far from home to large-scale post-industrial societies such as the United States. He wrote the essay primarily as a satire of how anthropologists often wrote about “the Other” in ways that made other cultures seem exotic and glossed over features that the Other had in common with the anthropologist’s culture. The essay also challenged U.S. readers in general and anthropologists in particular to think differently about their own cultures and re-examine their cultural assumptions about what is “normal.”

discussion question

• How do anthropologists transform their fieldwork data into a story that communicates meaning?
• How are reflexivity and polyvocality changing the way anthropologists communicate their work?

Bibliography

Behar, Ruth. Translated Woman: Crossing the Border with Esperanza’s Story . Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1993.

• Perspectives: An Open Invitation to Cultural Anthropology. Authored by : Edited by Nina Brown, Laura Tubelle de Gonzalez, and Thomas McIlwraith. Provided by : American Anthropological Association. Located at : http://perspectives.americananthro.org/ . License : CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial
• Doing Fieldwork: Methods in Cultural Anthropology. Authored by : Katie Nelson. Provided by : Inver Hills Community College. Located at : http://perspectives.americananthro.org/Chapters/Fieldwork.pdf . License : CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Writing Culture

Introduction.

• Important Theoretical Predecessors
• Writing Culture and Concomitant Texts
• Critiques of Postmodern Anthropologies
• Reflexivity
• “Native” Anthropologies and Anthropologies at “Home”
• Science and Technology Studies
• Multi-Sited Ethnography and Globalization
• Feminism, Gender, Sexualities, and the Body
• Postcolonial Studies
• Writing for, Against, and Across Culture
• Experimental Ethnographies
• In Defense of (Some) Realism
• Legacy and Future

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Writing Culture by Olaf Zenker LAST REVIEWED: 23 August 2018 LAST MODIFIED: 29 May 2014 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199766567-0030

Writing Culture is the title of a highly influential volume, edited by James Clifford and George Marcus in 1986 (see Clifford and Marcus 1986 cited under Writing Culture Debate: Writing Culture and Concomitant Texts ), which deals with the “poetics and politics of ethnography,” as its subtitle reads. Highlighting the epistemic and political predicaments adhering in ethnographic representation, this book became eponymous for a broader controversy during the late 1980s and early 1990s. This Writing Culture debate concerned itself with adequate forms of ethnographic writing, reflexivity, objectivity, and the culture-concept, as well as ethnographic authority in an increasingly fragmented, globalized, and (post)colonial world. Marking an important turn in anthropology, variously described as “literary,” “reflexive,” “postmodern,” “deconstructive,” or “post-structural,” the volume and companion publications (especially Anthropology as Cultural Critique by Marcus and Fischer 1986 , cited under Writing Culture Debate: Writing Culture and Concomitant Texts ) strongly polarized the anthropological community at the time; celebratory attempts at canonizing Writing Culture as a long overdue (post)modernist critique of anthropology starkly contrasted with demonizing dismissals, portraying Writing Culture as threatening the professional discipline (in both senses of the term). Throughout the 1990s, debates surrounding the so-called “crisis of representation” ushered in by Writing Culture increasingly cooled down, giving way to more nuanced and mediated responses in related fields. In this sense, repercussions of Writing Culture can be traced in important redefinitions of anthropology regarding issues such as who should do fieldwork (e.g., people “at home” in the field or “native” anthropologists); how it should be done (e.g., collaboratively, including “informants”; in a reflexive way, problematizing “culture” and being sensitive to issues of gender, race, and class; or tracing the translocal in multiple localities); what topics should be studied (e.g., the “home” countries of anthropology, Western knowledge and science, or literary practices); and how the results should be ethnographically represented (e.g., experimentally). Methodologically speaking, it is difficult, and contestable, to relate such common concerns and systematic equivalences within contemporaneous and subsequent developments to intellectual genealogies “descending” from Writing Culture . This poses anew the question of the legacy of Writing Culture and also leads to reflections about the book’s continued capacity to capture the imagination for anthropology in the future. For now it seems clear, however, that Writing Culture has indeed become the standard reference point in, and a prime shorthand description for, discussions of postmodernism and ethnographic representation in anthropology. It remains an open question of what to make of the ironic fact that Writing Culture thus epitomizes a canonical moment in the discipline’s history, radically questioning all anthropological canons.

The Writing Culture Debate

Although Writing Culture was to give rise to multifaceted debates on reflexivity, objectivity, epistemology, culture, ethnography of the world system, and the politics of representation, the text itself primarily dealt with the poetics of ethnography, largely sidelining political and epistemological matters. In its textualist attempt to challenge then-conventional ways of ethnographic writing, Writing Culture could draw on a growing body of more experimental ethnographies. Of these texts, critically engaging with the hegemonic genre of ethnographic realism, Miner 1956 is one of the earliest; it performs (as hidden parody), rather than speaks about, the estrangement effect that conventional ethnography often exercises in exoticizing “the Other.” Later texts, especially since the 1970s, have consciously broken with the convention largely to exclude personal experience, of observer and observed alike. These include the vivid and touching depictions of old people in America by Myerhoff 1978 and the detailed engagement with the life of a !Kung woman in the Kalahari in Shostak 2000 . Emphasizing particularly the dialogic engagements between ethnographer and local interlocutors during fieldwork, Crapanzano 1980 reveals the, at times, magic reality of the author’s interactions with the Moroccan Tuhami, whereas Rabinow 2007 and Dwyer 1982 show how fieldwork engages, and puts into question, both locals and researchers. Favret-Saada 1980 , in its engagement with contemporary witchcraft in rural France, reflexively demonstrates the limitations of realist assumptions about the neutral transparent text under conditions, in which representing witchcraft is identical to practicing it. Marcus and Cushman 1982 is an early attempt at mapping the emergent field of “ethnographies as texts,” in which ethnographic realism is theoretically criticized and practically transcended in experimental writings.

Crapanzano, Vincent. 1980. Tuhami: Portrait of a Moroccan . Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.

A sensitive and bold interpretive ethnography, presenting the life and world of Tuhami, an illiterate Moroccan tile maker who believes himself married to a camel-footed she-demon and suffers nightly visitations from the demons and saints who haunt his life.

Dwyer, Kevin. 1982. Moroccan dialogues: Anthropology in question . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.

A dialogue-based account of encounters with Faqir Muhammad, a villager from humble beginnings who has spent most of his life farming his land, in which the strengths and vulnerabilities of both fieldworker and local are dialectically exposed.

Favret-Saada, Jeanne. 1980. Deadly words: Witchcraft in the Bocage . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.

Originally published in French in 1977, this book explores witchcraft beliefs and experiences in the Bocage, a rural area of western France. It self-reflexively presents the progress of the ethnographer’s inquiries, suggesting that a full knowledge of witchcraft involves being “caught up” in it oneself, since speaking about witchcraft means practicing it.

Marcus, George E., and Dick Cushman. 1982. Ethnographies as texts. Annual Review of Anthropology 11:25–69.

DOI: 10.1146/annurev.an.11.100182.000325

An early review article of anthropological studies treating “ethnographies as texts,” both critically engaging with the conventions of the by then still-dominant genre of “ethnographic realism” and exhibiting a contemporaneous trend toward experimentation in ethnographic writing.

Miner, Horace. 1956. Body ritual among the Nacirema. American Anthropologist 58.3: 503–507.

DOI: 10.1525/aa.1956.58.3.02a00080

An early, short, and highly entertaining critique of the overconfident science of anthropology, parodying its magisterial tone in depicting the non-Western “Other” through exoticizing the “American” under the inverted name “Nacirema” almost beyond recognition; great introductory text taking undergraduates directly to the heart of what Writing Culture came to describe in its subtitle as “the poetics and politics of ethnography.”

Myerhoff, Barbara G. 1978. Number our days: A triumph of continuity and culture among Jewish old people in an urban ghetto . New York: Simon and Schuster.

A poignant account of a culture of aging in contemporary America, highlighting the triumph of individual and collective creativity to deal with the daily problems of poverty, neglect, loneliness, ill health, inadequate housing, and physical danger.

Rabinow, Paul. 2007. Reflections on fieldwork in Morocco . 30th anniversary ed. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.

An engagingly written account of the anthropologist as neophyte. Key questions of disciplinary practice are asked in the context of the personal narrative. Problematizes the conventional suppression of personal experience in written ethnographies, as anthropological authority is shown as rooted in field research. Originally published in 1977.

Shostak, Marjorie. 2000. Nisa, the life and words of a !Kung woman . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.

Originally published in 1981, this is a highly personal account of the life history of Nisa, a !Kung woman of the Kalahari desert in southern Africa, written by the wife of an anthropologist involved in the Harvard Kalahari Project. Often used in introductory anthropology courses.

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How To Compose A Cultural Anthropology Essay Properly

Writing a cultural anthropology essay requires you to answer definite questions and study cultural norms and ethnographic data. You need to understand the topic you have clearly to find necessary materials, support it with evidence and still be ready to a critical review of the event or other cultural feature. The following tips will help you organize your work and remember important requirements for writing such type of assignment.

• Tips on Writing an Essay in Cultural Anthropology
• Understand what you need to write.

In most cases, you need to search for necessary information, synthesize it and make possible conclusions. This requires you to be attentive with the organization of your paper and the logical development of ideas supported by evidence.

• Quote and paraphrase where it’s necessary.

You need to quote the information you get from your research participants, while it’s recommended to summarize and paraphrase the information from academic texts.

• Use the first-person “I” judiciously.

As you present your own research, you are supposed to make yourself visible to the readers. However, be careful with using “I”, because your task is to analyze the cultural phenomena but not focus the paper on yourself.

• Choose rather the active voice.

Usage of the active voice makes the subject and the writer center. It’s also possible to use the passive voice, but it’s preferable to pay attention to the topic and yourself as the author of this work.

• Write elegant style.

You can use complex sentences, but still, mix them with shorter ones. You should pay much attention to the way you build the sentences to make them sound beautiful. Rich writing should be matched with clarity.

• Try to avoid making presumptions.

You should not write about the reasons of particular situations you are studying if you have no evidence for this. It’s not a good practice to show your personal attitude to the event and judge the behavior or situations that happened.

• Try to find help.

It’s better to have a reader that has some experience in anthropology, so they can make some reviews and feedbacks of your work.

Your essay needs to flow logically – make sure that all points are supported with evidence. Mind that it’s important for your paper to be clear and precise, so the readers will appreciate the quality of your work and you will get a good grade. The design of the writing matters a lot, so don’t be afraid to spend extra time for making your paper perfect.

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How to Write an Anthropology Paper

Last Updated: October 1, 2020

wikiHow is a “wiki,” similar to Wikipedia, which means that many of our articles are co-written by multiple authors. To create this article, volunteer authors worked to edit and improve it over time. This article has been viewed 14,848 times.

Writing a paper for an Anthropology course can be a new experience for those of you that are new to this field of study. Anthropology is generally understood as the study of all people across all points in time and space, and is broken down into four distinct sub-fields in the American tradition: Cultural anthropology, Biological/Physical anthropology, Linguistic anthropology, and Archaeology. Most introductory-level courses, or “Anthropology 101”, will briefly cover what each of these sub-fields mean and how anthropologists work within them. If you’re taking one of these beginner courses, you will most likely have to write an academic paper at some point. This instructional set will provide step-by-step instructions on how to help you successfully write your first anthropological essay using the American Anthropological Association (AAA) guidelines for formatting and citations and how to find credible anthropological sources/information

• Get all of your supplies organized and have everything on hand.
• Make a quick schedule to help you stay on track. If you have plenty of time before the due date, set up daily goals to help you stay on track with all of the research and writing you might have to do. Spreading out your workload will definitely help take away some of the stress.
• If you have plenty of time before the due date, set up daily goals to help you stay on track with all of the research and writing you might have to do. Spreading out your workload will definitely help take away some of the stress.

• Obviously this step isn't anthropology-specific, but it really is one of the most important steps when it comes to writing any paper.
• Try to start and finish your outline in one sitting.  You can always edit it as you move along, but having a complete outline before you start the actual writing process will help you work a lot quicker and more efficiently.

• American anthropology has four distinct sub-fields: archaeological, cultural, linguistic, and biological/physical.  Knowing how you can apply one or more of these sub-fields to help support your argument is crucial to anthropological writing.
• How do you know which field applies to your paper's topic?  The answer is usually all of the above.  In very basic terms, everything that has anything to do with people can be observed and analyzed anthropologically.

• The Internet is a magical and wonderful place for conducting research.  Just make sure that you know where to look when it comes to credible resources.
• Know the difference between scholarly and public sources.
• Get familiar with your school's library system.  Many universities and colleges have free and easy-to-access websites that can access great material.

• This is the official formatting guideline for the American Anthropological Association.
• You can access a free PDF of it here: http://www.aaanet.org/publications/guidelines.cfm
• Although you may not use this format in an introductory-level course, anyone who wishes to pursue their degree in anthropology will most certainly have to write a few papers using this.

• Make sure you understand all of the vocabulary and key concepts from your notes and textbook.
• Does your thesis statement makes sense and do your topic sentences support your claims?
• Do you have enough sources for your assignment?  Are they credible, accurate, and relevant?

• Remember to follow your outline and stick to your writing schedule (if you made one).
• Take short breaks every hour or so to review your work, or to simply just give yourself a rest.

• Ask them to look for things like logical flow of ideas, clarity, and get their overall opinion first.  Spelling and grammatical errors should be noted, but not the main focus of this part in the editing process.
• Once you have their feedback, start working on your final masterpiece.

• Have you completed all of the prompts or answered all of the questions that may have been listed in the rubric?
• Did you meet the length requirements?
• Does the format and citation style comply with the rubric as well?
• Can you identify your thesis statement and topic sentences?
• Did you successfully support your claim?
• Did you cite your sources properly?
• Are there any spelling or grammatical mistakes?
• How did you apply your knowledge of anthropology in this paper?

Expert Q&A

• Here are a few links to some really great anthropological websites. Check them out if you get stuck on your research step. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• American Anthropological Association website: http://www.aaanet.org Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Anthropology Resources on the Internet: http://www.anthropology-resources.net/index.html Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

Things You'll Need

• a computer with a word processor program
• your class notes and textbook
• access to the Internet

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Writing Anthropology

Essays on craft and commitment.

Editor: Carole McGranahan

Contributor(s): Sasha Su-Ling Welland , Ieva Jusionyte , Paul Stoller , Anand Pandian , Kirin Narayan , Ruth Behar , C. Anne Claus , Kristen Ghodsee , Michael Lambek , Zoe Crossland , Carole McGranahan , Donna M Goldstein , Sarah Besky , Sienna Craig , Marnie Jane Thomson , Sarah L Gonzalez , Kim Fortun , Yarimar Bonilla , Maria Vesperi , Kristen Drybread , Whitney Battle Baptiste , Chelsi West Ohueri , Adia Benton , Carla Jones , Ghassan Hage , Bhrigupati Singh , Alan Kaiser , Lara Deeb , Jessica Winegar , Jane Eva Baxter , Matt Sponheimer , Mary Murrell , Noel Salazar , Daniel M. Goldstein , Robin Bernstein , Nomi Stone , Stuart J. McLean , Kathleen Stewart , Lauren Berlant , Jessica Marie Falcone , Roxanne Varzi , Uzma Z. Rizvi , Sita Venkateswar , Katerina Teaiwa , Bianca C. Williams , Ulysse, Gina Athena , Paul Tapsell , Barak Kalir , Kevin Carrico , Lisa Sang Mi Min , Ann Laura Stoler , Catherine Besteman

Subjects Literature and Literary Studies > Creative Nonfiction , Anthropology , Cultural Studies

“ Writing Anthropology is the long-awaited handbook that our discipline desperately needs to move us away from the lingering idea that our texts should be indecipherable to mortals. Carole McGranahan and company have given anthropologists a beautifully wrinkled and coffee-stained road map to help us all get to a writing place that is thoughtful, self-aware, compassionate, and (gasp!) accessible.” — Jason De León, author of The Land of Open Graves: Living and Dying on the Migrant Trail

“In this powerful volume, a multitude of ruminations, thoughts, prompts, and provocations flow together like a vibrant stream until we see the lifeblood of contemporary anthropology as a committed way of writing about people that is beholden to a sense of accountability. The accomplished anthropologists featured in this book pursue a shared commitment to writing well. But this is not merely for the sake of more effective explication or theoretical nuance. They aim to better convey the hardships and dignity of humanity itself. This is ethnography at its best: beautifully written, surprising, deeply instructive, and grounded in an ethical practice that never ceases to care about and attend to everything and everyone with whom anthropologists engage.” — Laurence Ralph, author of The Torture Letters: Reckoning with Police Violence

"In these 53 short, blog-style essays, students now have a new, pithy guide to help them think through a wealth of writing issues. Recommended. Lower-division undergraduates through faculty; professionals." — Choice

"A rich wordhoard of ideas that focus on 'craft and commitment' in anthropological writing…" — David Syring, Anthropology and Humanism

"I am currently planning a series of ethnographic writing workshops in our department and yes, this will be one of the books we use. . . . Reading different kinds of ethnographic writing . . . in a format that allows for easy comparison might stimulate reflection on writing and help students find their own voice. That in itself would be an accomplishment."  — Helle Bundgaard, Asian Ethnography

"Although Writing Anthropology is not ostensibly a how-to book, readers seeking strategies to apply to their writing practices should not be disappointed. . . . The essays in this collection resonate, as McGranahan depicts, that ‘anthropology is a writing discipline’ (7). As writers, anthropologists make ideal commentators on their practices of presentation and representation, on their visions for process and product." — Steven E. Gump, Journal of Scholarly Publishing

"... Writing Anthropology makes a compelling case for clear, truthful, heartfelt, and engaged anthropological writing. It will certainly be one of those books I will turn to for inspiration and solace when I find myself struggling in front of a white screen." — Nastja Slavec, Anthropology Notebooks

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Carole McGranahan is Professor of Anthropology at the University of Colorado, author of Arrested Histories: Tibet, the CIA, and Memories of a Forgotten War , and coeditor of Ethnographies of U.S. Empire , both also published by Duke University Press.

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How to write an anthropology essay perfectly?

• Academic Writing Tips
• Essay Tips&Tricks

Stuck with an anthropology essay with no help in sight? Anthropology essay writing is not a simple task. Not many college students can handle such a paper. An anthropology essay is an academic paper that deals with the study of humans.

Anthropology is a scientific course program with many subtopics, including culture, human behaviors, and social relationships.

Writing an anthropology essay is quite challenging since it covers detailed analysis and interpretation of past historical events. It also entails predicting patterns of human behaviors while evaluating specific cultural aspects to reveal the occurrences at that particular period. Thus, such compositions need comprehensive research and a keen study of different cultures. Besides, you must identify a fascinating topic to compose a winning essay.

Due to the paper’s complexities, many students can’t craft anthropology papers. It could be because of poor writing skills or inadequate time to write. In such situations, you can seek professional help from our essay writing service . We hire top-rated experts who understand the entire writing process.

Let us help you get top grades without a hassle while you take an academic breather. You deserve well-articulated essays that will impress your professor. Don’t endure burnout from sleepless nights and missed deadlines. Talk to us and get flawless academic papers.

In this article, you will gain insightful tips on writing anthropology papers. We have also listed captivating topic ideas to help you jumpstart your essay.

Writing Assignments You Will Deal with on Anthropology Courses

College students pursuing Anthropology courses often have many assignments to work on as part of the program assessment. You will encounter several disciplines like linguistic anthropology, cultural anthropology, and biological anthropology. You will write many anthropology essays to measure your understanding of this subject’s subdisciplines.

To compose winning essays, you need to understand different cultures, evolutionary origins, and human distinctiveness, among other diverse social aspects. It is essential to be familiar with the subject you are writing on to avoid including inaccurate information.

Thus, you need to take time on the topic selection when writing such assignments. This entails an in-depth examination of historical records and information that will lead to a well-researched paper. Your preferred topic should neither be too broad nor too narrow. It helps you get acceptable content that will fit the required paper length.

Let us explore the approach you need when tackling anthropology papers. We have two effective strategies that can help you during essay compositions:

Writing depends on the target audience. You must follow the required academic standards to compose a comprehensible piece for your fellow students. Ensure your format is appropriate; incorporate proper grammar and no spelling errors. This is the personal approach for anthropology writing.

It is imperative to have flowing paragraphs and logical arguments for an exceptional essay. Pay extra attention to editing and proofreading to eliminate any mistakes that might result in poor grades. Not forgetting to cite renowned scientists in this field to make your paper more authoritative.

The general approach involves writing papers for the general audience. It does not cover a specific audience. For instance, you can take a general approach when composing an essay to lure students into studying anthropology.

Avoid technical jargon, complicated concepts, and citations. Instead, take a creative approach with compelling human experiences and less anthropological vocabularies that might scare them. But remember to use trusted sources for citations.

If you can’t find the best approach, hire one of our seasoned anthropologists to help you structure your paper flawlessly.

What Is Ethnography?

Ethnography is a discipline of the Anthropology course that deals with individual cultures. It deals with qualitative research that entails investigating a particular community to understand their life and interactions for a particular period.

Such types of anthropological writing require long-term research exercise. Your research can take up to three years to compose an excellent paper. This is because you live with the people to understand their culture and perspective towards life.

Today, most scientists use this approach to derive conclusive analysis about specific cultures. It can go beyond anthropology to other scientific fields of study.

Thus, you can get more insights from an anthropology essay example to format your paper appropriately.

How To Write An Anthropology Essay

Anthropological writing might seem simple, but many students get stuck due to the critical analysis of human life. The compositions will not be complicated if you have the correct format and guidance. First, you need to ensure you get an appropriate topic related to the research prompt. Therefore, take time to identify the best title for your paper before commencing the writing process.

First, make sure you read the prompt keenly to know what is expected from you. You will then brainstorm to identify the significant ideas relating to the topic that you will expound on your body.

Carry out a comprehensive research exercise to get reliable academic sources. This will help you when citing your work to avoid plagiarism claims.

Furthermore, it is imperative to note that the anthropological writing exercise follows the formal academic writing style. You must have the proper essay format that entails an introduction, main body, and conclusion.

The introduction should be attention-grabbing with the proper sentences and a compelling thesis statement. Let your readers know what your research paper entails by stating the main points. Proceed to explain the points in the main body. Each paragraph should start with a topic sentence that reveals the main idea. You must articulate your ideas in detailed explanations with a supporting example. Make sure the paragraphs flow logically and transitionally to avoid confusing the readers.

Finally, conclude your essay by restating the main ideas and revealing the significance of the study. Stick to the relevant ideas you captured in the body. Do not include any new information about the research.

One way of improving your writing is to sample an anthropology essay example from a trusted site. Check out the writing style and the format used and incorporate them into your composition.

However, if you are still experiencing difficulties with the paper’s complexities, we can help you compose impeccable content that fits your research question. Let us boost your academic performance with top-notch essays.

Anthropology Essay Topics

Topic selection is a confusing section for many students. You must pick a relevant topic that relates to the research question. Our experts have listed a few topic ideas to inspire your writing.

Let us explore compelling anthropology essay topics to get your writing on the right track.

• Discuss the effect of culture on modern society.
• A comprehensive analysis of folklore in ancient times.
• Explore the history of indigenous societies.
• How do social media platforms impact modern culture?
• Compare and contrast forensic science and anthropology.
• Explore different gender roles in prehistoric times.
• Polyandry and polygamy: An in-depth analysis.
• Ethnic cleansing: The influence on contemporary society.
• Importance of rituals and pagan ceremonies.
• Causes and effect of cultural stereotyping in today’s society.

Here are cultural anthropology topic ideas to inspire your compositions:

• Explore the role of politics in anthropology.
• How does culture influence human practices?
• Analyze the impact of cultural anthropologists on society.
• Causes and effects of cultural conflicts.
• The significance of literature on human culture.
• How does religion impact culture?
• Analyze agricultural practices in ancient times.
• A comprehensive analysis of the Romans.
• Causes and effects of cultural behaviors on cultural anthropology.
• Analyze growth and development in cultural anthropology.

Below are physical anthropology essay topics to help you select the proper title:

• The impact of mythologies in physical anthropology.
• The effects of an aging society in a developing nation.
• Analyze the impact of ancient piercing cultural behavior.
• Explore the challenges of human migration in the 20 th
• Discuss human evolution: A comprehensive analysis.
• Eugenics: The pros and cons.
• Preservation of dead bodies: The influence in Ancient Egypt.
• The effect of the environment on skin color.
• Evaluate physical labor and its effect on humans.
• An analysis of death rituals in African societies.

Below are medical anthropology topic ideas for your perusal:

• Explore the upsides and downsides of alternative medicine.
• Analyze the impact of ethno zoology in medicine.
• Discuss the importance of medical anthropology.
• How medical anthropology can improve human health.
•  What is ethnobotany?
• Discuss the history of Chinese medicine.
• Impact of drugs on medical anthropology.
• A comprehensive analysis of marijuana legalization in developed countries.
• Explore the controversies of abortion in modern society.
• An analysis of the AIDS epidemic in Africa.

The above anthropology essay topics can help you craft remarkable papers that will score you top grades. Do not let fatigue and anxiety jeopardize your grades. We understand how demanding college life can get; that is why our service is at the forefront in ensuring we help needy students get top-quality papers.

Therefore, don’t hesitate to contact us if you need writing assistance.

Exsample #1

Endangered language in kundur and karez-i-mulla, southeast asia.

Southeast Asia present a number of endangered languages and one of such is what is found in the villages of Kundur and Karez-i-Mulla, Herat Province in Afghanistan. Mongolian language is the language that Moseley (2010) considers as ‘critically endangered.’ As a one of the three subfamilies of the Altaic language family, Mongol is considered critically endangered as it is currently spoken by almost 200 old men in the village.

From brief history, during the middle Mongolian period, history witnessed different dialects developing into separate language. The currently surviving language as Mongol in Afghanistan includes Santa (Dongxiang) and Bao’an (Bonan) in the south and Daur in the east. One key property of the language, specifically the aforementioned dialects is that they retained /h/ and /f/ from Proto-Altaic */p/ (this is an asterisk identifies that acts as a sound that is hypothetical or one which has been reconstructed). Furthermore, the language has unassimilated sequences of vowel. What Moseley (2010) gives as an example is the Middle Mongolian e’ü which can be regarded as classical Mongolian having a medial velar, egü. From the classical Mongolian, where other dialects of Mongolian have merged these vowels into a single, lengthy vowel referred to as ṻ.

In terms of the language demographics, this language is currently spoken by only the elderly totaling to about 200 people. Secondly, the 200 elderly speaking the language are among the handful ethnic Moghols found in Herāt in Afghanistan. Owing to the fact that the total numbers of families belonging to Moghols are just a few thousands justifies the language’s status of ‘critically endangered.’ One notable feature of the language that in fact separates it from other Afghanis languages is the fact that it is unique in the preservation of the high back unrounded vowel /ɯ/. The process of the language extinction has been termed as ‘rapid’ in the sense that it has lost its Proto-Altaic */p/ in as much it can be said to be preserving its unassimilated vowel sequences.

Additionally, the syntax and the phonology of the endangered language have been affected by Persian. Some of effects Persian has had on Mongol are that it has borrowed a large number of words from Persian, including some function words. For instance, there is the word ‘Daur’ which is not directly linked or related to those other extant Mongolian language.

Endangered Species in Kundur and Karez-i-Mulla, Southeast Asia

One of the species that has been marked endangered around Kundur and Karez-i-Mulla is the Tibetan Black Bear. This animal goes by several other names in the region including Moon Bear, Baluchistan Bear or Baluchistan Bear. One of the challenges facing the animal is habitat destruction as well as hunting for its paws, skin and gall bladder which has been found to be essential in Oriental medicine. Furthermore, people are Kundur and Karez-i-Mulla consider Kundur and Karez-i-Mulla to be nuisance and destructive because they feed on domestic livestock and crops. Unfortunately, there have been reports of the animal attacking people especially children and women in the regions bordering Kundur and Karez-i-Mulla.

On physical appearance the animal is black with distinctive white crescent marking on the chest. The species is smaller in size and appearance when compared with its better-known American black bear. One feature that makes that animal adaptive to its environment are its large and rounded ears, pointed snout, sharp claws and excellent swimmers and climbers making them feed on their prayers with a lot of ease.

At the moment, there are three distinctive activities that have threatened the continuity of the animal. First, Kundur and Karez-i-Mulla where Mongolian language is common is characterized by settlements in mountainous areas. This development has led to the increase in human caused or Mongolian caused mortality. That is, there have been increased human-caused rates of mortality for the species as a result of settlements in the forest. Secondly, Baluchistan Bear has been endangered by commercial trapping, livestock depredation control, unregulated hunting and habitat deterioration. The third concern for the continuously decreasing number of Baluchistan Bear has been the perception that Baluchistan Bear have been a threat to human life around Kundur and Karez-i-Mulla. As a matter of fact, this is the reason where the association between people and Baluchistan Bear has been minimal leading to its endangering.

How Specie and the Language are Endangered

On the other hand, Baluchistan Bear and Mongolian language have been endangered as a result of changes on human activities and migration. To conceptualise this point, recreational development, energy and mineral and road building are some of the issues that have been behind the decrease in number of Baluchistan Bear in Kundur and Karez-i-Mulla. Comparing the situation with the endangered Mongolian language the situation has been opposite. The spread of Mongolian language is going down as a result of the dying members of the family with little or no trace of documented or written language. This situation has brought the loss of essential ancestral knowledge that was once embedded in people’s culture.

Moseley, Christopher (ed.). 2010. Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger, 3rd edn. Paris, UNESCO Publishing. Online version: http://www.unesco.org/culture/en/endangeredlanguages/atlas

Assignment 2

Institution:

The minorities in South East Asia comprise of the non-indigenous minorities including immigrants as well as their descendants who have adapted into the local culture. Ethnic minorities across Southeast Asia continue to face very real clashes with their nation states regarding sociocultural and political differences. Some indigenous political representatives try to covert ethnic/cultural specificity into some special collective rights at the national level and international fora regarding indigenous people (Swearer, 2012). Minorities’ communities within Southeast Asia have found democratic space to express and represent their cultures and values. Immigrants have shaped the political landscape in Southeast Asia. Authoritarian regimes have not given much space to minorities within their population.

There is an amazing persistence of poverty despite the rapid economic expansion in Southeast Asia. Poverty has declined largely in the last 30 years in most regions of Southeast Asia. The reduction in poverty has happened despite growing inequality. Long-term economic growth was been consistent in most parts of Southeast Asia despite the setbacks such as the financial crisis of 1997-98. Economic growth has not led to total reduction of poverty due to inequality. Absolute poverty has reduced over time due to economic growth. The overall record in poverty reduction and growth has not been uniform in Southeast Asia as experiences in states like Philippines, East Timor, Indonesia, Lao, Cambodia, Vietnam and Myanmar. Southeast Asia has performed well in poverty reduction and economic growth (Ananta & Barichello, 2012). The economic crisis in 1990s negatively affected the achievement of the Southeast Asia population. An obvious manifestation of poverty is malnutrition. Malnutrition reduces poverty alleviation efforts.

Southeast Asia concepts of kingship as well as traditional legitimacy were not incompatible with other autochthonous patterns that existed. Regarded as against their Buddhist and Brahmanic background, concepts of kingship in Southeast Asia are not separable cosmology of a man’s world. Kingship post 1800s is a thing of the past in the Southeast Asia as modern democracy and civilization takes place. Authoritarian regimes have transformed to democracies or allowed open economy. Monarchical tradition within Malaya presently indicates that even Islamization within Southeast Asia did not impact the Hindu vision of the King being the preserver of the balance system within the Universe (Swearer, 2012). Divinity intertwined with Kingship in Southeast Asia. The concepts of kingship are continually fading within the Southeast Asia region.

Development in Southeast Asia has been largely shaped by interaction with other more powerful regions. Southeast Asia has a long history of crucial economic and security ties with the United States and is a very good place of strategic interest. In the course of the Vietnam War, Southeast Asia countries were ideologically divided as well as feuding. There was a simmering feeling of reorganization that begun with economic development through forming a trading bloc. The United States has to maintain regional security through making sure it has a credible military presence, viable regional training as well as a support structure. The United States cannot ignore the region with its vast population and importance in regional balance and stability. The USA objective in the region is very complex and not merely balancing against China (Chou & Houben, 2006). The US alliances with Thailand and Philippines represent two outstanding stand of interest. The Philippines is important in the management of the downside risk while Thailand’s significance is in its potential in assisting in maximizing the upside of the order. Southeast Asia is very significant to the USA foreign policy.

Southeast Asia region represents an interesting as well as significant arena for democratization in the world. The transition from authoritarian rule within the region to democracy in some countries like the Philippines has attracted a lot of attention. Political systems within Southeast Asia range from democracies to single-party states as well as some societies controlled by the military. There are countries were democracy is established and state leadership is normally elected. Some democracy is still at its infancy stage but is gradually being established (Chou & Houben, 2006). Some countries in Southeast Asia have their government structure with combined characteristics from different societies and political structure operate between military rule and democracy. Some countries are single-party states but have opened up their economies like China and are undergoing economic reforms. Democracy in some countries is still a long way coming. They take strategic advantage regarding static ethnic stereotypes of the colonial kind as being part of the decolonization process.

Essay Question 1

Women within the Vietnamese culture are found in a disadvantaged position. The women do not have jobs outside of the house and up brought out more strictly as compared to men. Paradise for the Blind shows the resilience and power of women to be patient and ensure whatever they go through life. Mother to Hang lives in Hanoi for 10 years until the husbands shows up one day. Hang’s father kills himself out of shame since he cannot stand the repercussion of what he has done (Duong & McPherson, 2002). Women in Vietnamese culture structure to fend for their families by working hard. Hang mother despite the poverty level in Hanoi struggles to sell snacks to earn a living. Hang’s aunt does back-breaking work in rebuilding life for herself. She is much respected in the community since she has built herself a fortune through sheer hard work. Her uncle just wanted to take advantage of women and situation in life to make it but the women work hard to get what they have. In Re-branding Islam women’s resilience stands out despite the religious discrimination that they face. In both Re-branding Islam women play an important role in growing the economy of the country. Although women suffer because of how they are regarded in the society they play important part in bringing up their children and determining the destiny of men. In Indonesia where the Islam culture is prevalent, women are disadvantaged despite their struggles in everyday life. Family values play an important role in the two scenarios giving women the strong will to achieve in life (Hoesterey & Hoesterey, 2015). The family values make the women to be determined and sacrifice on behalf of their children and family. Family values bind the women to their goals and they struggle to make the family a success. The role of women as a bedrock of the society and family wellbeing cannot be disputed in both cases.

Ananta, A., & Barichello R.R. (2012), Poverty and Global Recession in Southeast Asia, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Chou, C., & Houben V. (2006), Southeast Asian Studies: Debates and New Directions Institute of Southeast Asian Studies Duong T.H., McPherson, N. (2002). Paradise of the Blind: A Novel, HarperCollins, 2002 Hoesterey, J.B., & Hoesterey, J. (2015) Rebranding Islam: Piety, Prosperity, and a Self-Help Guru, Stanford University Press. Swearer D.K. (2012). Buddhist World of Southeast Asia, The: Second Edition, SUNY Series in Religious Studies, Bangkok: SUNY Press.

The main finding in the subject chapter seems to indicate that reciprocity and exchange patterns in Japan are asymmetrical, while Americans showed more symmetrical exchange and reciprocity patterns. In other words, the old in Japan would accept gifts and/or help from family members and repay it in kind. However, their American counterparts could only accept gifts and/or help if they had the capacity to reciprocate the gesture with material resources, e.g. by re-gifting the giver or helper. The theme that emerges from Akiyama et al. (2009) however seems to indicate that reciprocity and exchange is a mechanism that the old people perceive as necessary in the creation of stable relationships.

The foregoing theme has been discussed elsewhere in literature where it is indicated that when old people become perennial receivers of gifts and help, they deem themselves as unbefitting of such handouts (Fyrand, 2010; Thompson, 2013). Specifically, the old people feel as if they owe people who help or give them material or moral support too much. Their inability to pay the material or moral debt to their younger givers or supporters leads to a situation where they (the old people), can no longer relate well with givers or helpers.

As Fyrand (2010) notes, the unbalanced relationship between the giver and the receiver (old people) can result in mental distress occasioned by feelings of unworthiness in the latter. Ultimately, the old recipients of gifts and/or help may discontinue the relationship. Interestingly, Akiyama et al. (2009) found out that while old people in Japan (especially women) readily accept support from their children, their counterparts in the US do not readily accept such support and/or gifts unless they are able to repay it in a similar manner.

For example, while the old in Japan accept the help offered by their daughters-in-law, they ‘repay’ the kindness through appreciation, affection, love, and elevating their supporter’s position in the society by talking positively about them.

In Jewish history for instance Abraham is the first recorded monotheist, but around him, other people were still at a magical/animistic/polytheistic stage. The same was still true in the time of Moses when Egypt worshipped many gods, and whose priests were often magicians, and even on into New Testament times when Jewish and Christian monotheism stood alongside Greek and Roman polytheism. The societies involved later moved to a scientific approach, especially in the Scientific Revolutionary period which began in the late medieval period and continued until the time of great thinkers such Isaac Newton, and of course in one sense has continued to the present day.

What Copernicus and others did was reject the then teaching of the Roman Catholic Church regarding astronomy etc, because by direct observation they were able to see that it was wrong. This did and does not necessarily mean that they rejected God. There are fundamentalists who believe in a literal 7 days creation story and other Christians who accept the scientific explanations of gradual evolution, but who still believe that God was the prime cause. For the latter, the two ‘stages’ of religion and science run in parallel with no apparent problem.

At what stage are they? In the late 1800s by Draper and White claimed religion and science are automatically enemies. Craig Rushbolt in his 2004 article ‘Relationships between Science and Religion: Conflict & Warfare?’ points out how their books:- Each painted a picture of history as a conflict between the rationality of science (earnestly searching for truth) opposed by the stubborn ignorance of religion (stubbornly trying to block scientific progress), with science fighting valiantly This he says is not a true picture because it is both over-simplistic and inaccurate.

It would perhaps be truer to say that there was a conflict between the authority of the church with its dogmatic ideas and those who thought independently.

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A guide to writing an anthropology observation paper, rachel r.n..

• February 23, 2024
• How to Guides

What You'll Learn

Anthropology , as a field of study, explores the various aspects of human societies, cultures, and behaviors. One valuable method within anthropology is participant observation, where researchers immerse themselves in a particular social setting to observe and document the intricacies of human behavior. Writing an anthropology observation paper involves translating these immersive experiences into a cohesive and insightful document. This essay provides a comprehensive guide on how to craft a compelling anthropology observation paper.(A Guide to Writing an Anthropology Observation Paper)

• Selecting a Research Topic:

The first step in writing an anthropology observation paper is choosing a research topic. This should be a specific aspect of human behavior or cultural practice that aligns with the objectives of your study. Consider the relevance, feasibility, and ethical implications of your chosen topic.(A Guide to Writing an Anthropology Observation Paper)

• Preparing for Fieldwork:

Before embarking on your fieldwork, conduct thorough background research on your chosen topic and the community or setting you plan to observe. Familiarize yourself with relevant literature, theories, and methodologies within anthropology. This preparation will enable you to approach your fieldwork with a solid foundation and a clear understanding of existing knowledge.(A Guide to Writing an Anthropology Observation Paper)

• Ethical Considerations:

Ethical considerations are paramount in anthropological research. Obtain informed consent from the individuals or communities you plan to observe. Respect privacy and cultural norms, and be transparent about your intentions as a researcher. Ensure that your research does not harm the subjects or compromise their well-being.(A Guide to Writing an Anthropology Observation Paper)

• Immersive Observation:

Immerse yourself in the community or setting you are studying. Take detailed field notes, recording observations of behavior, interactions, rituals, and any relevant cultural practices. Pay attention to both verbal and non-verbal communication. Establish rapport with the participants to gain their trust and enhance the quality of your observations.(A Guide to Writing an Anthropology Observation Paper)

• Note-Taking Techniques:

Develop effective note-taking techniques to capture the richness of your observations. Use descriptive language, record direct quotes, and document your emotions and reflections. Create a structured system for organizing your notes, such as categorizing them by themes or chronological order.(A Guide to Writing an Anthropology Observation Paper)

• Reflexivity:

Anthropologists emphasize reflexivity, acknowledging the influence of their own background, biases, and perspectives on the research process. Include reflective components in your observation paper, discussing your role as an observer and how your presence may have impacted the community or individuals being studied.(A Guide to Writing an Anthropology Observation Paper)

• Data Analysis:

Once your fieldwork is complete, engage in a systematic analysis of your data. Identify patterns, themes, and cultural insights that emerged during your observations. Use relevant anthropological theories to interpret your findings and provide context to your observations.(A Guide to Writing an Anthropology Observation Paper)

• Structuring the Paper:

Organize your observation paper in a coherent and logical structure. Start with an introduction that outlines your research question, followed by a literature review, methodology, findings, analysis, and conclusion. Use subheadings to break down complex sections and enhance readability.(A Guide to Writing an Anthropology Observation Paper)

• Integrating Theory and Observation:

Demonstrate a strong connection between your observations and anthropological theories. Discuss how your findings contribute to existing knowledge within the field and highlight any implications for future research or understanding of the cultural phenomenon.(A Guide to Writing an Anthropology Observation Paper)

• Writing Style and Language:

Adopt a clear and concise writing style, avoiding jargon or overly complex language. Ensure that your paper is accessible to a broad audience, not just within the academic community. Edit and revise your work for clarity, coherence, and grammatical accuracy.

In conclusion, writing an anthropology observation paper is a rewarding process that allows researchers to contribute to the understanding of human societies and cultures. By carefully selecting a research topic, conducting immersive fieldwork, and integrating theory with observation, anthropologists can produce insightful and impactful papers that contribute to the broader field of anthropology. Ethical considerations, reflexivity, and effective communication are essential components in crafting a comprehensive and compelling observation paper.

Gatt, C., & Ingold, T. (2020). From description to correspondence: Anthropology in real time. In  Design anthropology  (pp. 139-158). Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003085195-11/description-correspondence-anthropology-real-time-caroline-gatt-tim-ingold

Adler, R. H. (2022). Trustworthiness in qualitative research.  Journal of Human Lactation ,  38 (4), 598-602. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/08903344221116620

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Writing a Research Report

• Last Updated: Aug 2, 2023

Research is an integral part of anthropology , serving as a means of accumulating and enriching knowledge about human societies [1] . It is essential for anthropologists to be proficient in research report writing, as the quality of a report can significantly impact the value of the research conducted [2] .

Defining the Research Problem

The first step in writing a research report is defining the research problem. This step is crucial as it sets the direction for the rest of the research process [3] . The research problem should be clearly stated, specific, and manageable within the available resources and time frame.

Table 1: Defining the Research Problem

Conducting a Literature Review

Once the research problem is defined, a comprehensive review of existing literature on the topic is carried out. The literature review provides an overview of current knowledge, helps identify gaps, and presents opportunities for the research to contribute to the anthropological discourse [4] .

Methodology

The methodology is the backbone of the research report as it dictates how data will be collected, analyzed, and interpreted. Methodological choices in anthropology commonly include participant observation, interviews, focus groups, and the use of archival resources.

• Participant Observation : Participant observation is a traditional and widely-used method in anthropological research. It involves the researcher immersing themselves in the daily life of the group being studied, providing a nuanced and intimate understanding of the culture.
• Interviews and Focus Groups : Interviews and focus groups allow for the collection of rich, qualitative data. They provide insights into participants’ thoughts, feelings, and motivations, which may not be readily apparent from observation alone.
• Use of Archival Resources : Archival resources, such as historical documents and artifacts, can offer insights into the historical context of the group being studied.

Data Analysis

Data analysis in anthropology is largely qualitative, focused on interpreting the meanings, patterns, and themes in the data collected. Common techniques include thematic analysis, discourse analysis, and grounded theory.

Writing the Research Report

The final step in the research process is writing the research report. The report should be structured clearly and logically, presenting a coherent argument supported by evidence.

Table 2: Structure of a Research Report

In conclusion, writing an anthropological research report involves a meticulous process of defining the research problem, conducting a literature review, selecting and implementing appropriate methodologies, analyzing data, and crafting a comprehensive report. The quality of the report can greatly enhance the value and impact of the research, making it a critical skill for anthropologists.

Writing an anthropology report involves conducting research on cultural, social, or biological aspects of human life. This requires an examination of scholarly articles, fieldwork observations, or interviews. The report should include an introduction, literature review, methodology, findings, and conclusion, adhering to anthropological theories and concepts. Proper citations are essential to support the findings.

It seems like “anthropology eport” might be a typo. If referring to an anthropology report, it is a document summarizing research conducted within the field of anthropology, detailing observations, methodologies, and conclusions about human cultures and behaviors.

Anthropology generally uses the American Anthropological Association (AAA) style or the Chicago Manual of Style for writing and citations. This format includes specific guidelines for citing sources, organizing content, and presenting ideas, following a clear and consistent structure that allows readers to understand the research, arguments, and conclusions in the report.

[1] Bernard, H.R. (2011). Research Methods in Anthropology: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches .

[2] Ember, C.R., & Ember, M. (2009). Anthropology . https://doi.org/10.1177/1069397110383661

[3] Punch, K.F. (2006). Developing Effective Research Proposals .

[4] Hart, C. (1998). Doing a Literature Review .

Vasundhra, an anthropologist, embarks on a captivating journey to decode the enigmatic tapestry of human society. Fueled by an insatiable curiosity, she unravels the intricacies of social phenomena, immersing herself in the lived experiences of diverse cultures. Armed with an unwavering passion for understanding the very essence of our existence, Vasundhra fearlessly navigates the labyrinth of genetic and social complexities that shape our collective identity. Her recent publication unveils the story of the Ancient DNA field, illuminating the pervasive global North-South divide. With an irresistible blend of eloquence and scientific rigor, Vasundhra effortlessly captivates audiences, transporting them to the frontiers of anthropological exploration.

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Cultural Anthropology, Essay Example

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Introduction

Cultural anthropology relates to the study of different people and their culture, beliefs and economies.  Researchers have focused studies on both industrial and post-industrial societies. The study also embraces areas of politics and religion.  Recent studies have focused upon the political unrest in both North Africa and the Middle East.  The particular focus upon the demands of youth in these regions has had a profound impact on long held values of religion, politics, sociology and economics of the regions affected.  (Allison).

Cultural Anthropology – Influence of Youth

Youth culture has formed an important part of 20 th century anthropological research but before this time it was largely ignored.  Recent events has illustrated how modern communications like computers, cell phones, and social media sites have had a profound effect on developing youth education, awareness and forums for debate on a truly global scale.  Modernity and globalization has placed youth culture into a new sociological context as such it has increased their visibility and opinion in a modern capitalistic society.  This has resulted in the demand for increased equity and more accountability for Government actions. (Bucholtz).

The recent riots being experienced in England are a result of a disenchanted youth structure that has rallied against unemployment, lack of education and a government they feel has forsaken them in times of a severe economic downturn.  This stems beyond the social classification of hooliganism to carefully orchestrated campaigns using technology as a means to organise a sustained citizen revolt. (Mitchell).

Globalization has increased the interest in concepts of cultural anthropology.  The concepts of a more integrated and diverse set of cultures has resulted in close examination of the interaction between peoples beliefs, religions, politics and tolerances in understanding one another and ability to create international trading relationships.

Works Cited

Allison, C. Piot and A. “Cultural Anthropology & Youth.” Cultural Anthropology Vol 26 Iss 3 (2011): 1360-1548.

Bucholtz, Mary. “Youth and Cultural Practice.” Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol 31 (2002): 525-552.

Mitchell, Dan. Riots in England Are another Sign of the Looming Collapse of Europe’s Welfare States. 10 12 2010. 9 8 2011 <http://danieljmitchell.wordpress.com/2010/12/10/riots-in-england-are-another-sign-of-the-looming-collapse-of-europes-welfare-states/>.

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Extended Essay Writers

A Complete Guide to Writing Your Anthropology Extended Essay

Luke MacQuoid

In my opinion, writing an Anthropology extended essay can be both challenging and rewarding. Drawing from my experience as an expert in the International Baccalaureate intricacies, I share valuable insights and guidance to help IB students improve academically.

This article will explore the intricacies of writing an outstanding Anthropology extended essay while adhering to the general IB criteria. 

What is a Social and Cultural Anthropology Extended Essay?

The Social and Cultural Anthropology extended essay is like an in-depth research of human societies and cultures. IB students are encouraged to research different aspects of how people live and interact, moving from simple reading to asking questions, observing, and thinking critically.

This essay is a significant project where you conduct independent research and scholarship. You’ll spend around 40 hours researching primary and secondary sources and, if needed, conducting fieldwork. The goal is to assemble a formal piece of writing at most 4,000 words . In my opinion, when working on your Anthropology extended essay in IB, here’s what you should keep in mind:

• Take the lead and use your intellect to plan and carry out your research project.
• Create a clear and specific research question.
• Find and understand information from sources that match your research question.
• Make a logical argument based on the information you’ve gathered to answer your research question.
• Present your extended essay in a way that suits the subject, and give credit to your sources using the methods we’ve learned in IB.
• Use the right words and phrases for the subject, showing you understand them well.
• Apply thinking and evaluation skills that fit the subject, understanding how your research fits into the bigger picture.

So, the Anthropology extended essay offers IB students a chance to apply anthropological principles to real-world issues. It nurtures research skills and cultural sensitivity. By choosing an engaging topic and getting into the research process, you can easily succeed in this component of the IB Diploma Programme .

How to Write Anthropology Extended Essay: Choosing the Best Topic

Choosing a topic you are genuinely passionate about is crucial to your Anthropology extended essay. From my experience as an IB writer, I know that your enthusiasm for the issue will be a driving force in your research and writing process.

When you’re passionate about a topic, you’re more likely to stick with it over time. Your enthusiasm will help you stay motivated through the extended essay’s research and writing stages. Sometimes, your personal experiences or interests align with a particular topic. This emotional connection can add depth and authenticity to your essay.

Here are some examples of compelling Anthropology topics :

• The Impact of Cultural Relativism on Anthropological Research
• Rituals and Symbolism in Indigenous Societies
• Gender Roles and Power Dynamics in Tribal Communities
• The Influence of Globalization on Indigenous Languages
• Cultural Appropriation in the Fashion Industry
• Traditional Healing Practices and Modern Medicine
• Cultural Perceptions of Death and Afterlife
• Migration and its Effects on Cultural Identity
• Cultural Significance of Food and Cuisine
• Music and Dance as Expressions of Cultural Identity
• Social Media and Changing Communication Patterns in Indigenous Communities
• Environmental Conservation and Indigenous Knowledge
• Cultural Responses to Climate Change
• The Role of Religion in Shaping Cultural Beliefs and Practices
• Indigenous Art as a Form of Cultural Preservation

So, picking a topic you are interested in can significantly enhance your experience writing your Anthropology extended essay. It will ensure you stay motivated, conduct thorough research, and produce quality work. Also, remember that the issues of Anthropology and racism are both relevant and significant in today’s world.

You can check out some Anthropology extended essay examples if you want more inspiration in choosing a relevant topic.

Research and Planning: The Foundation of Anthropology Extended Essay

Now, let’s move to the crucial research and planning phase. As far as I know, according to general IB criteria, thorough research is the bedrock for an outstanding extended essay in Anthropology. 

Use Only Reputable Sources

It’s not just about conducting research; it’s about using reliable and credible sources . In my work, I get into reputable academic journals, books, and databases specific to Anthropology. It will ensure the information you gather is of high quality and relevant to your topic:

• Look for peer-reviewed Anthropology journals such as “ American Anthropologist ” or “ Cultural Anthropology .”
• Find books authored by renowned anthropologists like Margaret Mead, Claude Lévi-Strauss, or Clifford Geertz.
• Your school or local university library can be a goldmine of anthropological resources.
• Check websites and publications from professional anthropological associations like the American Anthropological Association (AAA).
• Museums dedicated to Anthropology often have resources related to their collections and exhibitions.

While focusing on Anthropology-specific sources is vital, feel free to broaden your horizons. Check out interdisciplinary materials that offer unique perspectives on your chosen topic. Sometimes, insights from related fields can enrich your research.

State a Well-Defined Research Question

You must formulate a well-defined research question for a robust and compelling essay . This question should serve as your guiding star throughout the work. Here’s some more information to help you in this critical step:

• Your research question should be crystal clear and precise. Avoid vague or overly broad inquiries. Instead, narrow it down to a specific aspect of your topic that you can thoroughly investigate.
• Consider the relevance and significance of your research question. Ask yourself, “Why does this question matter in the context of Anthropology?” I believe the best research questions address real issues or gaps in knowledge within the field.
• Feel free to consult with your supervisor during this process. They can offer valuable guidance and help ensure that your research question aligns with the expectations of the extended essay.

Remember, your research question is the cornerstone of your work, guiding your investigation and analysis. Stating it thoughtfully and precisely is crucial to success in your Anthropology extended essay.

Structure of the IB Extended Essay: Social Cultural Anthropology

The structure of your essay is critical. It serves as a framework that helps you organize your argument effectively and use the evidence you’ve gathered best. Here are the essential elements that must be included in your Anthropology extended essay:

• Title Page . It is the first page of your essay and contains essential information such as the title, name, essay number, and date.
• Abstract . It’s a concise summary of your essay’s main points and findings. It’s usually a short paragraph that gives readers an overview of what to expect.
• Table of Contents . It outlines the structure of your paper, listing the sections and their corresponding page numbers.
• Introduction . It is where you introduce your topic and present a clear thesis statement. It sets the stage for the rest of your paper.
• Body (Development/Methods/Results) . It is the heart of your paper. The body paragraphs provide details of your research, including the methods you used and the results you obtained. Each section of the body should flow logically from one to the next.
• Conclusion . This part summarizes the main points and findings of your paper. It’s your chance to reinforce your thesis statement and leave your readers with a clear understanding of the significance of your research.
• References and Bibliography . This section lists all the sources you’ve used in your research. It’s important to follow your chosen academic referencing system consistently.

The appendices are optional but can include additional information supporting your paper, such as charts, graphs, or other data. Consider using such details in your Anthropology extended essay.

Need help with your IB extended essay?

From research and analysis to structuring and editing, our skilled mentors will be by your side, helping you craft an exceptional extended essay that not only meets the wordcount and stringent IB criteria but also reflects your passion for selected IB group .

If you have trouble writing an extended essay at the very beginning, don’t despair! Our experienced IB writers are ready to help you!

International Baccalaureate Extended Essay in Anthropology: Final Touches

As you approach the final stages of your IB extended essay in Anthropology, it’s time to add those finishing touches that will make your work stand out.

Proper Citations and Referencing Styles

From my experience, proper citations and referencing are vital to avoiding plagiarism and maintaining academic integrity. You should choose a specific citation style like APA or MLA and make sure it’s consistently applied throughout your essay. It meets academic standards and adds a professional touch to your work. Remember, citing your sources is like crediting those who contributed to the construction of your essay.

Maintaining Clarity and Originality

Avoid repeating the same phrases repeatedly, like “release” or “initiate,” when discussing your findings. It’s crucial to keep your writing clear, fresh, and original. In my opinion, this makes your essay more engaging and demonstrates your ability to communicate your ideas effectively. Think of your essay as a unique piece of art where your words and ideas should shine.

Self-Editing Techniques

Lastly, don’t underestimate the power of self-editing and seeking peer review. It’s like polishing a gem to make it shine even brighter. Such techniques can significantly enhance the quality of your essay. Look for common errors, ensure your writing is clear and concise, and check for inconsistencies. Seeking input from peers or mentors can provide valuable insights and suggestions for improvement.

To wrap it up, creating an Anthropology extended essay that meets the rigorous IB criteria requires careful planning and skillful execution. Following our guidelines, you can write exceptional work that achieves a high grade. And remember that your passion for the subject will undoubtedly shine through, leading to a remarkable essay in Social Cultural Anthropology that you can be proud of!

Luke MacQuoid has extensive experience teaching English as a foreign language in Japan, having worked with students of all ages for over 12 years. Currently, he is teaching at the tertiary level. Luke holds a BA from the University of Sussex and an MA in TESOL from Lancaster University, both located in England. As well to his work as an IB Examiner and Master Tutor, Luke also enjoys sharing his experiences and insights with others through writing articles for various websites, including extendedessaywriters.com blog

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Anthropology Essay Topics

Anthropology Essay Topics for Everyone: 150 Interesting Ideas

15 min read

Published on: May 5, 2023

Last updated on: Jan 30, 2024

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Many students struggle to come up with interesting anthropology essay topics that can help them earn top grades.

Without a good topic, students may feel stuck and uninspired, resulting in subpar essays.

We have created a list of 150 anthropology essay topics. These topics are comprehensive and cover a wide range of interesting and thought-provoking subjects.

Whether you're new to anthropology or a seasoned expert, our list has something for everyone. So, let's dive in and explore the richness of human culture together!

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Anthropology Research Topics

• The impact of cultural beliefs on healthcare practices: a cross-cultural comparison
• The role of gender in shaping cultural norms and practices
• Cultural anthropology of food: exploring the cultural significance of food and its consumption
• The influence of globalization on indigenous cultures and traditions
• The use of technology in cultural preservation and revitalization efforts
• The anthropology of religion: examining the role of religion in shaping cultural beliefs and practices
• The impact of migration and immigration on cultural identity and practices
• Anthropology of education: exploring the intersection of culture and learning
• The role of language in cultural identity and preservation
• The anthropology of art: examining the relationship between culture and artistic expression.

Biology Anthropology Research Topics

• The impact of genetics on human behavior and culture
• The evolution of human physical traits: examining the role of natural selection
• The genetics of human diversity: exploring the relationship between genes and cultural identity
• The biological basis of race: examining the social construction of race and its biological implications
• The impact of environmental factors on human genetics and evolution
• The anthropology of infectious diseases: exploring the intersection of biology and culture in disease transmission
• The role of epigenetics in shaping human behavior and cultural practices
• The anthropology of aging: examining the biological and cultural aspects of aging
• The influence of nutrition on human biology and culture
• The anthropology of sleep: exploring the biological and cultural aspects of sleep and its impact on health and wellbeing

Ethnographic Anthropology Research Topics

• Ethnography of social media: exploring the impact of online communities on culture and identity
• The anthropology of tourism: examining the cultural and economic implications of tourism on host communities
• Ethnography of urban spaces: exploring the cultural dynamics of urbanization
• The anthropology of sport: examining the cultural significance of sports and athletic competitions
• Ethnographic approaches to understanding mental health and illness
• The anthropology of migration: exploring the cultural dynamics of migration and displacement
• The ethnography of music: examining the cultural and social significance of music
• Ethnographic approaches to understanding gender and sexuality
• The anthropology of fashion: exploring the cultural significance of clothing and fashion trends
• Ethnographic approaches to understanding political and social movements

Paper Due? Why Suffer? That's our Job!

Cultural Anthropology Research Topics

• The anthropology of cultural identity: exploring how individuals and groups define themselves through culture
• The anthropology of social inequality: examining the relationship between culture and social stratification
• The anthropology of language: exploring the relationship between language and culture
• The impact of colonialism on indigenous cultures and traditions
• The anthropology of ritual and ceremony: examining the cultural significance of ceremonial practices
• The anthropology of kinship and family: exploring the cultural dynamics of familial relationships
• The anthropology of art and aesthetics: examining the cultural and social significance of artistic expression
• The anthropology of gender and sexuality: exploring cultural constructions of gender and sexuality
• The anthropology of economics: examining the cultural and social dynamics of economic systems
• The anthropology of power and politics: exploring the cultural and social dimensions of power and authority

Physical Anthropology Research Topics

• The evolution of bipedalism: examining the anatomical and physiological adaptations necessary for walking on two legs
• The genetics of human diversity: exploring the relationship between genes and physical traits
• The anthropology of human origins: examining the fossil record and genetic evidence for human evolution
• The impact of environmental factors on human physical adaptation and evolution
• The anthropology of diet and nutrition: exploring the impact of food on human physical health and evolution
• The anthropology of anatomy and physiology: examining the anatomical and physiological variations across human populations
• The anthropology of human growth and development: exploring the physical changes that occur from infancy through adulthood
• The anthropology of primates: examining the similarities and differences between humans and other primates
• The impact of culture on physical health and wellbeing
• The anthropology of forensic science: exploring the use of physical anthropology in criminal investigations

Medical Anthropology Research Topics

• The anthropology of Healthcare systems: examining the cultural and social dimensions of Healthcare practices
• The anthropology of mental health and illness: exploring cultural constructions of mental health and illness
• The impact of globalization on health and healthcare practices
• The anthropology of aging: examining the cultural and social dimensions of aging and healthcare
• The anthropology of traditional medicine: exploring the role of traditional healing practices in modern healthcare systems
• The anthropology of disability: examining cultural constructions of disability and its impact on healthcare practices
• The anthropology of reproductive health: exploring cultural constructions of sexuality and reproduction
• The anthropology of addiction: examining cultural constructions of substance use and addiction.

Forensic Anthropology Essay Topics

• The use of forensic anthropology in criminal investigations
• The identification of human remains using forensic anthropology techniques
• Forensic anthropology and human rights: the role of anthropology in investigating human rights abuses
• The ethics of using forensic anthropology in criminal investigations
• The use of forensic anthropology to estimate the time of death
• The use of forensic anthropology to identify victims of mass disasters
• The impact of trauma on human skeletal remains: an anthropological perspective
• The use of forensic anthropology in mass graves investigations
• The role of forensic anthropology in identifying missing persons
• Forensic anthropology and DNA analysis: exploring the relationship between anthropology and genetics in criminal investigations

Interesting Anthropology Research Topics

• The anthropology of happiness: exploring the cultural and social factors that contribute to happiness
• The relationship between culture and mental health: an anthropological perspective
• The anthropology of laughter: exploring the social and cultural significance of humor
• The anthropology of play: examining the cultural and social significance of play and leisure activities
• The role of anthropology in addressing global health challenges
• The anthropology of death: exploring cultural attitudes and beliefs surrounding death and dying
• The anthropology of love and relationships: examining cultural norms and practices related to love and romance
• The impact of climate change on human cultures and traditions
• The anthropology of conspiracy theories: exploring the social and cultural factors that contribute to the spread of conspiracy theories

Good Anthropology Research Topics

• The anthropology of globalization: examining the cultural and social implications of globalization
• The role of anthropology in understanding human diversity and cultural differences
• The anthropology of war: exploring the cultural and social factors that contribute to conflict and violence
• The intersection of anthropology and environmental studies: examining the relationship between culture and the natural world
• The anthropology of technology: exploring the cultural and social implications of technological innovations
• The anthropology of race and racism: examining the social construction of race and its impact on culture and society
• The anthropology of childhood: exploring the cultural and social aspects of childhood and childrearing practices
• The anthropology of work and labor: examining the cultural and social factors that shape the world of work
• The anthropology of aging: exploring the cultural and social aspects of aging and eldercare practices.

Popular Anthropology Research Topics

• The anthropology of tattoos: exploring the cultural significance of body art
• The anthropology of social media influencers: examining the cultural impact of social media personalities
• The impact of popular culture on cultural beliefs and practices
• The anthropology of conspiracy theories: examining the cultural and social dynamics of conspiracy beliefs
• The impact of technology on cultural practices and identities
• The anthropology of celebrity culture: exploring the cultural significance of celebrity status
• The impact of pop music on cultural identity and practices
• The anthropology of gaming: examining the cultural dynamics of gaming communities
• The impact of memes on cultural practices and identities

Exceptional Anthropology Research Topics

• The anthropology of space exploration: examining the cultural and social implications of space travel
• The intersection of anthropology and neuroscience: exploring the relationship between brain and culture
• The anthropology of artificial intelligence: examining the cultural and social implications of AI technologies
• The anthropology of psychedelics: exploring the cultural and social significance of psychedelic drugs
• The anthropology of time: examining the cultural and social dynamics of time perception and management
• The anthropology of death and dying: exploring cultural beliefs and practices surrounding death
• The anthropology of sensory perception: examining the role of the senses in shaping cultural practices and identities
• The anthropology of the future: exploring the cultural and social implications of future technologies and trends
• The anthropology of the human microbiome: examining the relationship between gut bacteria and cultural practices and beliefs

Anthropology Research Topics For Exam

• The anthropology of race: examining the social and cultural construction of race
• The anthropology of gender: exploring the cultural and social dynamics of gender
• The anthropology of language: examining the role of language in shaping cultural practices and identities
• The anthropology of kinship and family: exploring cultural attitudes towards kinship and family relationships
• The anthropology of religion: examining the cultural and social dynamics of religious beliefs and practices
• The anthropology of ritual and symbolism: exploring the cultural significance of rituals and symbols
• The anthropology of identity: examining the cultural and social dynamics of identity formation
• The anthropology of power and inequality: exploring cultural attitudes towards power and inequality
• The anthropology of globalization: examining the cultural and social implications of globalization on human cultures and traditions.

Anthropology Argumentative Essay Topics

• Should cultural appropriation be considered a form of intellectual theft?
• Should human remains be repatriated to their countries of origin?
• Should anthropology be considered a science or a humanities discipline?
• Should anthropologists be politically engaged in their research subjects' struggles?
• The impact of colonialism on the culture and identity of indigenous peoples:
• Was it primarily destructive or transformative?
• Should museums return these remains to the communities they were taken from?
• The role of religion in shaping cultural practices and beliefs: Does religion reinforce or challenge dominant social norms?
• Has globalization led to the erosion or revitalization of traditional cultures?
• Is gender a socially constructed concept, or is it biologically determined?
• Do race and ethnicity divide us, or can they be a source of unity and diversity?

Anthropology Extended Essay Topics

• Exploring the role of symbolism in cultural practices and traditions
• The relationship between migration and cultural identity
• The impact of tourism on cultural preservation and revitalization efforts
• An analysis of cultural hybridity and its implications for cultural identity
• The anthropology of aging: examining the cultural and biological aspects of aging
• The impact of social media on cultural identity and communication
• An analysis of cultural relativism in contemporary anthropology
• The anthropology of emotions: exploring the cultural construction of emotions
• An ethnographic study of a particular subculture or community
• The impact of globalization on cultural diversity and identity

Linguistic Anthropology Essay Topics

• Language and power: exploring the relationship between language and social hierarchy
• The role of language in shaping cultural identity and practices
• The anthropology of multilingualism: examining the impact of speaking multiple languages
• The influence of technology on language and communication
• The anthropology of sign language: exploring the cultural and linguistic aspects of sign languages
• The anthropology of language revitalization: exploring efforts to preserve endangered languages
• The impact of language barriers on access to healthcare and social services
• The anthropology of dialects: examining the cultural and linguistic aspects of dialect variation
• An analysis of language contact and its implications for linguistic and cultural diversity
• The anthropology of translation: exploring the cultural and linguistic implications of translation and interpretation

Anthropology Of Gender Essay Topics

• The social construction of gender: exploring the intersection of culture and biology
• Gender and sexuality in non-Western cultures: a comparative analysis
• The anthropology of masculinity: examining the cultural construction of masculinity and its impact on men's lives
• The impact of gender-based violence on women's health and wellbeing
• The anthropology of queer culture: exploring the cultural and social aspects of LGBTQ+ communities
• Gender and development: examining the impact of development policies on gender relations and equality
• The anthropology of gender and work: exploring the intersection of gender and labor
• The impact of gender stereotypes on children's socialization and development
• The anthropology of gender and politics: exploring the role of gender in political processes and systems
• The impact of intersectionality on the experiences of gender and sexuality in different cultural contexts.

Anthropology Essay Prompts

• How has globalization impacted traditional cultures and communities, and what are some of the potential consequences of these changes?
• Discuss the relationship between language and culture, and how linguistic diversity impacts human societies.
• Analyze the role of kinship systems in shaping social organization and relationships in different cultures.
• What are the key principles of cultural relativism, and why is this perspective important in anthropology research?
• Evaluate the concept of race as a social construct, and discuss the ways in which racial categorization has impacted societies and individuals throughout history.
• Compare and contrast the cultural and social practices of two different societies, and analyze the underlying values and beliefs that shape these practices.
• Discuss the relationship between gender and power in different cultures, and how gender roles are constructed and maintained.
• Analyze the impact of colonialism on indigenous cultures and societies, and discuss the ways in which these legacies continue to shape contemporary issues.
• Evaluate the role of food in shaping cultural practices and identity, and how foodways can be used to understand different societies.
• Discuss the ethical considerations and challenges associated with conducting ethnographic research, and how researchers can navigate these challenges in a responsible and respectful manner.

How to Choose a Perfect Topic for Your Anthropology Essay

Choosing the right topic is crucial to writing a successful anthropology essay. These tips can help you. They can help you narrow down your options. 

You can find a topic that interests you. It should also meet the requirements of your assignment.

Here are a few tips to help you chose a topic : 

Identify your interests: Start by identifying your personal interests in anthropology. This can be anything from language and culture to gender studies or archaeology.

Consider the scope: Once you have identified your interests, consider the scope of the topic you want to explore. Is it too broad or too narrow for the assignment? Make sure to choose a topic that is neither too general nor too specific.

Read broadly: Read widely on your topic to get a sense of the different perspectives and debates within the field. This will help you to refine your topic and focus your research.

Consult with your instructor: If you are unsure about a topic or need guidance, consult with your instructor. They can provide feedback and suggest resources to help you develop your topic.

Follow these tips to choose a perfect topic for your anthropology essay. Make sure it is interesting and relevant to your assignment.

Anthropology Essay Questions And Answers

What is cultural relativism in anthropology.

Cultural relativism is the perspective that cultural beliefs and practices should be understood within their own cultural context.

H3- What is the significance of ethnographic research in anthropology?

Ethnographic research is a qualitative research method used to understand the culture and social practices of a specific community. It is a fundamental tool for anthropologists to gain an in-depth understanding of the lives of the people they study.

What is the relationship between language and culture?

Language is a central aspect of culture, as it is the primary tool for communication of cultural values from one generation to the next.

What is the difference between gender and sex?

Sex refers to biological differences between males and females, while gender refers to the cultural and social roles and expectations associated with being male or female.

What is the role of anthropology in studying globalization?

Anthropology plays an important role in studying globalization. It helps to understand the cultural, social, and economic implications of globalization on diverse communities around the world.

What are some challenges associated with conducting ethnographic research?

Some challenges of ethnographic research include 

• gaining the trust of the community being studied, 
• overcoming language and cultural barriers, 
• managing ethical concerns related to research participation and informed consent.

What is the concept of social stratification in anthropology?

Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups within a society based on factors such as wealth, power, and social status.

What is the significance of kinship systems in anthropology?

Kinship systems are important in anthropology as they help to understand the ways in which individuals and families are related to each other.

What is the concept of cultural imperialism?

Cultural imperialism refers to the imposition of a dominant culture over a subordinate culture. It can be done through cultural means such as media, education, and economic power.

What is the importance of reflexivity in anthropology research?

Reflexivity helps to acknowledge the researcher's positionality and the potential biases that may influence their research. It encourages critical reflection on the research process and its outcomes.

In conclusion, choosing the right topic for your anthropology essay is essential to writing a successful and engaging paper. Remember: the topic you choose will affect the direction of your research and the success of your essay. 

However, if you need additional help with your anthropology essay, consider using our anthropology essay writing service . Our team of experts can provide you with high-quality, custom-written essays that meet the requirements of your assignment. 

With our AI writing tool , you can trust that your essay will be in good hands. 

Visit our custom essay service  today to learn more and get started on your custom anthropology essay.

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75 Pop Culture Topics for Essays and Research Papers

Table of Contents

Are you searching for excellent pop culture topics for your academic work? If yes, then this blog will be helpful to you. Especially, for the convenience of students like you, here, we have presented an amazing list of 75 unique pop culture essay topics and research ideas. With subjects ranging from fashion and music to movies and social media, the topics we have recommended here will guarantee you to engage your readers. In addition to the list of pop culture ideas for discussion, we have also explained how to write an effective pop culture paper.

Continue reading this blog and get exclusive topic ideas on pop culture for academic writing.

What is Pop Culture?

Popular Culture or ‘Pop Culture’ refers to the material culture and tradition followed by a particular society. It is mainly transmitted to the younger generation via mass media. Mostly, pop culture focuses on cultural products like film, art, music, dance, literature, cyberculture, radio, and television that are consumed by a lot of society’s population. Essentially, popular culture is a set of values, beliefs, actions, objects, and practices that are popular during a specific time and space in society.

An Overview of Pop Culture Writing

If you are a student, then in your school or college, you may get a chance to deal with pop culture writing. In general, pop culture writing refers to the practice of studying, criticizing, and discussing many aspects of popular culture in written form. It covers a wide spectrum of current popular trends, such as movies, music, television shows, fashion, celebrities, internet phenomena, and more.

Steps for Writing a Pop Culture Paper

Are you unsure how to write an essay or a research paper on pop culture topics? If yes, then follow these pop culture paper writing steps.

• Choose a relevant and intriguing pop culture topic that is interesting to you. It could be a certain film, television show, music genre, celebrity, or social media trend.
• Develop a precise and short thesis statement that summarizes your major argument or point for your article. Your thesis should be targeted and present a specific viewpoint on the chosen topic.
• Organize your ideas and create a neat outline for your essay.
• Next, begin writing your academic paper with an engaging introduction that provides background information on your topic and states your thesis statement.
• After the introduction, compose the body section. In the body paragraphs, present your analysis and back it up with evidence from your research. Furthermore, consider alternative perspectives and interpretations of your pop culture topic. Address the counterarguments as well. Make sure the ideas in your essay flow naturally from one paragraph to another. Add easy transitions between concepts and open each body paragraph with a clear topic sentence.
• At the end of the paper, include a conclusion paragraph. The conclusion should summarize your important points and restate your thesis.
• According to the given essay writing guidelines, format the citations, references, and overall structure of the paper.
• Lastly, after you complete writing your academic paper, check your paper for grammar, spelling, and punctuation issues. Also, validate the clarity, coherence, and consistency of your ideas. If everything looks perfect, then you may go ahead and submit the paper.

List of Top Pop Culture Topics for Academic Writing

For writing an academic paper, a good topic is essential. If you have no idea what topic to choose for your pop culture paper, then without any hesitation, explore the list presented below. In the list, we have shared exciting popular culture topics for essays and research papers.

Also Read: 200+ Excellent Research Paper Topics of 2023

Simple Pop Culture Topics for Essays

• Explain how technology affects pop culture.
• Examine the impact of popular culture on consumer behavior.
• Describe the role of fandom in pop culture.
• Discuss the impact of K-pop culture on fashion.
• Examine the correlation between mass media and pop culture in the U.S.
• Discuss how globalization affects pop culture.
• Compare folk culture and pop culture.
• Is TikTok a part of modern pop culture?
• Focus on the radio stations that contribute to pop culture in the past.
• Discuss the types of pop culture topics that mass media ignore to broadcast.

Interesting Pop Culture Essay Ideas

• Investigate how fandom culture varies around the world.
• Discover the roots of the US pop culture.
• Explain how politics influence pop culture.
• Prepare an essay on a specific period of American pop culture.
• Write about American fast food as a part of pop culture.
• Explain how pop culture categorized social groups.
• Examine how popular culture affects public health.
• Analyze a pop culture artifact that you are interested in.
• Examine the contribution of YouTube to the pop culture.
• Explain how the 2020 pandemic influenced pop culture.
• Talk about the lessons that pop culture teaches about gender.
• Explain how pop culture portrays religion.
• Explore the different popular culture issues.
• Explain how memes influence public opinion.
• Examine the impact of TV shows on self-realization among teenagers.

Also Read: 130 Excellent Agriculture Research Topics

Engaging Pop Culture Topics for Research

• Analyze how pop culture unites American citizens.
• Examine how cultural appropriation affects media.
• Explain the impact of pop culture on gender imbalance.
• Write about influential online news resources.
• Examine the effect of pop culture on the morality of teenagers.
• Investigate the influence of pop culture in eradicating terrorism.
• Focus on the contribution of pop culture in promoting women’s rights.
• Examine the ethical issues related to pop culture.
• Prepare a research paper on the representation of pop culture superheroes in society.
• Discuss the impact of pop culture on technology adoption.
• Examine the challenges related to the trends in pop culture.
• Discuss the effects of pop culture in promoting the fashion industry.
• Analyze how pop culture changes with social events.
• Examine the differences between men and women in pop culture.
• Explain how music shapes a generation.

Captivating Pop Culture Essay Questions

• Discuss the significance of pop culture in eradicating stereotypes.
• Analyze the impact of pop culture on community practices.
• Write about the importance of radio in modern popular culture.
• Explain how pop culture trends affect intercultural relations around the US.
• Examine the influence of nostalgia in pop culture.
• Discuss the impact of travel on pop culture.
• Explore the cultural appropriation debate in the fashion and music industries.
• Analyze the rise of hip-hop music in popular culture.
• Discuss the cultural significance of reality TV shows in modern society.
• Explore the rise of streaming platforms and the decline of cable TV.
• Examine the role of social media challenges in teenage peer pressure.
• Discuss the impact of video game violence on aggressive behavior.
• Explore the influence of social media on beauty standards.
• Analyze how mental health is portrayed in popular media.
• Examine the impact of streaming platforms on the music industry.

Trending Pop Culture Research Paper Topics

• Examine how the American pop culture reflects its historical values.
• Discuss the influence of skateboarding on pop culture.
• Discuss the visions of cyberpunk culture.
• Analyze modern interpretations of fairy tales in popular culture.
• Examine the significance of contemporary tattoo culture.
• Analyze the representation of subcultures in modern films.
• Explore the influence of the British on American pop culture.
• Analyze and write about cancel culture.
• Discuss the cultural impact of mobile gaming trends.
• Focus on the Anime’s influence on global pop culture.

Latest Pop Culture Topics for Academic Papers

• Examine the influence of pop culture on modern advertising strategies.
• Explain the influence of digital media on fashion trends in pop culture.
• Analyze the influence of pop culture on language evolution.
• Write about the sneaker culture within the music industry.
• Examine the role of pop culture iconography in classrooms.
• Analyze the influence of science fiction on popular culture.
• Discuss the influence of Greek Mythology in contemporary pop culture.
• Examine the correlation between sports and popular culture.
• Analyze the portrayal of LGBTQ+ representation in films and TV shows.
• Examine the influence of pop culture on modern education systems.

Wrapping Up

From the list suggested above, choose any topic of your choice and compose a brilliant pop culture paper. In case, you require any other pop culture ideas for your academic work or if you need help with writing your essay or research paper on popular culture topics, call us right away.

On our platform, we have plenty of talented academic writers from diverse fields to offer help with paper topic selection, writing, and editing. Particularly, by using their expertise, they will assist you in completing your pop culture assignments on time in the way you want. Moreover, getting our assignment help online will aid you in submitting plagiarism-free pop culture papers on time and scoring top grades.

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Guest Essay

A.I.-Generated Garbage Is Polluting Our Culture

By Erik Hoel

Mr. Hoel is a neuroscientist and novelist and the author of The Intrinsic Perspective newsletter.

Increasingly, mounds of synthetic A.I.-generated outputs drift across our feeds and our searches. The stakes go far beyond what’s on our screens. The entire culture is becoming affected by A.I.’s runoff, an insidious creep into our most important institutions.

Consider science. Right after the blockbuster release of GPT-4, the latest artificial intelligence model from OpenAI and one of the most advanced in existence, the language of scientific research began to mutate. Especially within the field of A.I. itself.

Adjectives associated with A.I.-generated text have increased in peer reviews of scientific papers about A.I.

Frequency of adjectives per one million words

Commendable

A study published this month examined scientists’ peer reviews — researchers’ official pronouncements on others’ work that form the bedrock of scientific progress — across a number of high-profile and prestigious scientific conferences studying A.I. At one such conference, those peer reviews used the word “meticulous” more than 34 times as often as reviews did the previous year. Use of “commendable” was around 10 times as frequent, and “intricate,” 11 times. Other major conferences showed similar patterns.

Such phrasings are, of course, some of the favorite buzzwords of modern large language models like ChatGPT. In other words, significant numbers of researchers at A.I. conferences were caught handing their peer review of others’ work over to A.I. — or, at minimum, writing them with lots of A.I. assistance. And the closer to the deadline the submitted reviews were received, the more A.I. usage was found in them.

If this makes you uncomfortable — especially given A.I.’s current unreliability — or if you think that maybe it shouldn’t be A.I.s reviewing science but the scientists themselves, those feelings highlight the paradox at the core of this technology: It’s unclear what the ethical line is between scam and regular usage. Some A.I.-generated scams are easy to identify, like the medical journal paper featuring a cartoon rat sporting enormous genitalia. Many others are more insidious, like the mislabeled and hallucinated regulatory pathway described in that same paper — a paper that was peer reviewed as well (perhaps, one might speculate, by another A.I.?).

What about when A.I. is used in one of its intended ways — to assist with writing? Recently, there was an uproar when it became obvious that simple searches of scientific databases returned phrases like “As an A.I. language model” in places where authors relying on A.I. had forgotten to cover their tracks. If the same authors had simply deleted those accidental watermarks, would their use of A.I. to write their papers have been fine?

What’s going on in science is a microcosm of a much bigger problem. Post on social media? Any viral post on X now almost certainly includes A.I.-generated replies, from summaries of the original post to reactions written in ChatGPT’s bland Wikipedia-voice, all to farm for follows. Instagram is filling up with A.I.-generated models, Spotify with A.I.-generated songs. Publish a book? Soon after, on Amazon there will often appear A.I.-generated “workbooks” for sale that supposedly accompany your book (which are incorrect in their content; I know because this happened to me). Top Google search results are now often A.I.-generated images or articles. Major media outlets like Sports Illustrated have been creating A.I.-generated articles attributed to equally fake author profiles. Marketers who sell search engine optimization methods openly brag about using A.I. to create thousands of spammed articles to steal traffic from competitors.

Then there is the growing use of generative A.I. to scale the creation of cheap synthetic videos for children on YouTube. Some example outputs are Lovecraftian horrors, like music videos about parrots in which the birds have eyes within eyes, beaks within beaks, morphing unfathomably while singing in an artificial voice, “The parrot in the tree says hello, hello!” The narratives make no sense, characters appear and disappear randomly, and basic facts like the names of shapes are wrong. After I identified a number of such suspicious channels on my newsletter, The Intrinsic Perspective, Wired found evidence of generative A.I. use in the production pipelines of some accounts with hundreds of thousands or even millions of subscribers.

As a neuroscientist, this worries me. Isn’t it possible that human culture contains within it cognitive micronutrients — things like cohesive sentences, narrations and character continuity — that developing brains need? Einstein supposedly said : “If you want your children to be intelligent, read them fairy tales. If you want them to be very intelligent, read them more fairy tales.” But what happens when a toddler is consuming mostly A.I.-generated dream-slop? We find ourselves in the midst of a vast developmental experiment.

There’s so much synthetic garbage on the internet now that A.I. companies and researchers are themselves worried, not about the health of the culture, but about what’s going to happen with their models. As A.I. capabilities ramped up in 2022, I wrote on the risk of culture’s becoming so inundated with A.I. creations that when future A.I.s are trained, the previous A.I. output will leak into the training set, leading to a future of copies of copies of copies, as content became ever more stereotyped and predictable. In 2023 researchers introduced a technical term for how this risk affected A.I. training: model collapse . In a way, we and these companies are in the same boat, paddling through the same sludge streaming into our cultural ocean.

With that unpleasant analogy in mind, it’s worth looking to what is arguably the clearest historical analogy for our current situation: the environmental movement and climate change. For just as companies and individuals were driven to pollute by the inexorable economics of it, so, too, is A.I.’s cultural pollution driven by a rational decision to fill the internet’s voracious appetite for content as cheaply as possible. While environmental problems are nowhere near solved, there has been undeniable progress that has kept our cities mostly free of smog and our lakes mostly free of sewage. How?

Before any specific policy solution was the acknowledgment that environmental pollution was a problem in need of outside legislation. Influential to this view was a perspective developed in 1968 by Garrett Hardin, a biologist and ecologist. Dr. Hardin emphasized that the problem of pollution was driven by people acting in their own interest, and that therefore “we are locked into a system of ‘fouling our own nest,’ so long as we behave only as independent, rational, free-enterprisers.” He summed up the problem as a “tragedy of the commons.” This framing was instrumental for the environmental movement, which would come to rely on government regulation to do what companies alone could or would not.

Once again we find ourselves enacting a tragedy of the commons: short-term economic self-interest encourages using cheap A.I. content to maximize clicks and views, which in turn pollutes our culture and even weakens our grasp on reality. And so far, major A.I. companies are refusing to pursue advanced ways to identify A.I.’s handiwork — which they could do by adding subtle statistical patterns hidden in word use or in the pixels of images.

A common justification for inaction is that human editors can always fiddle around with whatever patterns are used if they know enough. Yet many of the issues we’re experiencing are not caused by motivated and technically skilled malicious actors; they’re caused mostly by regular users’ not adhering to a line of ethical use so fine as to be nigh nonexistent. Most would be uninterested in advanced countermeasures to statistical patterns enforced into outputs that should, ideally, mark them as A.I.-generated.

That’s why the independent researchers were able to detect A.I. outputs in the peer review system with surprisingly high accuracy: They actually tried. Similarly, right now teachers across the nation have created home-brewed output-side detection methods , like adding hidden requests for patterns of word use to essay prompts that appear only when copied and pasted.

In particular, A.I. companies appear opposed to any patterns baked into their output that can improve A.I.-detection efforts to reasonable levels, perhaps because they fear that enforcing such patterns might interfere with the model’s performance by constraining its outputs too much — although there is no current evidence this is a risk. Despite public pledges to develop more advanced watermarking, it’s increasingly clear that the companies are dragging their feet because it goes against the A.I. industry’s bottom line to have detectable products.

To deal with this corporate refusal to act we need the equivalent of a Clean Air Act: a Clean Internet Act. Perhaps the simplest solution would be to legislatively force advanced watermarking intrinsic to generated outputs, like patterns not easily removable. Just as the 20th century required extensive interventions to protect the shared environment, the 21st century is going to require extensive interventions to protect a different, but equally critical, common resource, one we haven’t noticed up until now since it was never under threat: our shared human culture.

Erik Hoel is a neuroscientist, a novelist and the author of The Intrinsic Perspective newsletter.

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

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