research report based on the data below

Research report guide: Definition, types, and tips

Last updated

5 March 2024

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From successful product launches or software releases to planning major business decisions, research reports serve many vital functions. They can summarize evidence and deliver insights and recommendations to save companies time and resources. They can reveal the most value-adding actions a company should take.

However, poorly constructed reports can have the opposite effect! Taking the time to learn established research-reporting rules and approaches will equip you with in-demand skills. You’ll be able to capture and communicate information applicable to numerous situations and industries, adding another string to your resume bow.

• What are research reports?

A research report is a collection of contextual data, gathered through organized research, that provides new insights into a particular challenge (which, for this article, is business-related). Research reports are a time-tested method for distilling large amounts of data into a narrow band of focus.

Their effectiveness often hinges on whether the report provides:

Strong, well-researched evidence

Comprehensive analysis

Well-considered conclusions and recommendations

Though the topic possibilities are endless, an effective research report keeps a laser-like focus on the specific questions or objectives the researcher believes are key to achieving success. Many research reports begin as research proposals, which usually include the need for a report to capture the findings of the study and recommend a course of action.

A description of the research method used, e.g., qualitative, quantitative, or other

Statistical analysis

Causal (or explanatory) research (i.e., research identifying relationships between two variables)

Inductive research, also known as ‘theory-building’

Deductive research, such as that used to test theories

Action research, where the research is actively used to drive change

• Importance of a research report

Research reports can unify and direct a company's focus toward the most appropriate strategic action. Of course, spending resources on a report takes up some of the company's human and financial resources. Choosing when a report is called for is a matter of judgment and experience.

Some development models used heavily in the engineering world, such as Waterfall development, are notorious for over-relying on research reports. With Waterfall development, there is a linear progression through each step of a project, and each stage is precisely documented and reported on before moving to the next.

The pace of the business world is faster than the speed at which your authors can produce and disseminate reports. So how do companies strike the right balance between creating and acting on research reports?

The answer lies, again, in the report's defined objectives. By paring down your most pressing interests and those of your stakeholders, your research and reporting skills will be the lenses that keep your company's priorities in constant focus.

Honing your company's primary objectives can save significant amounts of time and align research and reporting efforts with ever-greater precision.

Some examples of well-designed research objectives are:

Proving whether or not a product or service meets customer expectations

Demonstrating the value of a service, product, or business process to your stakeholders and investors

Improving business decision-making when faced with a lack of time or other constraints

Clarifying the relationship between a critical cause and effect for problematic business processes

Prioritizing the development of a backlog of products or product features

Comparing business or production strategies

Evaluating past decisions and predicting future outcomes

• Features of a research report

Research reports generally require a research design phase, where the report author(s) determine the most important elements the report must contain.

Just as there are various kinds of research, there are many types of reports.

Here are the standard elements of almost any research-reporting format:

Report summary. A broad but comprehensive overview of what readers will learn in the full report. Summaries are usually no more than one or two paragraphs and address all key elements of the report. Think of the key takeaways your primary stakeholders will want to know if they don’t have time to read the full document.

Introduction. Include a brief background of the topic, the type of research, and the research sample. Consider the primary goal of the report, who is most affected, and how far along the company is in meeting its objectives.

Methods. A description of how the researcher carried out data collection, analysis, and final interpretations of the data. Include the reasons for choosing a particular method. The methods section should strike a balance between clearly presenting the approach taken to gather data and discussing how it is designed to achieve the report's objectives.

Data analysis. This section contains interpretations that lead readers through the results relevant to the report's thesis. If there were unexpected results, include here a discussion on why that might be. Charts, calculations, statistics, and other supporting information also belong here (or, if lengthy, as an appendix). This should be the most detailed section of the research report, with references for further study. Present the information in a logical order, whether chronologically or in order of importance to the report's objectives.

Conclusion. This should be written with sound reasoning, often containing useful recommendations. The conclusion must be backed by a continuous thread of logic throughout the report.

• How to write a research paper

With a clear outline and robust pool of research, a research paper can start to write itself, but what's a good way to start a research report?

Research report examples are often the quickest way to gain inspiration for your report. Look for the types of research reports most relevant to your industry and consider which makes the most sense for your data and goals.

The research report outline will help you organize the elements of your report. One of the most time-tested report outlines is the IMRaD structure:

Introduction

...and Discussion

Pay close attention to the most well-established research reporting format in your industry, and consider your tone and language from your audience's perspective. Learn the key terms inside and out; incorrect jargon could easily harm the perceived authority of your research paper.

Along with a foundation in high-quality research and razor-sharp analysis, the most effective research reports will also demonstrate well-developed:

Internal logic

Narrative flow

Conclusions and recommendations

Readability, striking a balance between simple phrasing and technical insight

How to gather research data for your report

The validity of research data is critical. Because the research phase usually occurs well before the writing phase, you normally have plenty of time to vet your data.

However, research reports could involve ongoing research, where report authors (sometimes the researchers themselves) write portions of the report alongside ongoing research.

One such research-report example would be an R&D department that knows its primary stakeholders are eager to learn about a lengthy work in progress and any potentially important outcomes.

However you choose to manage the research and reporting, your data must meet robust quality standards before you can rely on it. Vet any research with the following questions in mind:

Does it use statistically valid analysis methods?

Do the researchers clearly explain their research, analysis, and sampling methods?

Did the researchers provide any caveats or advice on how to interpret their data?

Have you gathered the data yourself or were you in close contact with those who did?

Is the source biased?

Usually, flawed research methods become more apparent the further you get through a research report.

It's perfectly natural for good research to raise new questions, but the reader should have no uncertainty about what the data represents. There should be no doubt about matters such as:

Whether the sampling or analysis methods were based on sound and consistent logic

What the research samples are and where they came from

The accuracy of any statistical functions or equations

Validation of testing and measuring processes

When does a report require design validation?

A robust design validation process is often a gold standard in highly technical research reports. Design validation ensures the objects of a study are measured accurately, which lends more weight to your report and makes it valuable to more specialized industries.

Product development and engineering projects are the most common research-report examples that typically involve a design validation process. Depending on the scope and complexity of your research, you might face additional steps to validate your data and research procedures.

If you’re including design validation in the report (or report proposal), explain and justify your data-collection processes. Good design validation builds greater trust in a research report and lends more weight to its conclusions.

Choosing the right analysis method

Just as the quality of your report depends on properly validated research, a useful conclusion requires the most contextually relevant analysis method. This means comparing different statistical methods and choosing the one that makes the most sense for your research.

Most broadly, research analysis comes down to quantitative or qualitative methods (respectively: measurable by a number vs subjectively qualified values). There are also mixed research methods, which bridge the need for merging hard data with qualified assessments and still reach a cohesive set of conclusions.

Some of the most common analysis methods in research reports include:

Significance testing (aka hypothesis analysis), which compares test and control groups to determine how likely the data was the result of random chance.

Regression analysis , to establish relationships between variables, control for extraneous variables , and support correlation analysis.

Correlation analysis (aka bivariate testing), a method to identify and determine the strength of linear relationships between variables. It’s effective for detecting patterns from complex data, but care must be exercised to not confuse correlation with causation.

With any analysis method, it's important to justify which method you chose in the report. You should also provide estimates of the statistical accuracy (e.g., the p-value or confidence level of quantifiable data) of any data analysis.

This requires a commitment to the report's primary aim. For instance, this may be achieving a certain level of customer satisfaction by analyzing the cause and effect of changes to how service is delivered. Even better, use statistical analysis to calculate which change is most positively correlated with improved levels of customer satisfaction.

• Tips for writing research reports

There's endless good advice for writing effective research reports, and it almost all depends on the subjective aims of the people behind the report. Due to the wide variety of research reports, the best tips will be unique to each author's purpose.

Consider the following research report tips in any order, and take note of the ones most relevant to you:

No matter how in depth or detailed your report might be, provide a well-considered, succinct summary. At the very least, give your readers a quick and effective way to get up to speed.

Pare down your target audience (e.g., other researchers, employees, laypersons, etc.), and adjust your voice for their background knowledge and interest levels

For all but the most open-ended research, clarify your objectives, both for yourself and within the report.

Leverage your team members’ talents to fill in any knowledge gaps you might have. Your team is only as good as the sum of its parts.

Justify why your research proposal’s topic will endure long enough to derive value from the finished report.

Consolidate all research and analysis functions onto a single user-friendly platform. There's no reason to settle for less than developer-grade tools suitable for non-developers.

What's the format of a research report?

The research-reporting format is how the report is structured—a framework the authors use to organize their data, conclusions, arguments, and recommendations. The format heavily determines how the report's outline develops, because the format dictates the overall structure and order of information (based on the report's goals and research objectives).

What's the purpose of a research-report outline?

A good report outline gives form and substance to the report's objectives, presenting the results in a readable, engaging way. For any research-report format, the outline should create momentum along a chain of logic that builds up to a conclusion or interpretation.

What's the difference between a research essay and a research report?

There are several key differences between research reports and essays:

Research report:

Ordered into separate sections

More commercial in nature

Often includes infographics

Heavily descriptive

More self-referential

Usually provides recommendations

Research essay

Does not rely on research report formatting

More academically minded

Normally text-only

Less detailed

Omits discussion of methods

Usually non-prescriptive 

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How to Write Data Analysis Reports in 9 Easy Steps

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Imagine a bunch of bricks. They don’t have a purpose until you put them together into a house, do they?

In business intelligence, data is your building material, and a quality data analysis report is what you want to see as the result.

But if you’ve ever tried to use the collected data and assemble it into an insightful report, you know it’s not an easy job to do. Data is supposed to tell a story about your performance, but there’s a long way from unprocessed, raw data to a meaningful narrative that you can use to create an actionable plan for making steady progress towards your goals.

This article will help you improve the quality of your data analysis reports and build them effortlessly and fast. Let’s jump right in.

What Is a Data Analysis Report?

Why is data analysis reporting important, how to write a data analysis report 9 simple steps, data analysis report examples.

A data analysis report is a type of business report in which you present quantitative and qualitative data to evaluate your strategies and performance. Based on this data, you give recommendations for further steps and business decisions while using the data as evidence that backs up your evaluation.

Today, data analysis is one of the most important elements of business intelligence strategies as companies have realized the potential of having data-driven insights at hand to help them make data-driven decisions.

Just like you’ll look at your car’s dashboard if something’s wrong, you’ll pull your data to see what’s causing drops in website traffic, conversions, or sales – or any other business metric you may be following. This unprocessed data still doesn’t give you a diagnosis – it’s the first step towards a quality analysis. Once you’ve extracted and organized your data, it’s important to use graphs and charts to visualize it and make it easier to draw conclusions.

Once you add meaning to your data and create suggestions based on it, you have a data analysis report.

A vital detail everyone should know about data analysis reports is their accessibility for everyone in your team, and the ability to innovate. Your analysis report will contain your vital KPIs, so you can see where you’re reaching your targets and achieving goals, and where you need to speed up your activities or optimize your strategy. If you can uncover trends or patterns in your data, you can use it to innovate and stand out by offering even more valuable content, services, or products to your audience.

Data analysis is vital for companies for several reasons.

A reliable source of information

Trusting your intuition is fine, but relying on data is safer. When you can base your action plan on data that clearly shows that something is working or failing, you won’t only justify your decisions in front of the management, clients, or investors, but you’ll also be sure that you’ve taken appropriate steps to fix an issue or seize an important opportunity.

A better understanding of your business

According to Databox’s State of Business Reporting , most companies stated that regular monitoring and reporting improved progress monitoring, increased team effectiveness, allowed them to identify trends more easily, and improved financial performance. Data analysis makes it easier to understand your business as a whole, and each aspect individually. You can see how different departments analyze their workflow and how each step impacts their results in the end, by following their KPIs over time. Then, you can easily conclude what your business needs to grow – to boost your sales strategy, optimize your finances, or up your SEO game, for example.

An additional way to understand your business better is to compare your most important metrics and KPIs against companies that are just like yours. With Databox Benchmarks , you will need only one spot to see how all of your teams stack up against your peers and competitors.

Instantly and Anonymously Benchmark Your Company’s Performance Against Others Just Like You

If you ever asked yourself:

• How does our marketing stack up against our competitors?
• Are our salespeople as productive as reps from similar companies?
• Are our profit margins as high as our peers?

Databox Benchmark Groups can finally help you answer these questions and discover how your company measures up against similar companies based on your KPIs.

When you join Benchmark Groups, you will:

• Get instant, up-to-date data on how your company stacks up against similar companies based on the metrics most important to you. Explore benchmarks for dozens of metrics, built on anonymized data from thousands of companies and get a full 360° view of your company’s KPIs across sales, marketing, finance, and more.
• Understand where your business excels and where you may be falling behind so you can shift to what will make the biggest impact. Leverage industry insights to set more effective, competitive business strategies. Explore where exactly you have room for growth within your business based on objective market data.
• Keep your clients happy by using data to back up your expertise. Show your clients where you’re helping them overperform against similar companies. Use the data to show prospects where they really are… and the potential of where they could be.
• Get a valuable asset for improving yearly and quarterly planning . Get valuable insights into areas that need more work. Gain more context for strategic planning.

The best part?

• Benchmark Groups are free to access.
• The data is 100% anonymized. No other company will be able to see your performance, and you won’t be able to see the performance of individual companies either.

When it comes to showing you how your performance compares to others, here is what it might look like for the metric Average Session Duration:

And here is an example of an open group you could join:

And this is just a fraction of what you’ll get. With Databox Benchmarks, you will need only one spot to see how all of your teams stack up — marketing, sales, customer service, product development, finance, and more. 

• Choose criteria so that the Benchmark is calculated using only companies like yours
• Narrow the benchmark sample using criteria that describe your company
• Display benchmarks right on your Databox dashboards

Sounds like something you want to try out? Join a Databox Benchmark Group today!

It makes data accessible to everyone

Data doesn’t represent a magical creature reserved for data scientists only anymore. Now that you have streamlined and easy-to-follow data visualizations and tools that automatically show the latest figures, you can include everyone in the decision-making process as they’ll understand what means what in the charts and tables. The data may be complex, but it becomes easy to read when combined with proper illustrations. And when your teams gain such useful and accessible insight, they will feel motivated to act on it immediately.

Better collaboration

Data analysis reports help teams collaborate better, as well. You can apply the SMART technique to your KPIs and goals, because your KPIs become assignable. When they’re easy to interpret for your whole team, you can assign each person with one or multiple KPIs that they’ll be in charge of. That means taking a lot off a team leader’s plate so they can focus more on making other improvements in the business. At the same time, removing inaccurate data from your day-to-day operations will improve friction between different departments, like marketing and sales, for instance.

More productivity

You can also expect increased productivity, since you’ll be saving time you’d otherwise spend on waiting for specialists to translate data for other departments, etc. This means your internal procedures will also be on a top level.

Want to give value with your data analysis report? It’s critical to master the skill of writing a quality data analytics report. Want to know how to report on data efficiently? We’ll share our secret in the following section.

• Start with an Outline
• Make a Selection of Vital KPIs
• Pick the Right Charts for Appealing Design
• Use a Narrative
• Organize the Information
• Include a Summary
• Careful with Your Recommendations
• Double-Check Everything
• Use Interactive Dashboards

1. Start with an Outline

If you start writing without having a clear idea of what your data analysis report is going to include, it may get messy. Important insights may slip through your fingers, and you may stray away too far from the main topic. To avoid this, start the report by writing an outline first. Plan the structure and contents of each section first to make sure you’ve covered everything, and only then start crafting the report.

2. Make a Selection of Vital KPIs

Don’t overwhelm the audience by including every single metric there is. You can discuss your whole dashboard in a meeting with your team, but if you’re creating data analytics reports or marketing reports for other departments or the executives, it’s best to focus on the most relevant KPIs that demonstrate the data important for the overall business performance.

PRO TIP: How Well Are Your Marketing KPIs Performing?

Like most marketers and marketing managers, you want to know how well your efforts are translating into results each month. How much traffic and new contact conversions do you get? How many new contacts do you get from organic sessions? How are your email campaigns performing? How well are your landing pages converting? You might have to scramble to put all of this together in a single report, but now you can have it all at your fingertips in a single Databox dashboard.

Our Marketing Overview Dashboard includes data from Google Analytics 4 and HubSpot Marketing with key performance metrics like:

• Sessions . The number of sessions can tell you how many times people are returning to your website. Obviously, the higher the better.
• New Contacts from Sessions . How well is your campaign driving new contacts and customers?
• Marketing Performance KPIs . Tracking the number of MQLs, SQLs, New Contacts and similar will help you identify how your marketing efforts contribute to sales.
• Email Performance . Measure the success of your email campaigns from HubSpot. Keep an eye on your most important email marketing metrics such as number of sent emails, number of opened emails, open rate, email click-through rate, and more.
• Blog Posts and Landing Pages . How many people have viewed your blog recently? How well are your landing pages performing?

Now you can benefit from the experience of our Google Analytics and HubSpot Marketing experts, who have put together a plug-and-play Databox template that contains all the essential metrics for monitoring your leads. It’s simple to implement and start using as a standalone dashboard or in marketing reports, and best of all, it’s free!

You can easily set it up in just a few clicks – no coding required.

To set up the dashboard, follow these 3 simple steps:

Step 1: Get the template 

Step 2: Connect your HubSpot and Google Analytics 4 accounts with Databox. 

Step 3: Watch your dashboard populate in seconds.

3. Pick the Right Charts for Appealing Design

If you’re showing historical data – for instance, how you’ve performed now compared to last month – it’s best to use timelines or graphs. For other data, pie charts or tables may be more suitable. Make sure you use the right data visualization to display your data accurately and in an easy-to-understand manner.

4. Use a Narrative

Do you work on analytics and reporting ? Just exporting your data into a spreadsheet doesn’t qualify as either of them. The fact that you’re dealing with data may sound too technical, but actually, your report should tell a story about your performance. What happened on a specific day? Did your organic traffic increase or suddenly drop? Why? And more. There are a lot of questions to answer and you can put all the responses together in a coherent, understandable narrative.

5. Organize the Information

Before you start writing or building your dashboard, choose how you’re going to organize your data. Are you going to talk about the most relevant and general ones first? It may be the best way to start the report – the best practices typically involve starting with more general information and then diving into details if necessary.

6. Include a Summary

Some people in your audience won’t have the time to read the whole report, but they’ll want to know about your findings. Besides, a summary at the beginning of your data analytics report will help the reader get familiar with the topic and the goal of the report. And a quick note: although the summary should be placed at the beginning, you usually write it when you’re done with the report. When you have the whole picture, it’s easier to extract the key points that you’ll include in the summary.

7. Careful with Your Recommendations

Your communication skills may be critical in data analytics reports. Know that some of the results probably won’t be satisfactory, which means that someone’s strategy failed. Make sure you’re objective in your recommendations and that you’re not looking for someone to blame. Don’t criticize, but give suggestions on how things can be improved. Being solution-oriented is much more important and helpful for the business.

8. Double-Check Everything

The whole point of using data analytics tools and data, in general, is to achieve as much accuracy as possible. Avoid manual mistakes by proofreading your report when you finish, and if possible, give it to another person so they can confirm everything’s in place.

9. Use Interactive Dashboards

Using the right tools is just as important as the contents of your data analysis. The way you present it can make or break a good report, regardless of how valuable the data is. That said, choose a great reporting tool that can automatically update your data and display it in a visually appealing manner. Make sure it offers streamlined interactive dashboards that you can also customize depending on the purpose of the report.

To wrap up the guide, we decided to share nine excellent examples of what awesome data analysis reports can look like. You’ll learn what metrics you should include and how to organize them in logical sections to make your report beautiful and effective.

• Marketing Data Analysis Report Example

SEO Data Analysis Report Example

Sales data analysis report example.

• Customer Support Data Analysis Report Example

Help Desk Data Analysis Report Example

Ecommerce data analysis report example, project management data analysis report example, social media data analysis report example, financial kpi data analysis report example, marketing data report example.

If you need an intuitive dashboard that allows you to track your website performance effortlessly and monitor all the relevant metrics such as website sessions, pageviews, or CTA engagement, you’ll love this free HubSpot Marketing Website Overview dashboard template .

Tracking the performance of your SEO efforts is important. You can easily monitor relevant SEO KPIs like clicks by page, engaged sessions, or views by session medium by downloading this Google Organic SEO Dashboard .

How successful is your sales team? It’s easy to analyze their performance and predict future growth if you choose this HubSpot CRM Sales Analytics Overview dashboard template and track metrics such as average time to close the deal, new deals amount, or average revenue per new client.

Customer Support Analysis Data Report Example

Customer support is one of the essential factors that impact your business growth. You can use this streamlined, customizable Customer Success dashboard template . In a single dashboard, you can monitor metrics such as customer satisfaction score, new MRR, or time to first response time.

Other than being free and intuitive, this HelpScout for Customer Support dashboard template is also customizable and enables you to track the most vital metrics that indicate your customer support agents’ performance: handle time, happiness score, interactions per resolution, and more.

Is your online store improving or failing? You can easily collect relevant data about your store and monitor the most important metrics like total sales, orders placed, and new customers by downloading this WooCommerce Shop Overview dashboard template .

Does your IT department need feedback on their project management performance? Download this Jira dashboard template to track vital metrics such as issues created or resolved, issues by status, etc. Jira enables you to gain valuable insights into your teams’ productivity.

Need to know if your social media strategy is successful? You can find that out by using this easy-to-understand Social Media Awareness & Engagement dashboard template . Here you can monitor and analyze metrics like sessions by social source, track the number of likes and followers, and measure the traffic from each source.

Tracking your finances is critical for keeping your business profitable. If you want to monitor metrics such as the number of open invoices, open deals amount by stage by pipeline, or closed-won deals, use this free QuickBooks + HubSpot CRM Financial Performance dashboard template .

Rely on Accurate Data with Databox

“I don’t have time to build custom reports from scratch.”

“It takes too long and becomes daunting very soon.”

“I’m not sure how to organize the data to make it effective and prove the value of my work.”

Does this sound like you?

Well, it’s something we all said at some point – creating data analytics reports can be time-consuming and tiring. And you’re still not sure if the report is compelling and understandable enough when you’re done.

That’s why we decided to create Databox dashboards – a world-class solution for saving your money and time. We build streamlined and easy-to-follow dashboards that include all the metrics that you may need and allow you to create custom ones if necessary. That way, you can use templates and adjust them to any new project or client without having to build a report from scratch.

You can skip the setup and get your first dashboard for free in just 24 hours, with our fantastic customer support team on the line to assist you with the metrics you should track and the structure you should use.

Enjoy crafting brilliant data analysis reports that will improve your business – it’s never been faster and more effortless. Sign up today and get your free dashboard in no time.

Stefana Zarić is a freelance writer & content marketer. Other than writing for SaaS and fintech clients, she educates future writers who want to build a career in marketing. When not working, Stefana loves to read books, play with her kid, travel, and dance.

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Research reports

This resource will help you identify the common elements and basic format of a research report.

Research reports generally follow a similar structure and have common elements, each with a particular purpose. Learn more about each of these elements below.

Common elements of reports

Your title should be brief, topic-specific, and informative, clearly indicating the purpose and scope of your study. Include key words in your title so that search engines can easily access your work. For example:  Measurement of water around Station Pier.

An abstract is a concise summary that helps readers to quickly assess the content and direction of your paper. It should be brief, written in a single paragraph and cover: the scope and purpose of your report; an overview of methodology; a summary of the main findings or results; principal conclusions or significance of the findings; and recommendations made.

The information in the abstract must be presented in the same order as it is in your report. The abstract is usually written last when you have developed your arguments and synthesised the results.

The introduction creates the context for your research. It should provide sufficient background to allow the reader to understand and evaluate your study without needing to refer to previous publications. After reading the introduction your reader should understand exactly what your research is about, what you plan to do, why you are undertaking this research and which methods you have used. Introductions generally include:

• The rationale for the present study. Why are you interested in this topic? Why is this topic worth investigating?
• Key terms and definitions.
• An outline of the research questions and hypotheses; the assumptions or propositions that your research will test.

Not all research reports have a separate literature review section. In shorter research reports, the review is usually part of the Introduction.

A literature review is a critical survey of recent relevant research in a particular field. The review should be a selection of carefully organised, focused and relevant literature that develops a narrative ‘story’ about your topic. Your review should answer key questions about the literature:

• What is the current state of knowledge on the topic?
• What differences in approaches / methodologies are there?
• Where are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?
• What further research is needed? The review may identify a gap in the literature which provides a rationale for your study and supports your research questions and methodology.

The review is not just a summary of all you have read. Rather, it must develop an argument or a point of view that supports your chosen methodology and research questions.

The purpose of this section is to detail how you conducted your research so that others can understand and replicate your approach.

You need to briefly describe the subjects (if appropriate), any equipment or materials used and the approach taken. If the research method or method of data analysis is commonly used within your field of study, then simply reference the procedure. If, however, your methods are new or controversial then you need to describe them in more detail and provide a rationale for your approach. The methodology is written in the past tense and should be as concise as possible.

This section is a concise, factual summary of your findings, listed under headings appropriate to your research questions. It’s common to use tables and graphics. Raw data or details about the method of statistical analysis used should be included in the Appendices.

Present your results in a consistent manner. For example, if you present the first group of results as percentages, it will be confusing for the reader and difficult to make comparisons of data if later results are presented as fractions or as decimal values.

In general, you won’t discuss your results here. Any analysis of your results usually occurs in the Discussion section.

Notes on visual data representation:

• Graphs and tables may be used to reveal trends in your data, but they must be explained and referred to in adjacent accompanying text.
• Figures and tables do not simply repeat information given in the text: they summarise, amplify or complement it.
• Graphs are always referred to as ‘Figures’, and both axes must be clearly labelled.
• Tables must be numbered, and they must be able to stand-alone or make sense without your reader needing to read all of the accompanying text.

The Discussion responds to the hypothesis or research question. This section is where you interpret your results, account for your findings and explain their significance within the context of other research. Consider the adequacy of your sampling techniques, the scope and long-term implications of your study, any problems with data collection or analysis and any assumptions on which your study was based. This is also the place to discuss any disappointing results and address limitations.

Checklist for the discussion

• To what extent was each hypothesis supported?
• To what extent are your findings validated or supported by other research?
• Were there unexpected variables that affected your results?
• On reflection, was your research method appropriate?
• Can you account for any differences between your results and other studies?

Conclusions in research reports are generally fairly short and should follow on naturally from points raised in the Discussion. In this section you should discuss the significance of your findings. To what extent and in what ways are your findings useful or conclusive? Is further research required? If so, based on your research experience, what suggestions could you make about improvements to the scope or methodology of future studies?

Also, consider the practical implications of your results and any recommendations you could make. For example, if your research is on reading strategies in the primary school classroom, what are the implications of your results for the classroom teacher? What recommendations could you make for teachers?

A Reference List contains all the resources you have cited in your work, while a Bibliography is a wider list containing all the resources you have consulted (but not necessarily cited) in the preparation of your work. It is important to check which of these is required, and the preferred format, style of references and presentation requirements of your own department.

Appendices (singular ‘Appendix’) provide supporting material to your project. Examples of such materials include:

• Relevant letters to participants and organisations (e.g. regarding the ethics or conduct of the project).
• Background reports.
• Detailed calculations.

Different types of data are presented in separate appendices. Each appendix must be titled, labelled with a number or letter, and referred to in the body of the report.

Appendices are placed at the end of a report, and the contents are generally not included in the word count.

Fi nal ti p

While there are many common elements to research reports, it’s always best to double check the exact requirements for your task. You may find that you don’t need some sections, can combine others or have specific requirements about referencing, formatting or word limits.

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Chapter 11: Presenting Your Research

Writing a Research Report in American Psychological Association (APA) Style

Learning Objectives

• Identify the major sections of an APA-style research report and the basic contents of each section.
• Plan and write an effective APA-style research report.

In this section, we look at how to write an APA-style empirical research report , an article that presents the results of one or more new studies. Recall that the standard sections of an empirical research report provide a kind of outline. Here we consider each of these sections in detail, including what information it contains, how that information is formatted and organized, and tips for writing each section. At the end of this section is a sample APA-style research report that illustrates many of these principles.

Sections of a Research Report

Title page and abstract.

An APA-style research report begins with a  title page . The title is centred in the upper half of the page, with each important word capitalized. The title should clearly and concisely (in about 12 words or fewer) communicate the primary variables and research questions. This sometimes requires a main title followed by a subtitle that elaborates on the main title, in which case the main title and subtitle are separated by a colon. Here are some titles from recent issues of professional journals published by the American Psychological Association.

• Sex Differences in Coping Styles and Implications for Depressed Mood
• Effects of Aging and Divided Attention on Memory for Items and Their Contexts
• Computer-Assisted Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Child Anxiety: Results of a Randomized Clinical Trial
• Virtual Driving and Risk Taking: Do Racing Games Increase Risk-Taking Cognitions, Affect, and Behaviour?

Below the title are the authors’ names and, on the next line, their institutional affiliation—the university or other institution where the authors worked when they conducted the research. As we have already seen, the authors are listed in an order that reflects their contribution to the research. When multiple authors have made equal contributions to the research, they often list their names alphabetically or in a randomly determined order.

In some areas of psychology, the titles of many empirical research reports are informal in a way that is perhaps best described as “cute.” They usually take the form of a play on words or a well-known expression that relates to the topic under study. Here are some examples from recent issues of the Journal Psychological Science .

• “Smells Like Clean Spirit: Nonconscious Effects of Scent on Cognition and Behavior”
• “Time Crawls: The Temporal Resolution of Infants’ Visual Attention”
• “Scent of a Woman: Men’s Testosterone Responses to Olfactory Ovulation Cues”
• “Apocalypse Soon?: Dire Messages Reduce Belief in Global Warming by Contradicting Just-World Beliefs”
• “Serial vs. Parallel Processing: Sometimes They Look Like Tweedledum and Tweedledee but They Can (and Should) Be Distinguished”
• “How Do I Love Thee? Let Me Count the Words: The Social Effects of Expressive Writing”

Individual researchers differ quite a bit in their preference for such titles. Some use them regularly, while others never use them. What might be some of the pros and cons of using cute article titles?

For articles that are being submitted for publication, the title page also includes an author note that lists the authors’ full institutional affiliations, any acknowledgments the authors wish to make to agencies that funded the research or to colleagues who commented on it, and contact information for the authors. For student papers that are not being submitted for publication—including theses—author notes are generally not necessary.

The  abstract  is a summary of the study. It is the second page of the manuscript and is headed with the word  Abstract . The first line is not indented. The abstract presents the research question, a summary of the method, the basic results, and the most important conclusions. Because the abstract is usually limited to about 200 words, it can be a challenge to write a good one.

Introduction

The  introduction  begins on the third page of the manuscript. The heading at the top of this page is the full title of the manuscript, with each important word capitalized as on the title page. The introduction includes three distinct subsections, although these are typically not identified by separate headings. The opening introduces the research question and explains why it is interesting, the literature review discusses relevant previous research, and the closing restates the research question and comments on the method used to answer it.

The Opening

The  opening , which is usually a paragraph or two in length, introduces the research question and explains why it is interesting. To capture the reader’s attention, researcher Daryl Bem recommends starting with general observations about the topic under study, expressed in ordinary language (not technical jargon)—observations that are about people and their behaviour (not about researchers or their research; Bem, 2003 [1] ). Concrete examples are often very useful here. According to Bem, this would be a poor way to begin a research report:

Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance received a great deal of attention during the latter part of the 20th century (p. 191)

The following would be much better:

The individual who holds two beliefs that are inconsistent with one another may feel uncomfortable. For example, the person who knows that he or she enjoys smoking but believes it to be unhealthy may experience discomfort arising from the inconsistency or disharmony between these two thoughts or cognitions. This feeling of discomfort was called cognitive dissonance by social psychologist Leon Festinger (1957), who suggested that individuals will be motivated to remove this dissonance in whatever way they can (p. 191).

After capturing the reader’s attention, the opening should go on to introduce the research question and explain why it is interesting. Will the answer fill a gap in the literature? Will it provide a test of an important theory? Does it have practical implications? Giving readers a clear sense of what the research is about and why they should care about it will motivate them to continue reading the literature review—and will help them make sense of it.

Breaking the Rules

Researcher Larry Jacoby reported several studies showing that a word that people see or hear repeatedly can seem more familiar even when they do not recall the repetitions—and that this tendency is especially pronounced among older adults. He opened his article with the following humourous anecdote:

A friend whose mother is suffering symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) tells the story of taking her mother to visit a nursing home, preliminary to her mother’s moving there. During an orientation meeting at the nursing home, the rules and regulations were explained, one of which regarded the dining room. The dining room was described as similar to a fine restaurant except that tipping was not required. The absence of tipping was a central theme in the orientation lecture, mentioned frequently to emphasize the quality of care along with the advantages of having paid in advance. At the end of the meeting, the friend’s mother was asked whether she had any questions. She replied that she only had one question: “Should I tip?” (Jacoby, 1999, p. 3)

Although both humour and personal anecdotes are generally discouraged in APA-style writing, this example is a highly effective way to start because it both engages the reader and provides an excellent real-world example of the topic under study.

The Literature Review

Immediately after the opening comes the  literature review , which describes relevant previous research on the topic and can be anywhere from several paragraphs to several pages in length. However, the literature review is not simply a list of past studies. Instead, it constitutes a kind of argument for why the research question is worth addressing. By the end of the literature review, readers should be convinced that the research question makes sense and that the present study is a logical next step in the ongoing research process.

Like any effective argument, the literature review must have some kind of structure. For example, it might begin by describing a phenomenon in a general way along with several studies that demonstrate it, then describing two or more competing theories of the phenomenon, and finally presenting a hypothesis to test one or more of the theories. Or it might describe one phenomenon, then describe another phenomenon that seems inconsistent with the first one, then propose a theory that resolves the inconsistency, and finally present a hypothesis to test that theory. In applied research, it might describe a phenomenon or theory, then describe how that phenomenon or theory applies to some important real-world situation, and finally suggest a way to test whether it does, in fact, apply to that situation.

Looking at the literature review in this way emphasizes a few things. First, it is extremely important to start with an outline of the main points that you want to make, organized in the order that you want to make them. The basic structure of your argument, then, should be apparent from the outline itself. Second, it is important to emphasize the structure of your argument in your writing. One way to do this is to begin the literature review by summarizing your argument even before you begin to make it. “In this article, I will describe two apparently contradictory phenomena, present a new theory that has the potential to resolve the apparent contradiction, and finally present a novel hypothesis to test the theory.” Another way is to open each paragraph with a sentence that summarizes the main point of the paragraph and links it to the preceding points. These opening sentences provide the “transitions” that many beginning researchers have difficulty with. Instead of beginning a paragraph by launching into a description of a previous study, such as “Williams (2004) found that…,” it is better to start by indicating something about why you are describing this particular study. Here are some simple examples:

Another example of this phenomenon comes from the work of Williams (2004).

Williams (2004) offers one explanation of this phenomenon.

An alternative perspective has been provided by Williams (2004).

We used a method based on the one used by Williams (2004).

Finally, remember that your goal is to construct an argument for why your research question is interesting and worth addressing—not necessarily why your favourite answer to it is correct. In other words, your literature review must be balanced. If you want to emphasize the generality of a phenomenon, then of course you should discuss various studies that have demonstrated it. However, if there are other studies that have failed to demonstrate it, you should discuss them too. Or if you are proposing a new theory, then of course you should discuss findings that are consistent with that theory. However, if there are other findings that are inconsistent with it, again, you should discuss them too. It is acceptable to argue that the  balance  of the research supports the existence of a phenomenon or is consistent with a theory (and that is usually the best that researchers in psychology can hope for), but it is not acceptable to  ignore contradictory evidence. Besides, a large part of what makes a research question interesting is uncertainty about its answer.

The Closing

The  closing  of the introduction—typically the final paragraph or two—usually includes two important elements. The first is a clear statement of the main research question or hypothesis. This statement tends to be more formal and precise than in the opening and is often expressed in terms of operational definitions of the key variables. The second is a brief overview of the method and some comment on its appropriateness. Here, for example, is how Darley and Latané (1968) [2] concluded the introduction to their classic article on the bystander effect:

These considerations lead to the hypothesis that the more bystanders to an emergency, the less likely, or the more slowly, any one bystander will intervene to provide aid. To test this proposition it would be necessary to create a situation in which a realistic “emergency” could plausibly occur. Each subject should also be blocked from communicating with others to prevent his getting information about their behaviour during the emergency. Finally, the experimental situation should allow for the assessment of the speed and frequency of the subjects’ reaction to the emergency. The experiment reported below attempted to fulfill these conditions. (p. 378)

Thus the introduction leads smoothly into the next major section of the article—the method section.

The  method section  is where you describe how you conducted your study. An important principle for writing a method section is that it should be clear and detailed enough that other researchers could replicate the study by following your “recipe.” This means that it must describe all the important elements of the study—basic demographic characteristics of the participants, how they were recruited, whether they were randomly assigned, how the variables were manipulated or measured, how counterbalancing was accomplished, and so on. At the same time, it should avoid irrelevant details such as the fact that the study was conducted in Classroom 37B of the Industrial Technology Building or that the questionnaire was double-sided and completed using pencils.

The method section begins immediately after the introduction ends with the heading “Method” (not “Methods”) centred on the page. Immediately after this is the subheading “Participants,” left justified and in italics. The participants subsection indicates how many participants there were, the number of women and men, some indication of their age, other demographics that may be relevant to the study, and how they were recruited, including any incentives given for participation.

After the participants section, the structure can vary a bit. Figure 11.1 shows three common approaches. In the first, the participants section is followed by a design and procedure subsection, which describes the rest of the method. This works well for methods that are relatively simple and can be described adequately in a few paragraphs. In the second approach, the participants section is followed by separate design and procedure subsections. This works well when both the design and the procedure are relatively complicated and each requires multiple paragraphs.

What is the difference between design and procedure? The design of a study is its overall structure. What were the independent and dependent variables? Was the independent variable manipulated, and if so, was it manipulated between or within subjects? How were the variables operationally defined? The procedure is how the study was carried out. It often works well to describe the procedure in terms of what the participants did rather than what the researchers did. For example, the participants gave their informed consent, read a set of instructions, completed a block of four practice trials, completed a block of 20 test trials, completed two questionnaires, and were debriefed and excused.

In the third basic way to organize a method section, the participants subsection is followed by a materials subsection before the design and procedure subsections. This works well when there are complicated materials to describe. This might mean multiple questionnaires, written vignettes that participants read and respond to, perceptual stimuli, and so on. The heading of this subsection can be modified to reflect its content. Instead of “Materials,” it can be “Questionnaires,” “Stimuli,” and so on.

The  results section  is where you present the main results of the study, including the results of the statistical analyses. Although it does not include the raw data—individual participants’ responses or scores—researchers should save their raw data and make them available to other researchers who request them. Several journals now encourage the open sharing of raw data online.

Although there are no standard subsections, it is still important for the results section to be logically organized. Typically it begins with certain preliminary issues. One is whether any participants or responses were excluded from the analyses and why. The rationale for excluding data should be described clearly so that other researchers can decide whether it is appropriate. A second preliminary issue is how multiple responses were combined to produce the primary variables in the analyses. For example, if participants rated the attractiveness of 20 stimulus people, you might have to explain that you began by computing the mean attractiveness rating for each participant. Or if they recalled as many items as they could from study list of 20 words, did you count the number correctly recalled, compute the percentage correctly recalled, or perhaps compute the number correct minus the number incorrect? A third preliminary issue is the reliability of the measures. This is where you would present test-retest correlations, Cronbach’s α, or other statistics to show that the measures are consistent across time and across items. A final preliminary issue is whether the manipulation was successful. This is where you would report the results of any manipulation checks.

The results section should then tackle the primary research questions, one at a time. Again, there should be a clear organization. One approach would be to answer the most general questions and then proceed to answer more specific ones. Another would be to answer the main question first and then to answer secondary ones. Regardless, Bem (2003) [3] suggests the following basic structure for discussing each new result:

• Remind the reader of the research question.
• Give the answer to the research question in words.
• Present the relevant statistics.
• Qualify the answer if necessary.
• Summarize the result.

Notice that only Step 3 necessarily involves numbers. The rest of the steps involve presenting the research question and the answer to it in words. In fact, the basic results should be clear even to a reader who skips over the numbers.

The  discussion  is the last major section of the research report. Discussions usually consist of some combination of the following elements:

• Summary of the research
• Theoretical implications
• Practical implications
• Limitations
• Suggestions for future research

The discussion typically begins with a summary of the study that provides a clear answer to the research question. In a short report with a single study, this might require no more than a sentence. In a longer report with multiple studies, it might require a paragraph or even two. The summary is often followed by a discussion of the theoretical implications of the research. Do the results provide support for any existing theories? If not, how  can  they be explained? Although you do not have to provide a definitive explanation or detailed theory for your results, you at least need to outline one or more possible explanations. In applied research—and often in basic research—there is also some discussion of the practical implications of the research. How can the results be used, and by whom, to accomplish some real-world goal?

The theoretical and practical implications are often followed by a discussion of the study’s limitations. Perhaps there are problems with its internal or external validity. Perhaps the manipulation was not very effective or the measures not very reliable. Perhaps there is some evidence that participants did not fully understand their task or that they were suspicious of the intent of the researchers. Now is the time to discuss these issues and how they might have affected the results. But do not overdo it. All studies have limitations, and most readers will understand that a different sample or different measures might have produced different results. Unless there is good reason to think they  would have, however, there is no reason to mention these routine issues. Instead, pick two or three limitations that seem like they could have influenced the results, explain how they could have influenced the results, and suggest ways to deal with them.

Most discussions end with some suggestions for future research. If the study did not satisfactorily answer the original research question, what will it take to do so? What  new  research questions has the study raised? This part of the discussion, however, is not just a list of new questions. It is a discussion of two or three of the most important unresolved issues. This means identifying and clarifying each question, suggesting some alternative answers, and even suggesting ways they could be studied.

Finally, some researchers are quite good at ending their articles with a sweeping or thought-provoking conclusion. Darley and Latané (1968) [4] , for example, ended their article on the bystander effect by discussing the idea that whether people help others may depend more on the situation than on their personalities. Their final sentence is, “If people understand the situational forces that can make them hesitate to intervene, they may better overcome them” (p. 383). However, this kind of ending can be difficult to pull off. It can sound overreaching or just banal and end up detracting from the overall impact of the article. It is often better simply to end when you have made your final point (although you should avoid ending on a limitation).

The references section begins on a new page with the heading “References” centred at the top of the page. All references cited in the text are then listed in the format presented earlier. They are listed alphabetically by the last name of the first author. If two sources have the same first author, they are listed alphabetically by the last name of the second author. If all the authors are the same, then they are listed chronologically by the year of publication. Everything in the reference list is double-spaced both within and between references.

Appendices, Tables, and Figures

Appendices, tables, and figures come after the references. An  appendix  is appropriate for supplemental material that would interrupt the flow of the research report if it were presented within any of the major sections. An appendix could be used to present lists of stimulus words, questionnaire items, detailed descriptions of special equipment or unusual statistical analyses, or references to the studies that are included in a meta-analysis. Each appendix begins on a new page. If there is only one, the heading is “Appendix,” centred at the top of the page. If there is more than one, the headings are “Appendix A,” “Appendix B,” and so on, and they appear in the order they were first mentioned in the text of the report.

After any appendices come tables and then figures. Tables and figures are both used to present results. Figures can also be used to illustrate theories (e.g., in the form of a flowchart), display stimuli, outline procedures, and present many other kinds of information. Each table and figure appears on its own page. Tables are numbered in the order that they are first mentioned in the text (“Table 1,” “Table 2,” and so on). Figures are numbered the same way (“Figure 1,” “Figure 2,” and so on). A brief explanatory title, with the important words capitalized, appears above each table. Each figure is given a brief explanatory caption, where (aside from proper nouns or names) only the first word of each sentence is capitalized. More details on preparing APA-style tables and figures are presented later in the book.

Sample APA-Style Research Report

Figures 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, and 11.5 show some sample pages from an APA-style empirical research report originally written by undergraduate student Tomoe Suyama at California State University, Fresno. The main purpose of these figures is to illustrate the basic organization and formatting of an APA-style empirical research report, although many high-level and low-level style conventions can be seen here too.

Key Takeaways

• An APA-style empirical research report consists of several standard sections. The main ones are the abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, and references.
• The introduction consists of an opening that presents the research question, a literature review that describes previous research on the topic, and a closing that restates the research question and comments on the method. The literature review constitutes an argument for why the current study is worth doing.
• The method section describes the method in enough detail that another researcher could replicate the study. At a minimum, it consists of a participants subsection and a design and procedure subsection.
• The results section describes the results in an organized fashion. Each primary result is presented in terms of statistical results but also explained in words.
• The discussion typically summarizes the study, discusses theoretical and practical implications and limitations of the study, and offers suggestions for further research.
• Practice: Look through an issue of a general interest professional journal (e.g.,  Psychological Science ). Read the opening of the first five articles and rate the effectiveness of each one from 1 ( very ineffective ) to 5 ( very effective ). Write a sentence or two explaining each rating.
• Practice: Find a recent article in a professional journal and identify where the opening, literature review, and closing of the introduction begin and end.
• Practice: Find a recent article in a professional journal and highlight in a different colour each of the following elements in the discussion: summary, theoretical implications, practical implications, limitations, and suggestions for future research.

Long Descriptions

Figure 11.1 long description: Table showing three ways of organizing an APA-style method section.

In the simple method, there are two subheadings: “Participants” (which might begin “The participants were…”) and “Design and procedure” (which might begin “There were three conditions…”).

In the typical method, there are three subheadings: “Participants” (“The participants were…”), “Design” (“There were three conditions…”), and “Procedure” (“Participants viewed each stimulus on the computer screen…”).

In the complex method, there are four subheadings: “Participants” (“The participants were…”), “Materials” (“The stimuli were…”), “Design” (“There were three conditions…”), and “Procedure” (“Participants viewed each stimulus on the computer screen…”). [Return to Figure 11.1]

• Bem, D. J. (2003). Writing the empirical journal article. In J. M. Darley, M. P. Zanna, & H. R. Roediger III (Eds.),  The compleat academic: A practical guide for the beginning social scientist  (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ↵
• Darley, J. M., & Latané, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4 , 377–383. ↵

A type of research article which describes one or more new empirical studies conducted by the authors.

The page at the beginning of an APA-style research report containing the title of the article, the authors’ names, and their institutional affiliation.

A summary of a research study.

The third page of a manuscript containing the research question, the literature review, and comments about how to answer the research question.

An introduction to the research question and explanation for why this question is interesting.

A description of relevant previous research on the topic being discusses and an argument for why the research is worth addressing.

The end of the introduction, where the research question is reiterated and the method is commented upon.

The section of a research report where the method used to conduct the study is described.

The main results of the study, including the results from statistical analyses, are presented in a research article.

Section of a research report that summarizes the study's results and interprets them by referring back to the study's theoretical background.

Part of a research report which contains supplemental material.

Research Methods in Psychology - 2nd Canadian Edition Copyright © 2015 by Paul C. Price, Rajiv Jhangiani, & I-Chant A. Chiang is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Research Report: Definition, Types + [Writing Guide]

One of the reasons for carrying out research is to add to the existing body of knowledge. Therefore, when conducting research, you need to document your processes and findings in a research report. 

With a research report, it is easy to outline the findings of your systematic investigation and any gaps needing further inquiry. Knowing how to create a detailed research report will prove useful when you need to conduct research.  

What is a Research Report?

A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a systematic investigation. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the research process, and it is typically considered an objective and accurate source of information.

In many ways, a research report can be considered as a summary of the research process that clearly highlights findings, recommendations, and other important details. Reading a well-written research report should provide you with all the information you need about the core areas of the research process.

Features of a Research Report 

So how do you recognize a research report when you see one? Here are some of the basic features that define a research report. 

• It is a detailed presentation of research processes and findings, and it usually includes tables and graphs. 
• It is written in a formal language.
• A research report is usually written in the third person.
• It is informative and based on first-hand verifiable information.
• It is formally structured with headings, sections, and bullet points.
• It always includes recommendations for future actions. 

Types of Research Report 

The research report is classified based on two things; nature of research and target audience.

Nature of Research

• Qualitative Research Report

This is the type of report written for qualitative research . It outlines the methods, processes, and findings of a qualitative method of systematic investigation. In educational research, a qualitative research report provides an opportunity for one to apply his or her knowledge and develop skills in planning and executing qualitative research projects.

A qualitative research report is usually descriptive in nature. Hence, in addition to presenting details of the research process, you must also create a descriptive narrative of the information.

• Quantitative Research Report

A quantitative research report is a type of research report that is written for quantitative research. Quantitative research is a type of systematic investigation that pays attention to numerical or statistical values in a bid to find answers to research questions. 

In this type of research report, the researcher presents quantitative data to support the research process and findings. Unlike a qualitative research report that is mainly descriptive, a quantitative research report works with numbers; that is, it is numerical in nature. 

Target Audience

Also, a research report can be said to be technical or popular based on the target audience. If you’re dealing with a general audience, you would need to present a popular research report, and if you’re dealing with a specialized audience, you would submit a technical report. 

• Technical Research Report

A technical research report is a detailed document that you present after carrying out industry-based research. This report is highly specialized because it provides information for a technical audience; that is, individuals with above-average knowledge in the field of study. 

In a technical research report, the researcher is expected to provide specific information about the research process, including statistical analyses and sampling methods. Also, the use of language is highly specialized and filled with jargon. 

Examples of technical research reports include legal and medical research reports. 

• Popular Research Report

A popular research report is one for a general audience; that is, for individuals who do not necessarily have any knowledge in the field of study. A popular research report aims to make information accessible to everyone. 

It is written in very simple language, which makes it easy to understand the findings and recommendations. Examples of popular research reports are the information contained in newspapers and magazines. 

Importance of a Research Report 

• Knowledge Transfer: As already stated above, one of the reasons for carrying out research is to contribute to the existing body of knowledge, and this is made possible with a research report. A research report serves as a means to effectively communicate the findings of a systematic investigation to all and sundry.  
• Identification of Knowledge Gaps: With a research report, you’d be able to identify knowledge gaps for further inquiry. A research report shows what has been done while hinting at other areas needing systematic investigation. 
• In market research, a research report would help you understand the market needs and peculiarities at a glance. 
• A research report allows you to present information in a precise and concise manner. 
• It is time-efficient and practical because, in a research report, you do not have to spend time detailing the findings of your research work in person. You can easily send out the report via email and have stakeholders look at it. 

Guide to Writing a Research Report

A lot of detail goes into writing a research report, and getting familiar with the different requirements would help you create the ideal research report. A research report is usually broken down into multiple sections, which allows for a concise presentation of information.

Structure and Example of a Research Report

This is the title of your systematic investigation. Your title should be concise and point to the aims, objectives, and findings of a research report. 

• Table of Contents

This is like a compass that makes it easier for readers to navigate the research report.

An abstract is an overview that highlights all important aspects of the research including the research method, data collection process, and research findings. Think of an abstract as a summary of your research report that presents pertinent information in a concise manner. 

An abstract is always brief; typically 100-150 words and goes straight to the point. The focus of your research abstract should be the 5Ws and 1H format – What, Where, Why, When, Who and How. 

• Introduction

Here, the researcher highlights the aims and objectives of the systematic investigation as well as the problem which the systematic investigation sets out to solve. When writing the report introduction, it is also essential to indicate whether the purposes of the research were achieved or would require more work.

In the introduction section, the researcher specifies the research problem and also outlines the significance of the systematic investigation. Also, the researcher is expected to outline any jargons and terminologies that are contained in the research.  

• Literature Review

A literature review is a written survey of existing knowledge in the field of study. In other words, it is the section where you provide an overview and analysis of different research works that are relevant to your systematic investigation. 

It highlights existing research knowledge and areas needing further investigation, which your research has sought to fill. At this stage, you can also hint at your research hypothesis and its possible implications for the existing body of knowledge in your field of study. 

• An Account of Investigation

This is a detailed account of the research process, including the methodology, sample, and research subjects. Here, you are expected to provide in-depth information on the research process including the data collection and analysis procedures. 

In a quantitative research report, you’d need to provide information surveys, questionnaires and other quantitative data collection methods used in your research. In a qualitative research report, you are expected to describe the qualitative data collection methods used in your research including interviews and focus groups. 

In this section, you are expected to present the results of the systematic investigation. 

This section further explains the findings of the research, earlier outlined. Here, you are expected to present a justification for each outcome and show whether the results are in line with your hypotheses or if other research studies have come up with similar results.

• Conclusions

This is a summary of all the information in the report. It also outlines the significance of the entire study. 

• References and Appendices

This section contains a list of all the primary and secondary research sources. 

Tips for Writing a Research Report

• Define the Context for the Report

As is obtainable when writing an essay, defining the context for your research report would help you create a detailed yet concise document. This is why you need to create an outline before writing so that you do not miss out on anything. 

• Define your Audience

Writing with your audience in mind is essential as it determines the tone of the report. If you’re writing for a general audience, you would want to present the information in a simple and relatable manner. For a specialized audience, you would need to make use of technical and field-specific terms. 

• Include Significant Findings

The idea of a research report is to present some sort of abridged version of your systematic investigation. In your report, you should exclude irrelevant information while highlighting only important data and findings. 

• Include Illustrations

Your research report should include illustrations and other visual representations of your data. Graphs, pie charts, and relevant images lend additional credibility to your systematic investigation.

• Choose the Right Title

A good research report title is brief, precise, and contains keywords from your research. It should provide a clear idea of your systematic investigation so that readers can grasp the entire focus of your research from the title. 

• Proofread the Report

Before publishing the document, ensure that you give it a second look to authenticate the information. If you can, get someone else to go through the report, too, and you can also run it through proofreading and editing software. 

How to Gather Research Data for Your Report  

• Understand the Problem

Every research aims at solving a specific problem or set of problems, and this should be at the back of your mind when writing your research report. Understanding the problem would help you to filter the information you have and include only important data in your report. 

• Know what your report seeks to achieve

This is somewhat similar to the point above because, in some way, the aim of your research report is intertwined with the objectives of your systematic investigation. Identifying the primary purpose of writing a research report would help you to identify and present the required information accordingly. 

• Identify your audience

Knowing your target audience plays a crucial role in data collection for a research report. If your research report is specifically for an organization, you would want to present industry-specific information or show how the research findings are relevant to the work that the company does. 

• Create Surveys/Questionnaires

A survey is a research method that is used to gather data from a specific group of people through a set of questions. It can be either quantitative or qualitative. 

A survey is usually made up of structured questions, and it can be administered online or offline. However, an online survey is a more effective method of research data collection because it helps you save time and gather data with ease. 

You can seamlessly create an online questionnaire for your research on Formplus . With the multiple sharing options available in the builder, you would be able to administer your survey to respondents in little or no time. 

Formplus also has a report summary too l that you can use to create custom visual reports for your research.

Step-by-step guide on how to create an online questionnaire using Formplus  

• Sign into Formplus

In the Formplus builder, you can easily create different online questionnaires for your research by dragging and dropping preferred fields into your form. To access the Formplus builder, you will need to create an account on Formplus. 

Once you do this, sign in to your account and click on Create new form to begin. 

• Edit Form Title : Click on the field provided to input your form title, for example, “Research Questionnaire.”
• Edit Form : Click on the edit icon to edit the form.
• Add Fields : Drag and drop preferred form fields into your form in the Formplus builder inputs column. There are several field input options for questionnaires in the Formplus builder. 
• Edit fields
• Click on “Save”
• Form Customization: With the form customization options in the form builder, you can easily change the outlook of your form and make it more unique and personalized. Formplus allows you to change your form theme, add background images, and even change the font according to your needs. 
• Multiple Sharing Options: Formplus offers various form-sharing options, which enables you to share your questionnaire with respondents easily. You can use the direct social media sharing buttons to share your form link to your organization’s social media pages.  You can also send out your survey form as email invitations to your research subjects too. If you wish, you can share your form’s QR code or embed it on your organization’s website for easy access. 

Conclusion  

Always remember that a research report is just as important as the actual systematic investigation because it plays a vital role in communicating research findings to everyone else. This is why you must take care to create a concise document summarizing the process of conducting any research. 

In this article, we’ve outlined essential tips to help you create a research report. When writing your report, you should always have the audience at the back of your mind, as this would set the tone for the document. 

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Blog Business

Data Reporting: How to Create a High-Quality Data Report

By Xiaoyun Tu , Feb 24, 2022

To most people, data is incredibly boring. However, it’s also incredibly necessary for the efficient operations of any business. This means that the people who truly understand data, need to find ways of presenting it so that others can understand it, too.

The data in the infographic below could have been presented as a paragraph of text. But as data visualization, it’s more impactful. 

If you want to create a high-quality data report you should be able to support your facts and present them in a way that will entice or entertain your audience. Let’s tackle some techniques on how to create an eye-catching data report that reaches your business goals.

Start the report-making process on a positive note with Venngage’s Report Maker . No design experience required!

Click to jump ahead:

What is a data report, what are the basics of data reports, how to write a high-quality report.

A data report, like the infographic below, is how you present data in a way that is both understandable and actionable. Reports can be presented in a variety of formats that have come a long way from the old-fashioned lists of numbers on a document. 

Modern data reports must be visually engaging to help make the data more accessible to all. They may be presented in forms such as graphs, pie charts, infographics , PowerPoint presentations, and more; whatever best suits the data being presented and who it’s being presented to. 

Return to Table of Contents

Purpose of data reports

There are many reasons why data is crucial for how your business operates. It gives you exact information on various aspects of every area of operations so that you can make strategic changes when needed. 

It can allow you to accurately forecast demand so you can improve customer satisfaction or present alarming statistics that will stir people to action.

Types of data reports

The data you use, and how you present it, can vary greatly. For example, the data you collect from a warehouse management system may look very different from the data you collect from a POS (point of sale) system. There are two main types of data reports:

Static reports typically present data from a single source and provide historical data, such as seeing a drop or increase in eBay sales if you own an online store. This type of report is both easy to create and easy for any reader to understand. 

• Interactive 

Interactive reports are more dynamic and will usually present real-time or current data. Think about the kind of dimensions you can track in Google Analytics, for example. The advantage of interactive reports is that because they show current data, they allow you to look more closely at what’s happening now and take action if and when needed. 

Accessibility of data reports

Data reporting needs to be as accessible to your audiences as possible. With the advent of business intelligence (BI) tools, particularly cloud-based ones, you don’t need to be an IT expert to access and create reports. However, it is essential to be aware of potential cloud security issues when utilizing these tools, as sensitive data can be vulnerable to breaches or data loss if the proper security measures are not in place. Implementing CWPP security can significantly improve the defense against threats to your data in the cloud, ensuring that your reporting remains both accessible and secure. Additionally, using a Virtual Private Network (VPN) can further safeguard your data transmissions, enhancing privacy and security when accessing your cloud-based reports.

You can easily use tools such as Google Data Studio to present information, such as the demographic data infographic below. 

Different team members can collaborate on reports, giving you a better overview of how your business is performing. With Venngage’s real-time collaboration feature, working with team members becomes much easier.

With such flexible modern tools, it’s not only easier to create good data reports but also to disseminate them via different channels, from automated emails to presenting them via a dashboard report or via a specific app. 

Know the audience for your report

Why are you creating a report and who is it for? These are two essential questions of data reporting that will help to decide what data is used and how you present it. 

An annual report may just be an overview of how the business has performed so that relevant stakeholders can see it. Other reports may be created for specific reasons such as presenting financial data .

The ‘who’ is as important as the ‘what’. The report you present to a potential client will probably look very different from a report created for your C-suite requesting the purchase of an on-premise system to improve enterprise planning. 

For an external report, you’re more likely to be creative in the use of fonts and graphics than you would be with an internal one. 

A branded report is always more impactful. Use Venngage’s My Brand Kit to import branding assets from multiple organizations, including logos, fonts, and colors. Then you can apply the brand to any design with just one click.

Have a detailed plan and choose the appropriate metrics

You need to identify what data matters (or matters most). The first step to doing that is to consider what you want to achieve from the data and the related reports. By doing so, you can eliminate the ‘white noise’ of unnecessary data that may end up hiding the numbers that really matter.

Different reports will, of course, call for different data sets. Generally, your data will come from (and give insights into) one area of your company. For example, if creating a report on customer retention, then a major piece of data is going to be your churn rate. Reports may be created for specific reasons. These can include:

• Recommendations : These could be to encourage some changes to current systems and processes. For example, a manager may want changes to the current task management process, and a data-driven report could highlight flaws in the current process. 
• Risk/feasibility : Maybe a significant change is planned to your business model, such as switching production to a whole new line of products. Risk and feasibility reports can help assess any risks involved and the potential success of any new plan.
• R&D (research and development) : Many businesses thrive and scale through innovation. Data and reports based on R&D can influence decisions on what direction a business should take.
• Regulation/Compliance : All industries face some sort of regulatory requirements. These can include things such as PCI regulations for merchants who take payments by credit cards. Data in reports can illustrate how well you’re complying with such regulations, as well as highlighting any areas that need improving. 
• KPIs and metrics : This data can be like a major health check for your organization. It demonstrates how well you’re performing in the measured areas such as sales statistics. It can also help you see where you may need to implement new processes, such as order management solutions. 

Your KPIs will demonstrate how well, or not, your previous planning and strategic decisions are working. They can also influence every major decision regarding your business as you move forward, including scalability, budgeting (in every area), marketing campaigns, and so on. Summary reports can help illustrate your results concisely.

When working with KPI data, there are a few questions you should consider:

• What do you need to know from the metric report or data? 
• Will the data presented on your dashboard report actually help inform decisions?
• What insights do the readers need to gain from this report?
• Which KPIs are relevant and should be included in any report? 
• Are other KPIs not primarily relevant, but would offer benefits if included?

Easily add charts to your reports with Venngage. Import data from a Google sheet or CSV file and the editor automatically populates the data into your report.

Visualize data in your reports

Effective data visualization can transform boring numbers into something engaging and interesting. There are many ways to visualize data nowadays, from using the report generation capabilities of business intelligence (BI) dashboards or Google Data Studio to utilizing effective report templates like the one below. 

Some examples of good templates include:

• Statistical Infographic  
• Nonprofit Impact Report
• Budget Report  

As with other areas of reporting and analytics, it’s important to consider the reason for the report and who will be viewing it. While you may be more creative with a report designed as a pitch for a new customer, you don’t want to go overboard. Use visuals that effectively communicate what the data says in a concise and understandable format. 

You should also consider how people will view the report. While some reports may be presented at a meeting as a slideshow or presentation, other reports may be sent to relevant stakeholders in an email or other formats. This means you have to make sure that any visualizations can be viewed on multiple device types.

Make an actionable data report

Some reports may be purely for informational purposes, but the majority are designed to influence and inform decisions and actions. There’s little point in cramming such a report full of great data and visualizations without some sort of conclusion that can lead to those decisions and actions. 

You need to go beyond your report simply showing “how things are” and add in “this is what we need to do to change or improve”. Think of it as being an operational CTA (call to action) that demonstrates what steps and decisions should be made next. You should also be showing why those decisions are needed and the benefits they will bring. 

Use the right chart or table

Graphs and tables can be an integral part of a data report, but you don’t want them to be confusing or misleading. Before you create a graph or table, ask yourself the question: “What do I want this to show?” These are visual representations of particular aspects you want to report on, such as increases in conversion rates by season. 

Make your report easy to read

Whether presented virtually or as hard copy, you want people to be able to read any report easily. That means carefully considering any use of fonts, themes, colors, and backgrounds. For example, white font on a light background will be difficult to read. It is worth having your report “proofread” by at least two colleagues to ensure readability. 

The takeaway 

Data, and data reporting, have come a long way in recent years. Gone are the dull lists of figures, to be replaced by reports that can be both visually engaging and also insightful. And though visually engaging is a great thing to be, that insightfulness is the primary aim of any data reporting you do. 

Any report needs to be of high quality and must engage the reader well, but it must also inform them as much as possible, especially when the data reporting seeks to influence important strategic or operational decisions. Good data reports can be the fuel that drives your business upwards and forwards.

Need help making a data report? Create one in minutes with Venngage’s easy-to-use drag-and-drop editor.

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Home Market Research

Research Reports: Definition and How to Write Them

Reports are usually spread across a vast horizon of topics but are focused on communicating information about a particular topic and a niche target market. The primary motive of research reports is to convey integral details about a study for marketers to consider while designing new strategies.

Certain events, facts, and other information based on incidents need to be relayed to the people in charge, and creating research reports is the most effective communication tool. Ideal research reports are extremely accurate in the offered information with a clear objective and conclusion. These reports should have a clean and structured format to relay information effectively.

What are Research Reports?

Research reports are recorded data prepared by researchers or statisticians after analyzing the information gathered by conducting organized research, typically in the form of surveys or qualitative methods .

A research report is a reliable source to recount details about a conducted research. It is most often considered to be a true testimony of all the work done to garner specificities of research.

The various sections of a research report are:

• Background/Introduction
• Implemented Methods
• Results based on Analysis
• Deliberation

Learn more: Quantitative Research

Components of Research Reports

Research is imperative for launching a new product/service or a new feature. The markets today are extremely volatile and competitive due to new entrants every day who may or may not provide effective products. An organization needs to make the right decisions at the right time to be relevant in such a market with updated products that suffice customer demands.

The details of a research report may change with the purpose of research but the main components of a report will remain constant. The research approach of the market researcher also influences the style of writing reports. Here are seven main components of a productive research report:

• Research Report Summary: The entire objective along with the overview of research are to be included in a summary which is a couple of paragraphs in length. All the multiple components of the research are explained in brief under the report summary.  It should be interesting enough to capture all the key elements of the report.
• Research Introduction: There always is a primary goal that the researcher is trying to achieve through a report. In the introduction section, he/she can cover answers related to this goal and establish a thesis which will be included to strive and answer it in detail.  This section should answer an integral question: “What is the current situation of the goal?”.  After the research design was conducted, did the organization conclude the goal successfully or they are still a work in progress –  provide such details in the introduction part of the research report.
• Research Methodology: This is the most important section of the report where all the important information lies. The readers can gain data for the topic along with analyzing the quality of provided content and the research can also be approved by other market researchers . Thus, this section needs to be highly informative with each aspect of research discussed in detail.  Information needs to be expressed in chronological order according to its priority and importance. Researchers should include references in case they gained information from existing techniques.
• Research Results: A short description of the results along with calculations conducted to achieve the goal will form this section of results. Usually, the exposition after data analysis is carried out in the discussion part of the report.

Learn more: Quantitative Data

• Research Discussion: The results are discussed in extreme detail in this section along with a comparative analysis of reports that could probably exist in the same domain. Any abnormality uncovered during research will be deliberated in the discussion section.  While writing research reports, the researcher will have to connect the dots on how the results will be applicable in the real world.
• Research References and Conclusion: Conclude all the research findings along with mentioning each and every author, article or any content piece from where references were taken.

Learn more: Qualitative Observation

15 Tips for Writing Research Reports

Writing research reports in the manner can lead to all the efforts going down the drain. Here are 15 tips for writing impactful research reports:

• Prepare the context before starting to write and start from the basics:  This was always taught to us in school – be well-prepared before taking a plunge into new topics. The order of survey questions might not be the ideal or most effective order for writing research reports. The idea is to start with a broader topic and work towards a more specific one and focus on a conclusion or support, which a research should support with the facts.  The most difficult thing to do in reporting, without a doubt is to start. Start with the title, the introduction, then document the first discoveries and continue from that. Once the marketers have the information well documented, they can write a general conclusion.
• Keep the target audience in mind while selecting a format that is clear, logical and obvious to them:  Will the research reports be presented to decision makers or other researchers? What are the general perceptions around that topic? This requires more care and diligence. A researcher will need a significant amount of information to start writing the research report. Be consistent with the wording, the numbering of the annexes and so on. Follow the approved format of the company for the delivery of research reports and demonstrate the integrity of the project with the objectives of the company.
• Have a clear research objective: A researcher should read the entire proposal again, and make sure that the data they provide contributes to the objectives that were raised from the beginning. Remember that speculations are for conversations, not for research reports, if a researcher speculates, they directly question their own research.
• Establish a working model:  Each study must have an internal logic, which will have to be established in the report and in the evidence. The researchers’ worst nightmare is to be required to write research reports and realize that key questions were not included.

Learn more: Quantitative Observation

• Gather all the information about the research topic. Who are the competitors of our customers? Talk to other researchers who have studied the subject of research, know the language of the industry. Misuse of the terms can discourage the readers of research reports from reading further.
• Read aloud while writing. While reading the report, if the researcher hears something inappropriate, for example, if they stumble over the words when reading them, surely the reader will too. If the researcher can’t put an idea in a single sentence, then it is very long and they must change it so that the idea is clear to everyone.
• Check grammar and spelling. Without a doubt, good practices help to understand the report. Use verbs in the present tense. Consider using the present tense, which makes the results sound more immediate. Find new words and other ways of saying things. Have fun with the language whenever possible.
• Discuss only the discoveries that are significant. If some data are not really significant, do not mention them. Remember that not everything is truly important or essential within research reports.

Learn more: Qualitative Data

• Try and stick to the survey questions. For example, do not say that the people surveyed “were worried” about an research issue , when there are different degrees of concern.
• The graphs must be clear enough so that they understand themselves. Do not let graphs lead the reader to make mistakes: give them a title, include the indications, the size of the sample, and the correct wording of the question.
• Be clear with messages. A researcher should always write every section of the report with an accuracy of details and language.
• Be creative with titles – Particularly in segmentation studies choose names “that give life to research”. Such names can survive for a long time after the initial investigation.
• Create an effective conclusion: The conclusion in the research reports is the most difficult to write, but it is an incredible opportunity to excel. Make a precise summary. Sometimes it helps to start the conclusion with something specific, then it describes the most important part of the study, and finally, it provides the implications of the conclusions.
• Get a couple more pair of eyes to read the report. Writers have trouble detecting their own mistakes. But they are responsible for what is presented. Ensure it has been approved by colleagues or friends before sending the find draft out.

Learn more: Market Research and Analysis

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Writing up a Research Report

• First Online: 10 November 2021

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• Stefan Hunziker 3 &
• Michael Blankenagel 3  

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A research report is one big argument how and why you came up with your conclusions. To make it a convincing argument, a typical guiding structure has developed. In the different chapters, distinct issues need to be addressed to explain to the reader why your conclusions are valid. The governing principle for writing the report is full disclosure: to explain everything and ensure replicability by another researcher.

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Barros, L. O. (2016). The only academic phrasebook you’ll ever need. Createspace Independent Publishing Platform.

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Field, A. (2016). An adventure in statistics. The reality enigma . SAGE.

Field, A. (2020). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th ed.). SAGE.

Früh, M., Keimer, I., & Blankenagel, M. (2019). The impact of Balanced Scorecard excellence on shareholder returns. IFZ Working Paper No. 0003/2019. Retrieved June 09, 2021, from https://zenodo.org/record/2571603#.YMDUafkzZaQ .

Yin, R. K. (2013). Case study research: Design and methods (5th ed.). SAGE.

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About this chapter

Hunziker, S., Blankenagel, M. (2021). Writing up a Research Report. In: Research Design in Business and Management. Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-34357-6_4

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Argonne National Laboratory

Guide to formatting research reports.

Research reports are a way to communicate the story of your experiment.  You want to explain why the experiment was done, how it was done, the results, interpretation of the results, and why the experiment matters.  

The reports have a particular style so that information is presented in a very clear, concise, and logical manner.  It is very important that you follow the SULI or CCI guidelines for your report (see appropriate sections of the Communicating Science webpage).  The information below highlights details of how to appropriately prepare each section.

• Abstract : This is a summary of the research paper.  Its purpose is to allow the reader to quickly review the important aspects of the paper. 
• Introduction : The purpose of this section is to introduce the reader to the research question and provide rationale for the study that was done. 
• Methods : This section outlines all of the methods used during the study. 
• Results : All experimental data should be included here.  Do not include any interpretation of data.   The purpose of this section is to show the data in such a way that the reader can interpret it for him/herself.
• Discussion : The purpose of this section is to bring all parts of the paper into perspective. 
• References : All material obtained from outside sources should be properly referenced in the text and listed at the end of the paper.

Format of Each Section

All included items should be as brief as possible – word limits are usually around 300-500 words.  SULI guidelines are 500 words.  The following components are important:

• A brief background as to why the experiment was done,
• A clear statement of the purpose of the experiment – the research question,
• A brief summary of important methods,
• A summary of the experimental data,
• A concise statement of conclusions,
• A statement about why the experiment was important.

Introduction

To put the research into perspective and provide rationale for the experiments, the following components should be included:

• Background information from the literature that puts the current experiments into perspective,
• A statement of the general hypothesis for how the system functions,
• A clear statement of the specific research question that is being asked,
• A brief description of the experiment performed.  Do NOT include results or conclusions.

This is not intended to be a laboratory manual, so ​ “ cookbook” type of material is not necessary.  However, enough information should be provided so that a reasonably competent person could replicate the study by reading the description and doing a small amount of further checking.  The following should be included:

• Chemicals and other materials used and their sources,
• Experimental manipulations, control groups, number of replications, etc,
• All research methods used with references where appropriate,
• Data collection techniques,
• Analysis techniques,
• Statistical analysis

All experimental data including charts, graphs, tables, photographs, etc should be put in this section.  All charts, etc. should be referred to and explained in the text.  Do not include any interpretation of data.   The purpose of this section is to show the data in such a way that the reader can interpret it for him/herself.  When formatting this section, there are some important things to keep in mind.

1. Significant Digits: Pay attention to how many digits you use when reporting numerical data, particularly after a calculation.  It is not desirable or accurate to report all the digits just because your calculator or Excel reports them.  Report only as many digits as accurately measured by the instrument used.  After a calculation (for example, a mean calculation) it is acceptable to report one additional digit.  Do not report any more digits than is acceptable.   Doing so would suggest more accuracy than was actually measured.

2. Describing Data: Make every effort to be precise in your descriptions – do not use ambiguous words.  When statistical analysis is done, be careful in how it is used.  If two data sets are not significantly different from each other, then they are the same even if the numerical values are different. 

• It is incorrect to say, ​ “ The rate of secretion of VEGF was greater in Group 1 when compared to Group 2, although they were not significantly different from each other.”  The correct statement would be ​ “ Groups 1 and 2 secreted VEGF at the same rate.”

3. Figures: Label all pictures and graphs as ​ “ Figure” and number sequentially.  Place the label below the figure and include a descriptive title for the figure.  Additional information can be included in the figure legend for a clearer understanding the figure.  DO NOT place excessive descriptions in the legend.

4. Tables: Label as ​ “ Table’ and number sequentially.  Place the label above the table with a title for the table.  Place clarifying information below the table.

5. Data Labeling: Make sure that words are used to identify experimental groups, tubes, etc on all figures and tables.  DO NOT LABEL SIMPLY AS ​ “ TUBE 1” OR ​ “ GROUP 1” etc.

It is very important that data is described in two places – both in the written text and in the figures and tables.

6. Text vs. Figures/Tables: Do not simply place charts, graphs, etc in the results section without explanation.  ALL data should be described in written form.  If data is placed in a table or figure it MUST ALSO BE found in the text of the document.  The text description of the data should specifically refer to the figure or table containing the data.  See specific examples for how that is done below.

For the figures, note the figure legend and the text description below the legend.

As shown in Figure 1, students 19 and 22 were heterozygous for D1S80 alleles while students 18, 21, 23, 24 and 25 were homozygous.  Amplification of the D1S80 region in students 17 and 20 failed.

Flagella re-grew after deflagellation in untreated (medium I) cultures to approximately 50% of total length after 100 minutes. This re-growth was slowed in both the cyclohexamide and colchicine treated cultures with colchicine treated cultures showing no growth at all (Figure 2).

For the table, note the title at the top, descriptive information on the bottom, and the text description of the data.

Table 1: Normalized Relative Expression of mRNA for Paracrine Factors

The normalized relative expression of mRNA in mesenchymal stem cells for the various paracrine factors was determined using RT-qPCR (Table 1).  Serum reduction to 5% caused a significant drop in the relative expression of VEGF mRNA compared to 20% in normoxic (p<0.05) but not in hypoxic conditions.  Hypoxia resulted in a significant elevation of VEGF expression levels for cells grown in 5% serum (p<0.05%) but not in 20%.  Expression of MCP-1 …

This section should draw conclusions from the data presented and put it into a larger perspective in terms of how these fits in with other research that has been done.  The following should be included:

• A clear and concise statement of the major conclusions of the study at the beginning of this section.  This should show how the experiments answer the research question and relate to the hypothesis posed in the introduction.  The statement should be supported by a summary of key data presented found in the results section.
• A statement about how this research is different from other work done,
• A review of the pertinent literature putting the current study into a larger perspective.  Reference to previous studies that support or contradict the experimental conclusions should be done.  If there are contradictions, an explanation as to why that may have happened is needed.
• A discussion of why this study is important,

All material obtained from outside sources should be properly referenced in the text.  The method used for this varies depending on where the paper is published.  The following are SULI guidelines for research reports which requires the use of the American Institute of Physics ( AIP ) Style Manual, 4 th edition.  The examples are taken from the SULI guide.  More detailed instructions can be found in the guidelines (pages 8-10 of the SULI guidelines and page 9 of the AIP Style Manual).

• As pointed out by Bray, 6 these calculations are in agreement with other experimental values. 7,8
• 1 Gale Young and R. E. Funderlic, ​ “ Positron decay in Na,” J. Appl. Phys. 44, 5151- 5153 (1973).
• 2 M. D. Levinson, ​ “ Rate of decay of auditory sensation,” Phys. Today 30 (5), 44-49 (1977).
• 3 L. S. Berks, Electron Probe Microanalysis, 2 nd ed. (Wiley, New York, 1971), p. 40.
• 4 D. K. Edwards, in Proceedings of Ihe 1972 Heat Transfer Institute, edited by R. B. Landis (Stanford University, Stanford, CA , 1972), pp. 71-72.

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

The purpose of a field report in the social sciences is to describe the deliberate observation of people, places, and/or events and to analyze what has been observed in order to identify and categorize common themes in relation to the research problem underpinning the study. The content represents the researcher's interpretation of meaning found in data that has been gathered during one or more observational events.

Flick, Uwe. The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Data Collection . London: SAGE Publications, 2018; Lofland, John, David Snow, Leon Anderson, and Lyn H. Lofland. Analyzing Social Settings: A Guide to Qualitative Observation and Analysis. Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, 2022; Baker, Lynda. "Observation: A Complex Research Method." Library Trends 55 (Summer 2006): 171-189.; Kellehear, Allan. The Unobtrusive Researcher: A Guide to Methods . New York: Routledge, 2020.

How to Approach Writing a Field Report

How to Begin

Field reports are most often assigned in disciplines of the applied social sciences [e.g., social work, anthropology, gerontology, criminal justice, education, law, the health care services] where it is important to build a bridge of relevancy between the theoretical concepts learned in the classroom and the practice of actually doing the work you are being taught to do. Field reports are also common in certain science disciplines [e.g., geology] but these reports are organized differently and serve a different purpose than what is described below.

Professors will assign a field report with the intention of improving your understanding of key theoretical concepts by applying methods of careful and structured observation of, and reflection about, people, places, or phenomena existing in their natural settings. Field reports facilitate the development of data collection techniques and observation skills and they help you to understand how theory applies to real world situations. Field reports are also an opportunity to obtain evidence through methods of observing professional practice that contribute to or challenge existing theories.

We are all observers of people, their interactions, places, and events; however, your responsibility when writing a field report is to conduct research based on data generated by the act of designing a specific study, deliberate observation, synthesis of key findings, and interpretation of their meaning.

When writing a field report you need to:

• Systematically observe and accurately record the varying aspects of a situation . Always approach your field study with a detailed protocol about what you will observe, where you should conduct your observations, and the method by which you will collect and record your data.
• Continuously analyze your observations . Always look for the meaning underlying the actions you observe. Ask yourself: What's going on here? What does this observed activity mean? What else does this relate to? Note that this is an on-going process of reflection and analysis taking place for the duration of your field research.
• Keep the report’s aims in mind while you are observing . Recording what you observe should not be done randomly or haphazardly; you must be focused and pay attention to details. Enter the observation site [i.e., "field"] with a clear plan about what you are intending to observe and record in relation to the research problem while, at the same time, being prepared to adapt to changing circumstances as they may arise.
• Consciously observe, record, and analyze what you hear and see in the context of a theoretical framework . This is what separates data gatherings from reporting. The theoretical framework guiding your field research should determine what, when, and how you observe and act as the foundation from which you interpret your findings in relation to the underlying assumptions embedded in the theoretical framework .

Techniques to Record Your Observations Although there is no limit to the type of data gathering techniques you can use, these are the most frequently used methods:

Note Taking This is the most common and easiest method of recording your observations. Tips for taking notes include: organizing some shorthand symbols beforehand so that recording basic or repeated actions does not impede your ability to observe, using many small paragraphs, which reflect changes in activities, who is talking, etc., and, leaving space on the page so you can write down additional thoughts and ideas about what’s being observed, any theoretical insights, and notes to yourself that are set aside for further investigation. See drop-down tab for additional information about note-taking.

Photography With the advent of smart phones, an almost unlimited number of high quality photographs can be taken of the objects, events, and people observed during a field study. Photographs can help capture an important moment in time as well as document details about the space where your observation takes place. Taking a photograph can save you time in documenting the details of a space that would otherwise require extensive note taking. However, be aware that flash photography could undermine your ability to observe unobtrusively so assess the lighting in your observation space; if it's too dark, you may need to rely on taking notes. Also, you should reject the idea that photographs represent some sort of "window into the world" because this assumption creates the risk of over-interpreting what they show. As with any product of data gathering, you are the sole instrument of interpretation and meaning-making, not the object itself. Video and Audio Recordings Video or audio recording your observations has the positive effect of giving you an unfiltered record of the observation event. It also facilitates repeated analysis of your observations. This can be particularly helpful as you gather additional information or insights during your research. However, these techniques have the negative effect of increasing how intrusive you are as an observer and will often not be practical or even allowed under certain circumstances [e.g., interaction between a doctor and a patient] and in certain organizational settings [e.g., a courtroom]. Illustrations/Drawings This does not refer to an artistic endeavor but, rather, refers to the possible need, for example, to draw a map of the observation setting or illustrating objects in relation to people's behavior. This can also take the form of rough tables, charts, or graphs documenting the frequency and type of activities observed. These can be subsequently placed in a more readable format when you write your field report. To save time, draft a table [i.e., columns and rows] on a separate piece of paper before an observation if you know you will be entering data in that way.

NOTE:   You may consider using a laptop or other electronic device to record your notes as you observe, but keep in mind the possibility that the clicking of keys while you type or noises from your device can be obtrusive, whereas writing your notes on paper is relatively quiet and unobtrusive. Always assess your presence in the setting where you're gathering the data so as to minimize your impact on the subject or phenomenon being studied.

ANOTHER NOTE:   Techniques of deliberate observation and data gathering are not innate skills; they are skills that must be learned and practiced in order to achieve proficiency. Before your first observation, practice the technique you plan to use in a setting similar to your study site [e.g., take notes about how people choose to enter checkout lines at a grocery store if your research involves examining the choice patterns of unrelated people forced to queue in busy social settings]. When the act of data gathering counts, you'll be glad you practiced beforehand.

YET ANOTHER NOTE:   An issue rarely discussed in the literature about conducting field research is whether you should move around the study site while observing or remaining situated in one place. Moving around can be intrusive, but it facilitates observing people's behavior from multiple vectors. However, if you remain in one place throughout the observation [or during each observation], you will eventually blend into the background and diminish the chance of unintentionally influencing people's behavior. If the site has a complex set of interactions or interdependent activities [e.g., a play ground], consider moving around; if the study site is relatively fixed [e.g., a classroom], then consider staying in one place while observing.

Examples of Things to Document While Observing

• Physical setting . The characteristics of an occupied space and the human use of the place where the observation(s) are being conducted.
• Objects and material culture . This refers to the presence, placement, and arrangement of objects that impact the behavior or actions of those being observed. If applicable, describe the cultural artifacts representing the beliefs [i.e., the values, ideas, attitudes, and assumptions] of the individuals you are observing [e.g., the choice of particular types of clothing in the observation of family gatherings during culturally specific holidays].
• Use of language . Don't just observe but  listen to what is being said, how is it being said, and the tone of conversations among participants.
• Behavior cycles . This refers to documenting when and who performs what behavior or task and how often they occur. Record at which stage this behavior is occurring within the setting.
• The order in which events unfold . Note sequential patterns of behavior or the moment when actions or events take place and their significance. Also, be prepared to note moments that diverge from these sequential patterns of behavior or actions.
• Physical characteristics of subjects. If relevant, document personal characteristics of individuals being observed. Note that, unless this data can be verified in interviews or from documentary evidence, you should only focus on characteristics that can be clearly observed [e.g., clothing, physical appearance, body language].
• Expressive body movements . This would include things like body posture or facial expressions. Note that it may be relevant to also assess whether expressive body movements support or contradict the language used in conversation [e.g., detecting sarcasm].

Brief notes about all of these examples contextualize your observations; however, your observation notes will be guided primarily by your theoretical framework, keeping in mind that your observations will feed into and potentially modify or alter these frameworks.

Sampling Techniques

Sampling refers to the process used to select a portion of the population for study . Qualitative research, of which observation is one method of data gathering, is generally based on non-probability and purposive sampling rather than probability or random approaches characteristic of quantitatively-driven studies. Sampling in observational research is flexible and often continues until no new themes emerge from the data, a point referred to as data saturation.

All sampling decisions are made for the explicit purpose of obtaining the richest possible source of information to answer the research questions. Decisions about sampling assumes you know what you want to observe, what behaviors are important to record, and what research problem you are addressing before you begin the study. These questions determine what sampling technique you should use, so be sure you have adequately answered them before selecting a sampling method.

Ways to sample when conducting an observation include:

• Ad Libitum Sampling -- this approach is not that different from what people do at the zoo; they observe whatever seems interesting at the moment. There is no organized system of recording the observations; you just note whatever seems relevant at the time. The advantage of this method is that you are often able to observe relatively rare or unusual behaviors that might be missed by more deliberately designed sampling methods. This method is also useful for obtaining preliminary observations that can be used to develop your final field study. Problems using this method include the possibility of inherent bias toward conspicuous behaviors or individuals, thereby missing mundane or repeated patterns of behavior, and that you may miss brief interactions in social settings.
• Behavior Sampling -- this involves watching the entire group of subjects and recording each occurrence of a specific behavior of interest and with reference to which individuals were involved. The method is useful in recording rare behaviors missed by other sampling methods and is often used in conjunction with focal or scan methods [see below]. However, sampling can be biased towards particular conspicuous behaviors.
• Continuous Recording -- provides a faithful record of behavior including frequencies, durations, and latencies [the time that elapses between a stimulus and the response to it]. This is a very demanding method because you are trying to record everything within the setting and, thus, measuring reliability may be sacrificed. In addition, durations and latencies are only reliable if subjects remain present throughout the collection of data. However, this method facilitates analyzing sequences of behaviors and ensures obtaining a wealth of data about the observation site and the people within it. The use of audio or video recording is most useful with this type of sampling.
• Focal Sampling -- this involves observing one individual for a specified amount of time and recording all instances of that individual's behavior. Usually you have a set of predetermined categories or types of behaviors that you are interested in observing [e.g., when a teacher walks around the classroom] and you keep track of the duration of those behaviors. This approach doesn't tend to bias one behavior over another and provides significant detail about a individual's behavior. However, with this method, you likely have to conduct a lot of focal samples before you have a good idea about how group members interact. It can also be difficult within certain settings to keep one individual in sight for the entire period of the observation without being intrusive.
• Instantaneous Sampling -- this is where observation sessions are divided into short intervals divided by sample points. At each sample point the observer records if predetermined behaviors of interest are taking place. This method is not effective for recording discrete events of short duration and, frequently, observers will want to record novel behaviors that occur slightly before or after the point of sampling, creating a sampling error. Though not exact, this method does give you an idea of durations and is relatively easy to do. It is also good for recording behavior patterns occurring at a specific instant, such as, movement or body positions.
• One-Zero Sampling -- this is very similar to instantaneous sampling, only the observer records if the behaviors of interest have occurred at any time during an interval instead of at the instant of the sampling point. The method is useful for capturing data on behavior patterns that start and stop repeatedly and rapidly, but that last only for a brief period of time. The disadvantage of this approach is that you get a dimensionless score for an entire recording session, so you only get one one data point for each recording session.
• Scan Sampling -- this method involves taking a census of the entire observed group at predetermined time periods and recording what each individual is doing at that moment. This is useful for obtaining group behavioral data and allows for data that are evenly representative across individuals and periods of time. On the other hand, this method may be biased towards more conspicuous behaviors and you may miss a lot of what is going on between observations, especially rare or unusual behaviors. It is also difficult to record more than a few individuals in a group setting without missing what each individual is doing at each predetermined moment in time [e.g., children sitting at a table during lunch at school]. The use of audio or video recording is useful with this type of sampling.

Alderks, Peter. Data Collection. Psychology 330 Course Documents. Animal Behavior Lab. University of Washington; Emerson, Robert M. Contemporary Field Research: Perspectives and Formulations . 2nd ed. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 2001; Emerson, Robert M. et al. “Participant Observation and Fieldnotes.” In Handbook of Ethnography . Paul Atkinson et al., eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001), 352-368; Emerson, Robert M. et al. Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes . 2nd ed. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2011; Ethnography, Observational Research, and Narrative Inquiry. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Hazel, Spencer. "The Paradox from Within: Research Participants Doing-Being-Observed." Qualitative Research 16 (August 2016): 446-457; Pace, Tonio. Writing Field Reports. Scribd Online Library; Presser, Jon and Dona Schwartz. “Photographs within the Sociological Research Process.” In Image-based Research: A Sourcebook for Qualitative Researchers . Jon Prosser, editor (London: Falmer Press, 1998), pp. 115-130; Pyrczak, Fred and Randall R. Bruce. Writing Empirical Research Reports: A Basic Guide for Students of the Social and Behavioral Sciences . 5th ed. Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Publishing, 2005; Report Writing. UniLearning. University of Wollongong, Australia; Wolfinger, Nicholas H. "On Writing Fieldnotes: Collection Strategies and Background Expectancies.” Qualitative Research 2 (April 2002): 85-95; Writing Reports. Anonymous. The Higher Education Academy.

Structure and Writing Style

How you choose to format your field report is determined by the research problem, the theoretical framework that is driving your analysis, the observations that you make, and/or specific guidelines established by your professor. Since field reports do not have a standard format, it is worthwhile to determine from your professor what the preferred structure and organization should be before you begin to write. Note that field reports should be written in the past tense. With this in mind, most field reports in the social sciences include the following elements:

I.  Introduction The introduction should describe the research problem, the specific objectives of your research, and the important theories or concepts underpinning your field study. The introduction should describe the nature of the organization or setting where you are conducting the observation, what type of observations you have conducted, what your focus was, when you observed, and the methods you used for collecting the data. Collectively, this descriptive information should support reasons why you chose the observation site and the people or events within it. You should also include a review of pertinent literature related to the research problem, particularly if similar methods were used in prior studies. Conclude your introduction with a statement about how the rest of the paper is organized.

II.  Description of Activities

Your readers only knowledge and understanding of what happened will come from the description section of your report because they were not witnesses to the situation, people, or events that you are writing about. Given this, it is crucial that you provide sufficient details to place the analysis that will follow into proper context; don't make the mistake of providing a description without context. The description section of a field report is similar to a well written piece of journalism. Therefore, a useful approach to systematically describing the varying aspects of an observed situation is to answer the "Five W’s of Investigative Reporting." As Dubbels notes [p. 19], these are:

• What -- describe what you observed. Note the temporal, physical, and social boundaries you imposed to limit the observations you made. What were your general impressions of the situation you were observing. For example, as a student teacher, what is your impression of the application of iPads as a learning device in a history class; as a cultural anthropologist, what is your impression of women's participation in a Native American religious ritual?
• Where -- provide background information about the setting of your observation and, if necessary, note important material objects that are present that help contextualize the observation [e.g., arrangement of computers in relation to student engagement with the teacher].
• When -- record factual data about the day and the beginning and ending time of each observation. Note that it may also be necessary to include background information or key events which impact upon the situation you were observing [e.g., observing the ability of teachers to re-engage students after coming back from an unannounced fire drill].
• Who -- note background and demographic information about the individuals being observed e.g., age, gender, ethnicity, and/or any other variables relevant to your study]. Record who is doing what and saying what, as well as, who is not doing or saying what. If relevant, be sure to record who was missing from the observation.
• Why -- why were you doing this? Describe the reasons for selecting particular situations to observe. Note why something happened. Also note why you may have included or excluded certain information.

III.  Interpretation and Analysis

Always place the analysis and interpretations of your field observations within the larger context of the theoretical assumptions and issues you described in the introduction. Part of your responsibility in analyzing the data is to determine which observations are worthy of comment and interpretation, and which observations are more general in nature. It is your theoretical framework that allows you to make these decisions. You need to demonstrate to the reader that you are conducting the field work through the eyes of an informed viewer and from the perspective of a casual observer.

Here are some questions to ask yourself when analyzing your observations:

• What is the meaning of what you have observed?
• Why do you think what you observed happened? What evidence do you have for your reasoning?
• What events or behaviors were typical or widespread? If appropriate, what was unusual or out of the ordinary? How were they distributed among categories of people?
• Do you see any connections or patterns in what you observed?
• Why did the people you observed proceed with an action in the way that they did? What are the implications of this?
• Did the stated or implicit objectives of what you were observing match what was achieved?
• What were the relative merits of the behaviors you observed?
• What were the strengths and weaknesses of the observations you recorded?
• Do you see connections between what you observed and the findings of similar studies identified from your review of the literature?
• How do your observations fit into the larger context of professional practice? In what ways have your observations possibly changed or affirmed your perceptions of professional practice?
• Have you learned anything from what you observed?

NOTE:   Only base your interpretations on what you have actually observed. Do not speculate or manipulate your observational data to fit into your study's theoretical framework.

IV.  Conclusion and Recommendations

The conclusion should briefly recap of the entire study, reiterating the importance or significance of your observations. Avoid including any new information. You should also state any recommendations you may have based on the results of your study. Be sure to describe any unanticipated problems you encountered and note the limitations of your study. The conclusion should not be more than two or three paragraphs.

V.  Appendix

This is where you would place information that is not essential to explaining your findings, but that supports your analysis [especially repetitive or lengthy information], that validates your conclusions, or that contextualizes a related point that helps the reader understand the overall report. Examples of information that could be included in an appendix are figures/tables/charts/graphs of results, statistics, pictures, maps, drawings, or, if applicable, transcripts of interviews. There is no limit to what can be included in the appendix or its format [e.g., a DVD recording of the observation site], provided that it is relevant to the study's purpose and reference is made to it in the report. If information is placed in more than one appendix ["appendices"], the order in which they are organized is dictated by the order they were first mentioned in the text of the report.

VI.  References

List all sources that you consulted and obtained information from while writing your field report. Note that field reports generally do not include further readings or an extended bibliography. However, consult with your professor concerning what your list of sources should be included and be sure to write them in the preferred citation style of your discipline or is preferred by your professor [i.e., APA, Chicago, MLA, etc.].

Alderks, Peter. Data Collection. Psychology 330 Course Documents. Animal Behavior Lab. University of Washington; Dubbels, Brock R. Exploring the Cognitive, Social, Cultural, and Psychological Aspects of Gaming and Simulations . Hershey, PA: IGI Global, 2018; Emerson, Robert M. Contemporary Field Research: Perspectives and Formulations . 2nd ed. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 2001; Emerson, Robert M. et al. “Participant Observation and Fieldnotes.” In Handbook of Ethnography . Paul Atkinson et al., eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001), 352-368; Emerson, Robert M. et al. Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes . 2nd ed. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2011; Ethnography, Observational Research, and Narrative Inquiry. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Pace, Tonio. Writing Field Reports. Scribd Online Library; Pyrczak, Fred and Randall R. Bruce. Writing Empirical Research Reports: A Basic Guide for Students of the Social and Behavioral Sciences . 5th ed. Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Publishing, 2005; Report Writing. UniLearning. University of Wollongong, Australia; Wolfinger, Nicholas H. "On Writing Fieldnotes: Collection Strategies and Background Expectancies.” Qualitative Research 2 (April 2002): 85-95; Writing Reports. Anonymous. The Higher Education Academy.

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How To Present Your Market Research Results And Reports In An Efficient Way

Table of Contents

1) What Is A Market Research Report?

2) Market Research Reports Examples

3) Why Do You Need Market Research Reports

4) How To Make A Market Research Report?

5) Types Of Market Research Reports

6) Challenges & Mistakes Market Research Reports

Market research analyses are the go-to solution for many professionals, and for good reason: they save time, offer fresh insights, and provide clarity on your business. In turn, market research reports will help you to refine and polish your strategy. Plus, a well-crafted report will give your work more credibility while adding weight to any marketing recommendations you offer a client or executive.

But, while this is the case, today’s business world still lacks a way to present market-based research results efficiently. The static, antiquated nature of PowerPoint makes it a bad choice for presenting research discoveries, yet it is still widely used to present results. 

Fortunately, things are moving in the right direction. There are online data visualization tools that make it easy and fast to build powerful market research dashboards. They come in handy to manage the outcomes, but also the most important aspect of any analysis: the presentation of said outcomes, without which it becomes hard to make accurate, sound decisions. 

Here, we consider the benefits of conducting research analyses while looking at how to write and present market research reports, exploring their value, and, ultimately, getting the very most from your research results by using professional market research software .

Let’s get started.

What Is a Market Research Report?

A market research report is an online reporting tool used to analyze the public perception or viability of a company, product, or service. These reports contain valuable and digestible information like customer survey responses and social, economic, and geographical insights.

On a typical market research results example, you can interact with valuable trends and gain insight into consumer behavior and visualizations that will empower you to conduct effective competitor analysis. Rather than adding streams of tenuous data to a static spreadsheet, a full market research report template brings the outcomes of market-driven research to life, giving users a data analysis tool to create actionable strategies from a range of consumer-driven insights.

With digital market analysis reports, you can make your business more intelligent more efficient, and, ultimately, meet the needs of your target audience head-on. This, in turn, will accelerate your commercial success significantly.

Your Chance: Want to test a market research reporting software? Explore our 14-day free trial & benefit from interactive research reports!

How To Present Your Results: 4 Essential Market Research Report Templates

When it comes to sharing rafts of invaluable information, research dashboards are invaluable.

Any market analysis report example worth its salt will allow everyone to get a firm grip on their results and discoveries on a single page with ease. These dynamic online dashboards also boast interactive features that empower the user to drill down deep into specific pockets of information while changing demographic parameters, including gender, age, and region, filtering the results swiftly to focus on the most relevant insights for the task at hand.

These four market research report examples are different but equally essential and cover key elements required for market survey report success. You can also modify each and use it as a client dashboard .

While there are numerous types of dashboards that you can choose from to adjust and optimize your results, we have selected the top 3 that will tell you more about the story behind them. Let’s take a closer look.

1. Market Research Report: Brand Analysis

Our first example shares the results of a brand study. To do so, a survey has been performed on a sample of 1333 people, information that we can see in detail on the left side of the board, summarizing the gender, age groups, and geolocation.

**click to enlarge**

At the dashboard's center, we can see the market-driven research discoveries concerning first brand awareness with and without help, as well as themes and celebrity suggestions, to know which image the audience associates with the brand.

Such dashboards are extremely convenient to share the most important information in a snapshot. Besides being interactive (but it cannot be seen on an image), it is even easier to filter the results according to certain criteria without producing dozens of PowerPoint slides. For instance, I could easily filter the report by choosing only the female answers, only the people aged between 25 and 34, or only the 25-34 males if that is my target audience.

Primary KPIs:

a) Unaided Brand Awareness

The first market research KPI in this most powerful report example comes in the form of unaided brand awareness. Presented in a logical line-style chart, this particular market study report sample KPI is invaluable, as it will give you a clear-cut insight into how people affiliate your brand within their niche.

As you can see from our example, based on a specific survey question, you can see how your brand stacks up against your competitors regarding awareness. Based on these outcomes, you can formulate strategies to help you stand out more in your sector and, ultimately, expand your audience.

b) Aided Brand Awareness

This market survey report sample KPI focuses on aided brand awareness. A visualization that offers a great deal of insight into which brands come to mind in certain niches or categories, here, you will find out which campaigns and messaging your target consumers are paying attention to and engaging with.

By gaining access to this level of insight, you can conduct effective competitor research and gain valuable inspiration for your products, promotional campaigns, and marketing messages.

c) Brand image

When it comes to research reporting, understanding how others perceive your brand is one of the most golden pieces of information you could acquire. If you know how people feel about your brand image, you can take informed and very specific actions that will enhance the way people view and interact with your business.

By asking a focused question, this visual of KPIs will give you a definitive idea of whether respondents agree, disagree, or are undecided on particular descriptions or perceptions related to your brand image. If you’re looking to present yourself and your message in a certain way (reliable, charming, spirited, etc.), you can see how you stack up against the competition and find out if you need to tweak your imagery or tone of voice - invaluable information for any modern business.

d) Celebrity analysis

This indicator is a powerful part of our research KPI dashboard on top, as it will give you a direct insight into the celebrities, influencers, or public figures that your most valued consumers consider when thinking about (or interacting with) your brand.

Displayed in a digestible bar chart-style format, this useful metric will not only give you a solid idea of how your brand messaging is perceived by consumers (depending on the type of celebrity they associate with your brand) but also guide you on which celebrities or influencers you should contact.

By working with the right influencers in your niche, you will boost the impact and reach of your marketing campaigns significantly, improving your commercial awareness in the process. And this is the KPI that will make it happen.

2. Market Research Results On Customer Satisfaction

Here, we have some of the most important data a company should care about: their already-existing customers and their perception of their relationship with the brand. It is crucial when we know that it is five times more expensive to acquire a new consumer than to retain one.

This is why tracking metrics like the customer effort score or the net promoter score (how likely consumers are to recommend your products and services) is essential, especially over time. You need to improve these scores to have happy customers who will always have a much bigger impact on their friends and relatives than any of your amazing ad campaigns. Looking at other satisfaction indicators like the quality, pricing, and design, or the service they received is also a best practice: you want a global view of your performance regarding customer satisfaction metrics .

Such research results reports are a great tool for managers who do not have much time and hence need to use them effectively. Thanks to these dashboards, they can control data for long-running projects anytime.

Primary KPIs :

a) Net Promoter Score (NPS)

Another pivotal part of any informative research presentation is your NPS score, which will tell you how likely a customer is to recommend your brand to their peers.

Centered on overall customer satisfaction, your NPS Score can cover the functions and output of many departments, including marketing, sales, and customer service, but also serve as a building block for a call center dashboard . When you’re considering how to present your research effectively, this balanced KPI offers a masterclass. It’s logical, it has a cohesive color scheme, and it offers access to vital information at a swift glance. With an NPS Score, customers are split into three categories: promoters (those scoring your service 9 or 10), passives (those scoring your service 7 or 8), and detractors (those scoring your service 0 to 6). The aim of the game is to gain more promoters. By gaining an accurate snapshot of your NPS Score, you can create intelligent strategies that will boost your results over time.

b) Customer Satisfaction Score (CSAT)

The next in our examples of market research reports KPIs comes in the form of the CSAT. The vast majority of consumers that have a bad experience will not return. Honing in on your CSAT is essential if you want to keep your audience happy and encourage long-term consumer loyalty.

This magnificent, full report KPI will show how satisfied customers are with specific elements of your products or services. Getting to grips with these scores will allow you to pinpoint very specific issues while capitalizing on your existing strengths. As a result, you can take measures to improve your CSAT score while sharing positive testimonials on your social media platforms and website to build trust.

c) Customer Effort Score (CES)

When it comes to presenting research findings, keeping track of your CES Score is essential. The CES Score KPI will give you instant access to information on how easy or difficult your audience can interact with or discover your company based on a simple scale of one to ten.

By getting a clear-cut gauge of how your customers find engagement with your brand, you can iron out any weaknesses in your user experience (UX) offerings while spotting any friction, bottlenecks, or misleading messaging. In doing so, you can boost your CES score, satisfy your audience, and boost your bottom line.

3. Market Research Results On Product Innovation

This final market-driven research example report focuses on the product itself and its innovation. It is a useful report for future product development and market potential, as well as pricing decisions.

Using the same sample of surveyed people as for the first market-focused analytical report , they answer questions about their potential usage and purchase of the said product. It is good primary feedback on how the market would receive the new product you would launch. Then comes the willingness to pay, which helps set a price range that will not be too cheap to be trusted nor too expensive for what it is. That will be the main information for your pricing strategy.

a) Usage Intention

The first of our product innovation KPI-based examples comes in the form of usage intention. When you’re considering how to write a market research report, including metrics centered on consumer intent is critical.

This simple yet effective visualization will allow you to understand not only how users see your product but also whether they prefer previous models or competitor versions . While you shouldn’t base all of your product-based research on this KPI, it is very valuable, and you should use it to your advantage frequently.

b) Purchase Intention

Another aspect to consider when looking at how to present market research data is your audience’s willingness or motivation to purchase your product. Offering percentage-based information, this effective KPI provides a wealth of at-a-glance information to help you make accurate forecasts centered on your product and service offerings.

Analyzing this information regularly will give you the confidence and direction to develop strategies that will steer you to a more prosperous future, meeting the ever-changing needs of your audience on an ongoing basis.

c) Willingness To Pay (WPS)

Our final market research example KPI is based on how willing customers are to pay for a particular service or product based on a specific set of parameters. This dynamic visualization, represented in an easy-to-follow pie chart, will allow you to realign the value of your product (USPs, functions, etc.) while setting price points that are most likely to result in conversions. This is a market research presentation template that every modern organization should use to its advantage.

4. Market Research Report On Customer Demographics 

This particular example of market research report, generated with a modern dashboard creator , is a powerful tool, as it displays a cohesive mix of key demographic information in one intuitive space.

By breaking down these deep pockets of consumer-centric information, you can gain the power to develop more impactful customer communications while personalizing every aspect of your target audience’s journey across every channel or touchpoint. As a result, you can transform theoretical insights into actionable strategies that will result in significant commercial growth. 

Every section of this responsive marketing research report works in unison to build a profile of your core audience in a way that will guide your company’s consumer-facing strategies with confidence. With in-depth visuals based on gender, education level, and tech adoption, you have everything you need to speak directly to your audience at your fingertips.

Let’s look at the key performance indicators (KPIs) of this invaluable market research report example in more detail.

a) Customer By Gender

This KPI is highly visual and offers a clear-cut representation of your company’s gender share over time. By gaining access to this vital information, you can deliver a more personalized experience to specific audience segments while ensuring your messaging is fair, engaging, and inclusive.

b) Customers by education level

The next market analysis report template is a KPI that provides a logical breakdown of your customers’ level of education. By using this as a demographic marker, you can refine your products to suit the needs of your audience while crafting your content in a way that truly resonates with different customer groups.

c) Customers by technology adoption

Particularly valuable if you’re a company that sells tech goods or services, this linear KPI will show you where your customers are in terms of technological know-how or usage. By getting to grips with this information over time, you can develop your products or services in a way that offers direct value to your consumers while making your launches or promotions as successful as possible.

d) Customer age groups

By understanding your customers’ age distribution in detail, you can gain a deep understanding of their preferences. And that’s exactly what this market research report sample KPI does. Presented in a bar chart format, this KPI will give you a full breakdown of your customers’ age ranges, allowing you to build detailed buyer personas and segment your audience effectively.

Why Do You Need Market Research Reports?

As the adage goes, “Look before you leap“ – which is exactly what a research report is here for. As the headlights of a car, they will show you the pitfalls and fast lanes on your road to success: likes and dislikes of a specific market segment in a certain geographical area, their expectations, and readiness. Among other things, a research report will let you:

• Get a holistic view of the market : learn more about the target market and understand the various factors involved in the buying decisions. A broader view of the market lets you benchmark other companies you do not focus on. This, in turn, will empower you to gather the industry data that counts most. This brings us to our next point.
• Curate industry information with momentum: Whether you’re looking to rebrand, improve on an existing service, or launch a new product, time is of the essence. By working with the best market research reports created with modern BI reporting tools , you can visualize your discoveries and data, formatting them in a way that not only unearths hidden insights but also tells a story - a narrative that will gain a deeper level of understanding into your niche or industry. The features and functionality of a market analysis report will help you grasp the information that is most valuable to your organization, pushing you ahead of the pack in the process.
• Validate internal research: Doing the internal analysis is one thing, but double-checking with a third party also greatly helps avoid getting blinded by your own data.
• Use actionable data and make informed decisions: Once you understand consumer behavior as well as the market, your competitors, and the issues that will affect the industry in the future, you are better armed to position your brand. Combining all of it with the quantitative data collected will allow you to more successful product development. To learn more about different methods, we suggest you read our guide on data analysis techniques .
• Strategic planning: When you want to map out big-picture organizational goals, launch a new product development, plan a geographic market expansion, or even a merger and acquisition – all of this strategic thinking needs solid foundations to fulfill the variety of challenges that come along.
• Consistency across the board: Collecting, presenting, and analyzing your results in a way that’s smarter, more interactive, and more cohesive will ensure your customer communications, marketing campaigns, user journey, and offerings meet your audience’s needs consistently across the board. The result? Faster growth, increased customer loyalty, and more profit.
• Better communication: The right market research analysis template (or templates) will empower everyone in the company with access to valuable information - the kind that is relevant and comprehensible. When everyone is moving to the beat of the same drum, they will collaborate more effectively and, ultimately, push the venture forward thanks to powerful online data analysis techniques.
• Centralization: Building on the last point, using a powerful market research report template in the form of a business intelligence dashboard will make presenting your findings to external stakeholders and clients far more effective, as you can showcase a wealth of metrics, information, insights, and invaluable feedback from one centralized, highly visual interactive screen. 
• Brand reputation: In the digital age, brand reputation is everything. By making vital improvements in all of the key areas above, you will meet your customers’ needs head-on with consistency while finding innovative ways to stand out from your competitors. These are the key ingredients of long-term success.

How To Present Market Research Analysis Results?

Here we look at how you should present your research reports, considering the steps it takes to connect with the outcomes you need to succeed:

• Collect your data 

As with any reporting process, you first and foremost need to collect the data you’ll use to conduct your studies. Businesses conduct research studies to analyze their brand awareness, identity, and influence in the market. For product development and pricing decisions, among many others. That said, there are many ways to collect information for a market research report. Among some of the most popular ones, we find: 

• Surveys: Probably the most common way to collect research data, surveys can come in the form of open or closed questions that can be answered anonymously. They are the cheapest and fastest way to collect insights about your customers and business. 
• Interviews : These are face-to-face discussions that allow the researcher to analyze responses as well as the body language of the interviewees. This method is often used to define buyer personas by analyzing the subject's budget, job title, lifestyle, wants, and needs, among other things. 
• Focus groups : This method involves a group of people discussing a topic with a mediator. It is often used to evaluate a new product or new feature or to answer a specific question that the researcher might have. 
• Observation-based research : In this type of research, the researcher or business sits back and watches customers interact with the product without any instructions or help. It allows us to identify pain points as well as strong features. 
• Market segmentation : This study allows you to identify and analyze potential market segments to target. Businesses use it to expand into new markets and audiences. 

These are just a few of the many ways in which you can gather your information. The important point is to keep the research objective as straightforward as possible. Supporting yourself with professional BI solutions to clean, manage, and present your insights is probably the smartest choice.

2. Hone in on your research:

When looking at how to source consumer research in a presentation, you should focus on two areas: primary and secondary research. Primary research comes from your internal data, monitoring existing organizational practices, the effectiveness of sales, and the tools used for communication, for instance. Primary research also assesses market competition by evaluating the company plans of the competitors. Secondary research focuses on existing data collected by a third party, information used to perform benchmarking and market analysis. Such metrics help in deciding which market segments are the ones the company should focus its efforts on or where the brand is standing in the minds of consumers. Before you start the reporting process, you should set your goals, segmenting your research into primary and secondary segments to get to grips with the kind of information you need to work with to achieve effective results.

3. Segment your customers:

To give your market research efforts more context, you should segment your customers into different groups according to the preferences outlined in the survey or feedback results or by examining behavioral or demographic data.

If you segment your customers, you can tailor your market research and analysis reports to display only the information, charts, or graphics that will provide actionable insights into their wants, needs, or industry-based pain points. 

• Identify your stakeholders:

Once you’ve drilled down into your results and segmented your consumer groups, it’s important to consider the key stakeholders within the organization that will benefit from your information the most. 

By looking at both internal and external stakeholders, you will give your results a path to effective presentation, gaining the tools to understand which areas of feedback or data are most valuable, as well as most redundant. As a consequence, you will ensure your results are concise and meet the exact information needs of every stakeholder involved in the process.

• Set your KPIs:

First, remember that your reports should be concise and accurate - straight to the point without omitting any essential information. Work to ensure your insights are clean and organized, with participants grouped into relevant categories (demographics, profession, industry, education, etc.). Once you’ve organized your research, set your goals, and cleaned your data, you should set your KPIs to ensure your report is populated with the right visualizations to get the job done. Explore our full library of interactive KPI examples for inspiration.

• Include competitor’s analysis 

Whether you are doing product innovation research, customer demographics, pricing, or any other, including some level of insights about competitors in your reports is always recommended as it can help your business or client better understand where they stand in the market. That being said, competitor analysis is not as easy as picking a list of companies in the same industry and listing them. Your main competitor can be just a company's division in an entirely different industry. For example, Apple Music competes with Spotify even though Apple is a technology company. Therefore, it is important to carefully analyze competitors from a general but detailed level. 

Providing this kind of information in your reports can also help you find areas that competitors are not exploiting or that are weaker and use them to your advantage to become a market leader. 

• Produce your summary:

To complement your previous efforts, writing an executive summary of one or two pages that will explain the general idea of the report is advisable. Then come the usual body parts:

• An introduction providing background information, target audience, and objectives;
• The qualitative research describes the participants in the research and why they are relevant to the business;
• The survey research outlines the questions asked and answered;
• A summary of the insights and metrics used to draw the conclusions, the research methods chosen, and why;
• A presentation of the findings based on your research and an in-depth explanation of these conclusions.
• Use a mix of visualizations:

When presenting your results and discoveries, you should aim to use a balanced mix of text, graphs, charts, and interactive visualizations.

Using your summary as a guide, you should decide which type of visualization will present each specific piece of market research data most effectively (often, the easier to understand and more accessible, the better).

Doing so will allow you to create a story that will put your research information into a living, breathing context, providing a level of insight you need to transform industry, competitor, or consumer info or feedback into actionable strategies and initiatives.

• Be careful not to mislead 

Expanding on the point above, using a mix of visuals can prove highly valuable in presenting your results in an engaging and understandable way. That being said, when not used correctly, graphs and charts can also become misleading. This is a popular practice in the media, news, and politics, where designers tweak the visuals to manipulate the masses into believing a certain conclusion. This is a very unethical practice that can also happen by mistake when you don’t pick the right chart or are not using it in the correct way. Therefore, it is important to outline the message you are trying to convey and pick the chart type that will best suit those needs. 

Additionally, you should also be careful with the data you choose to display, as it can also become misleading. This can happen if you, for example, cherry-pick data, which means only showing insights that prove a conclusion instead of the bigger picture. Or confusing correlation with causation, which means assuming that because two events happened simultaneously, one caused the other. 

Being aware of these practices is of utmost importance as objectivity is crucial when it comes to dealing with data analytics, especially if you are presenting results to clients. Our guides on misleading statistics and misleading data visualizations can help you learn more about this important topic. 

• Use professional dashboards:

To optimize your market research discoveries, you must work with a dynamic business dashboard . Not only are modern dashboards presentable and customizable, but they will offer you past, predictive, and real-time insights that are accurate, interactive, and yield long-lasting results.

All market research reports companies or businesses gathering industry or consumer-based information will benefit from professional dashboards, as they offer a highly powerful means of presenting your data in a way everyone can understand. And when that happens, everyone wins.

Did you know? The interactive nature of modern dashboards like datapine also offers the ability to quickly filter specific pockets of information with ease, offering swift access to invaluable insights.

• Prioritize interactivity 

The times when reports were static are long gone. Today, to extract the maximum value out of your research data, you need to be able to explore the information and answer any critical questions that arise during the presentation of results. To do so, modern reporting tools provide multiple interactivity features to help you bring your research results to life. 

For instance, a drill-down filter lets you go into lower levels of hierarchical data without generating another graph. For example, imagine you surveyed customers from 10 different countries. In your report, you have a chart displaying the number of customers by country, but you want to analyze a specific country in detail. A drill down filter would enable you to click on a specific country and display data by city on that same chart. Even better, a global filter would allow you to filter the entire report to show only results for that specific country. 

Through the use of interactive filters, such as the one we just mentioned, you’ll not only make the presentation of results more efficient and profound, but you’ll also avoid generating pages-long reports to display static results. All your information will be displayed in a single interactive page that can be filtered and explored upon need.  

• Customize the reports 

This is a tip that is valuable for any kind of research report, especially when it comes to agencies that are reporting to external clients. Customizing the report to match your client’s colors, logo, font, and overall branding will help them grasp the data better, thanks to a familiar environment. This is an invaluable tip as often your audience will not feel comfortable dealing with data and might find it hard to understand or intimidating. Therefore, providing a familiar look that is also interactive and easier to understand will keep them engaged and collaborative throughout the process. 

Plus, customizing the overall appearance of the report will also make your agency look more professional, adding extra value to your service. 

• Know your design essentials 

When you’re presenting your market research reports sample to internal or external stakeholders, having a firm grasp on fundamental design principles will make your metrics and insights far more persuasive and compelling.

By arranging your metrics in a balanced and logical format, you can guide users toward key pockets of information exactly when needed. In turn, this will improve decision-making and navigation, making your reports as impactful as possible.

For essential tips, read our 23 dashboard design principles & best practices to enhance your analytics process.

• Think of security and privacy 

Cyberattacks are increasing at a concerning pace, making security a huge priority for organizations of all sizes today. The costs of having your sensitive information leaked are not only financial but also reputational, as customers might not trust you again if their data ends up in the wrong hands. Given that market research analysis is often performed by agencies that handle data from clients, security and privacy should be a top priority.  

To ensure the required security and privacy, it is necessary to invest in the right tools to present your research results. For instance, tools such as datapine offer enterprise-level security protocols that ensure your information is encrypted and protected at all times. Plus, the tool also offers additional security features, such as being able to share your reports through a password-protected URL or to set viewer rights to ensure only the right people can access and manipulate the data. 

• Keep on improving & evolving

Each time you gather or gain new marketing research reports or market research analysis report intel, you should aim to refine your existing dashboards to reflect the ever-changing landscape around you.

If you update your reports and dashboards according to the new research you conduct and new insights you connect with, you will squeeze maximum value from your metrics, enjoying consistent development in the process.

Types of Market Research Reports: Primary & Secondary Research

With so many market research examples and such little time, knowing how to best present your insights under pressure can prove tricky.

To squeeze every last drop of value from your market research efforts and empower everyone with access to the right information, you should arrange your information into two main groups: primary research and secondary research.

A. Primary research

Primary research is based on acquiring direct or first-hand information related to your industry or sector and the customers linked to it.

Exploratory primary research is an initial form of information collection where your team might set out to identify potential issues, opportunities, and pain points related to your business or industry. This type of research is usually carried out in the form of general surveys or open-ended consumer Q&As, which nowadays are often performed online rather than offline . 

Specific primary research is definitive, with information gathered based on the issues, information, opportunities, or pain points your business has already uncovered. When doing this kind of research, you can drill down into a specific segment of your customers and seek answers to the opportunities, issues, or pain points in question.

When you’re conducting primary research to feed into your market research reporting efforts, it’s important to find reliable information sources. The most effective primary research sources include:

• Consumer-based statistical data
• Social media content
• Polls and Q&A
• Trend-based insights
• Competitor research
• First-hand interviews

B. Secondary research

Secondary research refers to every strand of relevant data or public records you have to gain a deeper insight into your market and target consumers. These sources include trend reports, market stats, industry-centric content, and sales insights you have at your disposal.  Secondary research is an effective way of gathering valuable intelligence about your competitors. 

You can gather very precise, insightful secondary market research insights from:

• Public records and resources like Census data, governmental reports, or labor stats
• Commercial resources like Gartner, Statista, or Forrester
• Articles, documentaries, and interview transcripts

Another essential branch of both primary and secondary research is internal intelligence. When it comes to efficient market research reporting examples that will benefit your organization, looking inward is a powerful move. 

Existing sales, demographic, or marketing performance insights will lead you to valuable conclusions. Curating internal information will ensure your market research discoveries are well-rounded while helping you connect with the information that will ultimately give you a panoramic view of your target market. 

By understanding both types of research and how they can offer value to your business, you can carefully choose the right informational sources, gather a wide range of intelligence related to your specific niche, and, ultimately, choose the right market research report sample for your specific needs.

If you tailor your market research report format to the type of research you conduct, you will present your visualizations in a way that provides the right people with the right insights, rather than throwing bundles of facts and figures on the wall, hoping that some of them stick.

Taking ample time to explore a range of primary and secondary sources will give your discoveries genuine context. By doing so, you will have a wealth of actionable consumer and competitor insights at your disposal at every stage of your organization’s development (a priceless weapon in an increasingly competitive digital age). 

Dynamic market research is the cornerstone of business development, and a dashboard builder is the vessel that brings these all-important insights to life. Once you get into that mindset, you will ensure that your research results always deliver maximum value.

Common Challenges & Mistakes Of Market Research Reporting & Analysis

We’ve explored different types of market research analysis examples and considered how to conduct effective research. Now, it’s time to look at the key mistakes of market research reporting.  Let’s start with the mistakes.

The mistakes

One of the biggest mistakes that stunt the success of a company’s market research efforts is strategy. Without taking the time to gather an adequate mix of insights from various sources and define your key aims or goals, your processes will become disjointed. You will also suffer from a severe lack of organizational vision.

For your market research-centric strategy to work, everyone within the company must be on the same page. Your core aims and objectives must align throughout the business, and everyone must be clear on their specific role. If you try to craft a collaborative strategy and decide on your informational sources from the very start of your journey, your strategy will deliver true growth and intelligence.

• Measurement

Another classic market research mistake is measurement – or, more accurately, a lack of precise measurement. When embarking on market intelligence gathering processes, many companies fail to select the right KPIs and set the correct benchmarks for the task at hand. Without clearly defined goals, many organizations end up with a market analysis report format that offers little or no value in terms of decision-making or market insights.

To drive growth with your market research efforts, you must set clearly defined KPIs that align with your specific goals, aims, and desired outcomes.

• Competition

A common mistake among many new or scaling companies is failing to explore and examine the competition. This will leave you with gaping informational blindspots. To truly benefit from market research, you must gather valuable nuggets of information from every key source available. Rather than solely looking at your consumers and the wider market (which is incredibly important), you should take the time to see what approach your direct competitors have adopted while getting to grips with the content and communications.

One of the most effective ways of doing so (and avoiding such a monumental market research mistake) is by signing up for your competitors’ mailing lists, downloading their apps, and examining their social media content. This will give you inspiration for your own efforts while allowing you to exploit any gaps in the market that your competitors are failing to fill.

The challenges

• Informational quality

We may have an almost infinite wealth of informational insights at our fingertips, but when it comes to market research, knowing which information to trust can prove an uphill struggle.

When working with metrics, many companies risk connecting with inaccurate insights or leading to a fruitless informational rabbit hole, wasting valuable time and resources in the process. To avoid such a mishap, working with a trusted modern market research and analysis sample is the only way forward.

• Senior buy-in

Another pressing market research challenge that stunts organizational growth is the simple case of senior buy-in. While almost every senior decision-maker knows that market research is an essential component of a successful commercial strategy, many are reluctant to invest an ample amount of time or money in the pursuit.

The best way to overcome such a challenge is by building a case that defines exactly how your market research strategies will offer a healthy ROI to every key aspect of the organization, from marketing and sales to customer experience (CX) and beyond.

• Response rates

Low interview, focus group, or poll response rates can have a serious impact on the success and value of your market research strategy. Even with adequate senior buy-in, you can’t always guarantee that you will get enough responses from early-round interviews or poll requests. If you don’t, your market research discoveries run the risk of being shallow or offering little in the way of actionable insight.

To overcome this common challenge, you can improve the incentive you offer your market research prospects while networking across various platforms to discover new contact opportunities. Changing the tone of voice of your ads or emails will also help boost your consumer or client response rates.

Bringing Your Reports a Step Further

Even if it is still widespread for market-style research results presentation, using PowerPoint at this stage is a hassle and presents many downsides and complications. When busy managers or short-on-time top executives grab a report, they want a quick overview that gives them an idea of the results and the big picture that addresses the objectives: they need a dashboard. This can be applied to all areas of a business that need fast and interactive data visualizations to support their decision-making.

We all know that a picture conveys more information than simple text or figures, so managing to bring it all together on an actionable dashboard will convey your message more efficiently. Besides, market research dashboards have the incredible advantage of always being up-to-date since they work with real-time insights: the synchronization/updating nightmare of dozens of PowerPoint slides doesn’t exist for you anymore. This is particularly helpful for tracking studies performed over time that recurrently need their data to be updated with more recent ones.

In today’s fast-paced business environment, companies must identify and grab new opportunities as they arise while staying away from threats and adapting quickly. In order to always be a step further and make the right decisions, it is critical to perform market research studies to get the information needed and make important decisions with confidence.

We’ve asked the question, “What is a market research report?”, and examined the dynamics of a modern market research report example, and one thing’s for sure: a visual market research report is the best way to understand your customer and thus increase their satisfaction by meeting their expectations head-on. 

From looking at a sample of a market research report, it’s also clear that modern dashboards help you see what is influencing your business with clarity, understand where your brand is situated in the market, and gauge the temperature of your niche or industry before a product or service launch. Once all the studies are done, you must present them efficiently to ensure everyone in the business can make the right decisions that result in real progress. Market research reports are your key allies in the matter.

To start presenting your results with efficient, interactive, dynamic research reports and win on tomorrow’s commercial battlefield, try our dashboard reporting software and test every feature with our 14-day free trial !

How to Write Effective Research Reports

Frankline kibuacha | dec. 02, 2022 | 3 min. read.

A research report is a document that summarizes and provides an analysis of the findings of a research project. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the research process, data, and findings of a research study, and it is typically considered an objective and accurate source of information.

There are a few questions a research report should answer:

• What are you researching?
• What is the goal of your research?
• What are your methods for researching?
• What did you find in your research?
• How does this compare to other findings?
• And what is the impact of this finding on the world?

A research report is normally organized into three broad sections. First, an introduction provides a brief background on the topic and introduces the reader to your perspective. The second section is the body of the report, which should include the research findings and supporting evidence. Finally, the conclusion, which summarizes your arguments and the implications of your study for future research.

Every year, GeoPoll carries out hundreds of research studies and produces reports on several topics, both for clients and internally commissioned studies. In this article, we highlight some tips for writing great reports from our experience.

Tips for writing excellent research reports

• Start from the basics – with an outline – It is a good idea to outline the research context and findings before taking the plunge, as it helps with the flow and structure of the research report. Once you have the broader information well documented, filling the gaps with the content and findings becomes more straightforward and sets the tone for the report.
• Consider the target audience – To guide the report, always keep the target audience in mind and then select a format that is clear, logical and obvious to the audience. A report meant for top decision-makers, for example, could be more concise than one meant for other researchers. Writing for the audience ensures that the research findings help the cause, so consider writing in their language to make it easy to understand at their level.
• Answer the research questions – Every effective research starts with a clear objective. In writing the report, make sure that the data provided contribute to the goal, which is, in reality, the real purpose for conducting the research in the first place.
• Be simple and clear – Research reports need not be complicated. Aim to write the report with an accuracy of details and language that is simplest and clearest to the reader. Use clear titles that clearly describe the following section in a way that readers will want to get into.
• Provide the methodology implemented – Researchers should also include a summary of the methods used to conduct the research, which provides the overall approaches and perspectives of the research process. The methodology details aspects such as the research objectives, the sample used , broken down into demographics such as gender, location, age, and other sample characteristics, data collection modes used, and data analysis methods. Sharing your methodology gives legitimacy to your research.
• Choose graphs correctly – Research reports often feature graphs to bring out data clearly. To fulfill this purpose, the graphs you use in your report must be clear enough so that the readers understand them themselves. Use clear titles, try and include the original question, and choose the best chart types to represent the data.
• Remain relevant – Not everything is genuinely essential to a research report, and you should aim at prioritizing only the significant discoveries. The idea of a research report is to present an abridged yet impactful version of your research, and it’s OK to exclude irrelevant information while highlighting only essential data and findings.
• Grammar and spelling are imperative – Even more important than most writings, research reports need to be written following the best language practices to help to understand the report and not unconsciously water down the seriousness of the information. Read aloud while writing to put yourself in the shoes of the reader. Use grammar and spell-checking tools and engage other people to proofread the report to ensure it reads well for the target audience.
• Choose an impactful title – A good research report title is brief, precise, and provides a clear idea of the underlying research so that readers can grasp the entire focus of your research from the title.
• Shoot for a strong conclusion – The conclusion in the research reports is primarily important because it summarizes the information and recommendations, and often, some readers skim through to the conclusion. Make a precise summary, highlight the findings that stand out, and provide the implications or courses of action derived from the research findings.

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Research Results Section – Writing Guide and Examples

Table of Contents

Research Results

Research results refer to the findings and conclusions derived from a systematic investigation or study conducted to answer a specific question or hypothesis. These results are typically presented in a written report or paper and can include various forms of data such as numerical data, qualitative data, statistics, charts, graphs, and visual aids.

Results Section in Research

The results section of the research paper presents the findings of the study. It is the part of the paper where the researcher reports the data collected during the study and analyzes it to draw conclusions.

In the results section, the researcher should describe the data that was collected, the statistical analysis performed, and the findings of the study. It is important to be objective and not interpret the data in this section. Instead, the researcher should report the data as accurately and objectively as possible.

Structure of Research Results Section

The structure of the research results section can vary depending on the type of research conducted, but in general, it should contain the following components:

• Introduction: The introduction should provide an overview of the study, its aims, and its research questions. It should also briefly explain the methodology used to conduct the study.
• Data presentation : This section presents the data collected during the study. It may include tables, graphs, or other visual aids to help readers better understand the data. The data presented should be organized in a logical and coherent way, with headings and subheadings used to help guide the reader.
• Data analysis: In this section, the data presented in the previous section are analyzed and interpreted. The statistical tests used to analyze the data should be clearly explained, and the results of the tests should be presented in a way that is easy to understand.
• Discussion of results : This section should provide an interpretation of the results of the study, including a discussion of any unexpected findings. The discussion should also address the study’s research questions and explain how the results contribute to the field of study.
• Limitations: This section should acknowledge any limitations of the study, such as sample size, data collection methods, or other factors that may have influenced the results.
• Conclusions: The conclusions should summarize the main findings of the study and provide a final interpretation of the results. The conclusions should also address the study’s research questions and explain how the results contribute to the field of study.
• Recommendations : This section may provide recommendations for future research based on the study’s findings. It may also suggest practical applications for the study’s results in real-world settings.

Outline of Research Results Section

The following is an outline of the key components typically included in the Results section:

I. Introduction

• A brief overview of the research objectives and hypotheses
• A statement of the research question

II. Descriptive statistics

• Summary statistics (e.g., mean, standard deviation) for each variable analyzed
• Frequencies and percentages for categorical variables

III. Inferential statistics

• Results of statistical analyses, including tests of hypotheses
• Tables or figures to display statistical results

IV. Effect sizes and confidence intervals

• Effect sizes (e.g., Cohen’s d, odds ratio) to quantify the strength of the relationship between variables
• Confidence intervals to estimate the range of plausible values for the effect size

V. Subgroup analyses

• Results of analyses that examined differences between subgroups (e.g., by gender, age, treatment group)

VI. Limitations and assumptions

• Discussion of any limitations of the study and potential sources of bias
• Assumptions made in the statistical analyses

VII. Conclusions

• A summary of the key findings and their implications
• A statement of whether the hypotheses were supported or not
• Suggestions for future research

Example of Research Results Section

An Example of a Research Results Section could be:

• This study sought to examine the relationship between sleep quality and academic performance in college students.
• Hypothesis : College students who report better sleep quality will have higher GPAs than those who report poor sleep quality.
• Methodology : Participants completed a survey about their sleep habits and academic performance.

II. Participants

• Participants were college students (N=200) from a mid-sized public university in the United States.
• The sample was evenly split by gender (50% female, 50% male) and predominantly white (85%).
• Participants were recruited through flyers and online advertisements.

III. Results

• Participants who reported better sleep quality had significantly higher GPAs (M=3.5, SD=0.5) than those who reported poor sleep quality (M=2.9, SD=0.6).
• See Table 1 for a summary of the results.
• Participants who reported consistent sleep schedules had higher GPAs than those with irregular sleep schedules.

IV. Discussion

• The results support the hypothesis that better sleep quality is associated with higher academic performance in college students.
• These findings have implications for college students, as prioritizing sleep could lead to better academic outcomes.
• Limitations of the study include self-reported data and the lack of control for other variables that could impact academic performance.

V. Conclusion

• College students who prioritize sleep may see a positive impact on their academic performance.
• These findings highlight the importance of sleep in academic success.
• Future research could explore interventions to improve sleep quality in college students.

Example of Research Results in Research Paper :

Our study aimed to compare the performance of three different machine learning algorithms (Random Forest, Support Vector Machine, and Neural Network) in predicting customer churn in a telecommunications company. We collected a dataset of 10,000 customer records, with 20 predictor variables and a binary churn outcome variable.

Our analysis revealed that all three algorithms performed well in predicting customer churn, with an overall accuracy of 85%. However, the Random Forest algorithm showed the highest accuracy (88%), followed by the Support Vector Machine (86%) and the Neural Network (84%).

Furthermore, we found that the most important predictor variables for customer churn were monthly charges, contract type, and tenure. Random Forest identified monthly charges as the most important variable, while Support Vector Machine and Neural Network identified contract type as the most important.

Overall, our results suggest that machine learning algorithms can be effective in predicting customer churn in a telecommunications company, and that Random Forest is the most accurate algorithm for this task.

Example 3 :

Title : The Impact of Social Media on Body Image and Self-Esteem

Abstract : This study aimed to investigate the relationship between social media use, body image, and self-esteem among young adults. A total of 200 participants were recruited from a university and completed self-report measures of social media use, body image satisfaction, and self-esteem.

Results: The results showed that social media use was significantly associated with body image dissatisfaction and lower self-esteem. Specifically, participants who reported spending more time on social media platforms had lower levels of body image satisfaction and self-esteem compared to those who reported less social media use. Moreover, the study found that comparing oneself to others on social media was a significant predictor of body image dissatisfaction and lower self-esteem.

Conclusion : These results suggest that social media use can have negative effects on body image satisfaction and self-esteem among young adults. It is important for individuals to be mindful of their social media use and to recognize the potential negative impact it can have on their mental health. Furthermore, interventions aimed at promoting positive body image and self-esteem should take into account the role of social media in shaping these attitudes and behaviors.

Importance of Research Results

Research results are important for several reasons, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research results can contribute to the advancement of knowledge in a particular field, whether it be in science, technology, medicine, social sciences, or humanities.
• Developing theories: Research results can help to develop or modify existing theories and create new ones.
• Improving practices: Research results can inform and improve practices in various fields, such as education, healthcare, business, and public policy.
• Identifying problems and solutions: Research results can identify problems and provide solutions to complex issues in society, including issues related to health, environment, social justice, and economics.
• Validating claims : Research results can validate or refute claims made by individuals or groups in society, such as politicians, corporations, or activists.
• Providing evidence: Research results can provide evidence to support decision-making, policy-making, and resource allocation in various fields.

How to Write Results in A Research Paper

Here are some general guidelines on how to write results in a research paper:

• Organize the results section: Start by organizing the results section in a logical and coherent manner. Divide the section into subsections if necessary, based on the research questions or hypotheses.
• Present the findings: Present the findings in a clear and concise manner. Use tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data and make the presentation more engaging.
• Describe the data: Describe the data in detail, including the sample size, response rate, and any missing data. Provide relevant descriptive statistics such as means, standard deviations, and ranges.
• Interpret the findings: Interpret the findings in light of the research questions or hypotheses. Discuss the implications of the findings and the extent to which they support or contradict existing theories or previous research.
• Discuss the limitations : Discuss the limitations of the study, including any potential sources of bias or confounding factors that may have affected the results.
• Compare the results : Compare the results with those of previous studies or theoretical predictions. Discuss any similarities, differences, or inconsistencies.
• Avoid redundancy: Avoid repeating information that has already been presented in the introduction or methods sections. Instead, focus on presenting new and relevant information.
• Be objective: Be objective in presenting the results, avoiding any personal biases or interpretations.

When to Write Research Results

Here are situations When to Write Research Results”

• After conducting research on the chosen topic and obtaining relevant data, organize the findings in a structured format that accurately represents the information gathered.
• Once the data has been analyzed and interpreted, and conclusions have been drawn, begin the writing process.
• Before starting to write, ensure that the research results adhere to the guidelines and requirements of the intended audience, such as a scientific journal or academic conference.
• Begin by writing an abstract that briefly summarizes the research question, methodology, findings, and conclusions.
• Follow the abstract with an introduction that provides context for the research, explains its significance, and outlines the research question and objectives.
• The next section should be a literature review that provides an overview of existing research on the topic and highlights the gaps in knowledge that the current research seeks to address.
• The methodology section should provide a detailed explanation of the research design, including the sample size, data collection methods, and analytical techniques used.
• Present the research results in a clear and concise manner, using graphs, tables, and figures to illustrate the findings.
• Discuss the implications of the research results, including how they contribute to the existing body of knowledge on the topic and what further research is needed.
• Conclude the paper by summarizing the main findings, reiterating the significance of the research, and offering suggestions for future research.

Purpose of Research Results

The purposes of Research Results are as follows:

• Informing policy and practice: Research results can provide evidence-based information to inform policy decisions, such as in the fields of healthcare, education, and environmental regulation. They can also inform best practices in fields such as business, engineering, and social work.
• Addressing societal problems : Research results can be used to help address societal problems, such as reducing poverty, improving public health, and promoting social justice.
• Generating economic benefits : Research results can lead to the development of new products, services, and technologies that can create economic value and improve quality of life.
• Supporting academic and professional development : Research results can be used to support academic and professional development by providing opportunities for students, researchers, and practitioners to learn about new findings and methodologies in their field.
• Enhancing public understanding: Research results can help to educate the public about important issues and promote scientific literacy, leading to more informed decision-making and better public policy.
• Evaluating interventions: Research results can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, such as treatments, educational programs, and social policies. This can help to identify areas where improvements are needed and guide future interventions.
• Contributing to scientific progress: Research results can contribute to the advancement of science by providing new insights and discoveries that can lead to new theories, methods, and techniques.
• Informing decision-making : Research results can provide decision-makers with the information they need to make informed decisions. This can include decision-making at the individual, organizational, or governmental levels.
• Fostering collaboration : Research results can facilitate collaboration between researchers and practitioners, leading to new partnerships, interdisciplinary approaches, and innovative solutions to complex problems.

Advantages of Research Results

Some Advantages of Research Results are as follows:

• Improved decision-making: Research results can help inform decision-making in various fields, including medicine, business, and government. For example, research on the effectiveness of different treatments for a particular disease can help doctors make informed decisions about the best course of treatment for their patients.
• Innovation : Research results can lead to the development of new technologies, products, and services. For example, research on renewable energy sources can lead to the development of new and more efficient ways to harness renewable energy.
• Economic benefits: Research results can stimulate economic growth by providing new opportunities for businesses and entrepreneurs. For example, research on new materials or manufacturing techniques can lead to the development of new products and processes that can create new jobs and boost economic activity.
• Improved quality of life: Research results can contribute to improving the quality of life for individuals and society as a whole. For example, research on the causes of a particular disease can lead to the development of new treatments and cures, improving the health and well-being of millions of people.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Methodology

• Survey Research | Definition, Examples & Methods

Survey Research | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on August 20, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Survey research means collecting information about a group of people by asking them questions and analyzing the results. To conduct an effective survey, follow these six steps:

• Determine who will participate in the survey
• Decide the type of survey (mail, online, or in-person)
• Design the survey questions and layout
• Distribute the survey
• Analyze the responses
• Write up the results

Surveys are a flexible method of data collection that can be used in many different types of research .

Table of contents

What are surveys used for, step 1: define the population and sample, step 2: decide on the type of survey, step 3: design the survey questions, step 4: distribute the survey and collect responses, step 5: analyze the survey results, step 6: write up the survey results, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about surveys.

Surveys are used as a method of gathering data in many different fields. They are a good choice when you want to find out about the characteristics, preferences, opinions, or beliefs of a group of people.

Common uses of survey research include:

• Social research : investigating the experiences and characteristics of different social groups
• Market research : finding out what customers think about products, services, and companies
• Health research : collecting data from patients about symptoms and treatments
• Politics : measuring public opinion about parties and policies
• Psychology : researching personality traits, preferences and behaviours

Surveys can be used in both cross-sectional studies , where you collect data just once, and in longitudinal studies , where you survey the same sample several times over an extended period.

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Before you start conducting survey research, you should already have a clear research question that defines what you want to find out. Based on this question, you need to determine exactly who you will target to participate in the survey.

Populations

The target population is the specific group of people that you want to find out about. This group can be very broad or relatively narrow. For example:

• The population of Brazil
• US college students
• Second-generation immigrants in the Netherlands
• Customers of a specific company aged 18-24
• British transgender women over the age of 50

Your survey should aim to produce results that can be generalized to the whole population. That means you need to carefully define exactly who you want to draw conclusions about.

Several common research biases can arise if your survey is not generalizable, particularly sampling bias and selection bias . The presence of these biases have serious repercussions for the validity of your results.

It’s rarely possible to survey the entire population of your research – it would be very difficult to get a response from every person in Brazil or every college student in the US. Instead, you will usually survey a sample from the population.

The sample size depends on how big the population is. You can use an online sample calculator to work out how many responses you need.

There are many sampling methods that allow you to generalize to broad populations. In general, though, the sample should aim to be representative of the population as a whole. The larger and more representative your sample, the more valid your conclusions. Again, beware of various types of sampling bias as you design your sample, particularly self-selection bias , nonresponse bias , undercoverage bias , and survivorship bias .

There are two main types of survey:

• A questionnaire , where a list of questions is distributed by mail, online or in person, and respondents fill it out themselves.
• An interview , where the researcher asks a set of questions by phone or in person and records the responses.

Which type you choose depends on the sample size and location, as well as the focus of the research.

Questionnaires

Sending out a paper survey by mail is a common method of gathering demographic information (for example, in a government census of the population).

• You can easily access a large sample.
• You have some control over who is included in the sample (e.g. residents of a specific region).
• The response rate is often low, and at risk for biases like self-selection bias .

Online surveys are a popular choice for students doing dissertation research , due to the low cost and flexibility of this method. There are many online tools available for constructing surveys, such as SurveyMonkey and Google Forms .

• You can quickly access a large sample without constraints on time or location.
• The data is easy to process and analyze.
• The anonymity and accessibility of online surveys mean you have less control over who responds, which can lead to biases like self-selection bias .

If your research focuses on a specific location, you can distribute a written questionnaire to be completed by respondents on the spot. For example, you could approach the customers of a shopping mall or ask all students to complete a questionnaire at the end of a class.

• You can screen respondents to make sure only people in the target population are included in the sample.
• You can collect time- and location-specific data (e.g. the opinions of a store’s weekday customers).
• The sample size will be smaller, so this method is less suitable for collecting data on broad populations and is at risk for sampling bias .

Oral interviews are a useful method for smaller sample sizes. They allow you to gather more in-depth information on people’s opinions and preferences. You can conduct interviews by phone or in person.

• You have personal contact with respondents, so you know exactly who will be included in the sample in advance.
• You can clarify questions and ask for follow-up information when necessary.
• The lack of anonymity may cause respondents to answer less honestly, and there is more risk of researcher bias.

Like questionnaires, interviews can be used to collect quantitative data: the researcher records each response as a category or rating and statistically analyzes the results. But they are more commonly used to collect qualitative data : the interviewees’ full responses are transcribed and analyzed individually to gain a richer understanding of their opinions and feelings.

Next, you need to decide which questions you will ask and how you will ask them. It’s important to consider:

• The type of questions
• The content of the questions
• The phrasing of the questions
• The ordering and layout of the survey

Open-ended vs closed-ended questions

There are two main forms of survey questions: open-ended and closed-ended. Many surveys use a combination of both.

Closed-ended questions give the respondent a predetermined set of answers to choose from. A closed-ended question can include:

• A binary answer (e.g. yes/no or agree/disagree )
• A scale (e.g. a Likert scale with five points ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree )
• A list of options with a single answer possible (e.g. age categories)
• A list of options with multiple answers possible (e.g. leisure interests)

Closed-ended questions are best for quantitative research . They provide you with numerical data that can be statistically analyzed to find patterns, trends, and correlations .

Open-ended questions are best for qualitative research. This type of question has no predetermined answers to choose from. Instead, the respondent answers in their own words.

Open questions are most common in interviews, but you can also use them in questionnaires. They are often useful as follow-up questions to ask for more detailed explanations of responses to the closed questions.

The content of the survey questions

To ensure the validity and reliability of your results, you need to carefully consider each question in the survey. All questions should be narrowly focused with enough context for the respondent to answer accurately. Avoid questions that are not directly relevant to the survey’s purpose.

When constructing closed-ended questions, ensure that the options cover all possibilities. If you include a list of options that isn’t exhaustive, you can add an “other” field.

Phrasing the survey questions

In terms of language, the survey questions should be as clear and precise as possible. Tailor the questions to your target population, keeping in mind their level of knowledge of the topic. Avoid jargon or industry-specific terminology.

Survey questions are at risk for biases like social desirability bias , the Hawthorne effect , or demand characteristics . It’s critical to use language that respondents will easily understand, and avoid words with vague or ambiguous meanings. Make sure your questions are phrased neutrally, with no indication that you’d prefer a particular answer or emotion.

Ordering the survey questions

The questions should be arranged in a logical order. Start with easy, non-sensitive, closed-ended questions that will encourage the respondent to continue.

If the survey covers several different topics or themes, group together related questions. You can divide a questionnaire into sections to help respondents understand what is being asked in each part.

If a question refers back to or depends on the answer to a previous question, they should be placed directly next to one another.

Before you start, create a clear plan for where, when, how, and with whom you will conduct the survey. Determine in advance how many responses you require and how you will gain access to the sample.

When you are satisfied that you have created a strong research design suitable for answering your research questions, you can conduct the survey through your method of choice – by mail, online, or in person.

There are many methods of analyzing the results of your survey. First you have to process the data, usually with the help of a computer program to sort all the responses. You should also clean the data by removing incomplete or incorrectly completed responses.

If you asked open-ended questions, you will have to code the responses by assigning labels to each response and organizing them into categories or themes. You can also use more qualitative methods, such as thematic analysis , which is especially suitable for analyzing interviews.

Statistical analysis is usually conducted using programs like SPSS or Stata. The same set of survey data can be subject to many analyses.

Finally, when you have collected and analyzed all the necessary data, you will write it up as part of your thesis, dissertation , or research paper .

In the methodology section, you describe exactly how you conducted the survey. You should explain the types of questions you used, the sampling method, when and where the survey took place, and the response rate. You can include the full questionnaire as an appendix and refer to it in the text if relevant.

Then introduce the analysis by describing how you prepared the data and the statistical methods you used to analyze it. In the results section, you summarize the key results from your analysis.

In the discussion and conclusion , you give your explanations and interpretations of these results, answer your research question, and reflect on the implications and limitations of the research.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Student’s  t -distribution
• Normal distribution
• Null and Alternative Hypotheses
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Data cleansing
• Reproducibility vs Replicability
• Peer review
• Prospective cohort study

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Placebo effect
• Hawthorne effect
• Hindsight bias
• Affect heuristic
• Social desirability bias

A questionnaire is a data collection tool or instrument, while a survey is an overarching research method that involves collecting and analyzing data from people using questionnaires.

A Likert scale is a rating scale that quantitatively assesses opinions, attitudes, or behaviors. It is made up of 4 or more questions that measure a single attitude or trait when response scores are combined.

To use a Likert scale in a survey , you present participants with Likert-type questions or statements, and a continuum of items, usually with 5 or 7 possible responses, to capture their degree of agreement.

Individual Likert-type questions are generally considered ordinal data , because the items have clear rank order, but don’t have an even distribution.

Overall Likert scale scores are sometimes treated as interval data. These scores are considered to have directionality and even spacing between them.

The type of data determines what statistical tests you should use to analyze your data.

The priorities of a research design can vary depending on the field, but you usually have to specify:

• Your research questions and/or hypotheses
• Your overall approach (e.g., qualitative or quantitative )
• The type of design you’re using (e.g., a survey , experiment , or case study )
• Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
• Your data collection methods (e.g., questionnaires , observations)
• Your data collection procedures (e.g., operationalization , timing and data management)
• Your data analysis methods (e.g., statistical tests  or thematic analysis )

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8.3 Glance at Genre: Informal and Formal Analytical Reports

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Determine purpose and audience expectations for an analytical report.
• Identify key features of informal and formal reports.
• Define key terms and characteristics of an analytical report.

It is important to understand the purpose of your report, the expectations of the audience, any specific formatting requirements, and the types of evidence you can use.

Defining a Specific Purpose

Your purpose is your reason for writing. The purpose of a report is to inform; as the writer, you are tasked with providing information and explaining it to readers. Many topics are suitable for informative writing—how to find a job, the way a disease spreads within a population, or the items on which people spend the most money. Some textbooks are examples of informative writing, as is much of the reporting you find on reputable news sites.

An analytical report is a type of report. Its purpose is to present and analyze information. An assignment for an analytical report will likely include words such as analyze , compare , contrast , cause , and/or discuss , indicating the specific purpose of the report. Here are a few examples:

• Discuss and analyze potential career paths with strong employment prospects for young adults.
• Compare and contrast proposals to reduce binge drinking among college students.
• Analyze the Cause-and-effect of injuries on construction sites and the effects of efforts to reduce workplace injuries.
• Discuss the Effect of the 1965 Voting Rights Act on voting patterns among U.S. citizens of color.
• Analyze the success and failure of strategies used by the major political parties to encourage citizens to vote.

Tuning In to Audience Expectations

The audience for your report consists of the people who will read it or who could read it. Are you writing for your instructor? For your classmates? For other students and teachers in professional fields or academic disciplines? For people in your community? Whoever your readers are, they expect you to do the following:

• Have an idea of what they already know about your topic, and adjust your writing as needed. If readers are new to the topic, they expect you to provide necessary background information. If they are knowledgeable about the topic, they will expect you to cover the background quickly.
• Provide reliable information in the form of specific facts, statistics, and examples. Whether you present your own research or information from other sources, readers expect you to have done your homework in order to supply trustworthy information.
• Define terms, especially if audience members may be unfamiliar with your topic.
• Structure your report in a logical way. It should open with an introduction that tells readers the subject and should follow a logical structure.
• Adopt an objective stance and neutral tone, free of any bias, personal feelings, or emotional language. By demonstrating objectivity, you show respect for your readers’ knowledge and intelligence, and you build credibility and trust, or ethos , with them.
• Present and cite source information fairly and accurately.

Informal Reports

An informal analytical report will identify a problem, provide factual information about the problem, and draw conclusions about the information. An informal report is usually structured like an essay, with an introduction or summary, body paragraphs, and a conclusion or recommendations. It will likely feature headings identifying key sections and be presented in academic essay format, such as MLA Documentation and Format or APA Documentation and Format . For an example of an informal analytical report documented in APA style, see Trevor Garcia’s paper on the U.S. response to COVID-19 in 2020 in the Annotated Student Sample .

Other types of informal reports include journalism reports. A traditional journalism report involves a reporter for a news organization reporting on the day’s events—the results of an election, a political crisis, a plane crash, a celebrity marriage—on TV, on radio, or in print. An investigative journalism report, on the other hand, involves reporters doing original research over a period of weeks or months to uncover significant new information, similar to what Barbara Ehrenreich did for her book Nickel and Dimed . For sample traditional and investigative journalistic reports, visit the website of a reliable news organization or publication, such as the New York Times , the Washington Post , the Wall Street Journal , the Economist , the New Yorker , or the Atlantic .

Formal Reports

Writers in the social sciences, the natural sciences, technical fields, and business often write formal analytical reports. These include lab reports, research reports, and proposals.

Formal reports present findings and data drawn from experiments, surveys, and research and often end with a conclusion based on an analysis of these findings and data. These reports frequently include visuals such as graphs, bar charts, pie charts, photographs, or diagrams that are captioned and referred to in the text. Formal reports always cite sources of information, often using APA Documentation and Format , used in the examples in this chapter, or a similar style.

If you are assigned a formal report in a class, follow the instructions carefully. Your instructor will likely explain the assignment in detail and provide explicit directions and guidelines for the research you will need to do (including any permission required by your college or university if you conduct research on human subjects), how to organize the information you gather, and how to write and format your report. A formal report is a complex, highly organized, and often lengthy document with a specified format and sections usually marked by headings.

Following are the components of a formal analytical report. Depending on the assignment and the audience, a formal report you write may include some or all of these parts. For example, a research report following APA format usually includes a title page, an abstract, headings for components of the body of the report (methods, results, discussion), and a references page. Detailed APA guidelines are available online, including at the Purdue University Online Writing Lab .

Components of Formal Analytical Reports

• Letter of transmittal . When a report is submitted, it is usually accompanied by a letter or email to the recipient explaining the nature of the report and signed by those responsible for writing it. Write the letter of transmittal when the report is finished and ready for submission.
• Title page . The title page includes the title of the report, the name(s) of the author(s), and the date it was written or submitted. The report title should describe the report simply, directly, and clearly and should not try to be too clever. For example, The New Student Writing Project: A Two-Year Report is a clear, descriptive title, whereas Write On, Students! is not.
• Acknowledgments . If other people and/or organizations contributed to the report, include a page or paragraph thanking them.
• Table of contents . For long reports (10 pages or more), create a table of contents to help readers navigate easily. List the major components and subsections of the report and the pages on which they begin.
• Executive summary or abstract . The executive summary or abstract is a paragraph that highlights the findings of the report. The purpose of this section is to present information in the quickest, most concentrated, and most economical way possible to be useful to readers. Write this section after you have completed the rest of the report.
• Introduction or background . The introduction provides necessary background information to help readers understand the report. This section also indicates what information is included in the report.
• Methods . Especially in the social sciences, the natural sciences, and technical disciplines, the methods or procedures section outlines how you gathered information and from what sources, such as experiments, surveys, library research, interviews, and so on.
• Results . In the results section, you summarize the data you have collected from your research, explain your method of analysis, and present this information in detail, often in a table, graph, or chart.
• Discussion or Conclusion . In this section, you interpret the results and present the conclusions of your research. This section also may be called “Discussion of Findings.”
• Recommendations . In this section, you explain what you believe should be done in response to your research findings.
• References and bibliography . The references section includes every source you cited in the report. The bibliography contains, in addition to those cited in the report, sources that readers can consult to learn more.
• Appendix . An appendix (plural: appendices ) includes documents that are related to the report or contain information that can be culled but are not deemed central to understanding the report.

The following links take you to sample formal reports written by students and offer tips from librarians posted by colleges and universities in the United States. These samples may help you better understand what is involved in writing a formal analytical report.

• Product review report , from the University/College Library of Broward College and Florida Atlantic University
• Business report , from Wright State University
• Technical report , from the University of Utah
• Lab report , from Hamilton College
• Field report , from the University of Southern California

Exploring the Genre

The following are key terms and characteristics related to reports.

• Audience : Readers of a report or any piece of writing.
• Bias : A preconceived opinion about something, such as a subject, an idea, a person, or a group of people. As a reader, be attentive to potential bias in sources; as a writer, be attentive to your own biases.
• Body : The main part of a report between the introduction and the conclusion. The body of an analytical report consists of paragraphs in which the writer presents and analyzes key information.
• Citation of sources: References in the written text to sources that a writer has used in a report.
• Conclusion and/or recommendation : The last part of a report. In this section, the writer summarizes the significance of the information in the report or offers recommendations—or both.
• Critical thinking : The ability to look beneath the surface of words and images to analyze, interpret, and evaluate them.
• Ethos : The sense that the writer or other authority is trustworthy and credible; also known as ethical appeal .
• Evidence : Statements of fact, statistics, examples, and expert opinions that support the writer’s points.
• Facts : Statements whose truth can be proved or verified and that serve as evidence in a report.
• Introduction : The first section of a report after any front matter, such as an abstract or table of contents. In an analytical report, the writer introduces the topic to be addressed and often presents the thesis at the end of the introduction.
• Logos : The use of facts as evidence to appeal to an audience’s logical and rational thinking; also known as logical appeal .
• Objective stance : Writing in a way that is free from bias, personal feelings, and emotional language. An objective stance is especially important in report writing.
• Purpose : The reason for writing. The purpose of an analytical report is to examine a subject or issue closely, often from multiple perspectives, by looking at causes and effects, by comparing and contrasting, or by examining problems and proposing solutions.
• Statistics : Factual statements that include numbers and often serve as evidence in a report.
• Synthesis : Making connections among and combining ideas, facts, statistics, and other information.
• Thesis : The central or main idea that you will convey in your report. The thesis is often referred to as the central claim in argumentative writing.
• Thesis statement : A declarative sentence (sometimes two) that states the topic, the angle you are taking, and the aspects of the topic you will cover. For a report, a thesis indicates and limits the scope of the report.

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No sign of greenhouse gases increases slowing in 2023

• April 5, 2024

Levels of the three most important human-caused greenhouse gases – carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane and nitrous oxide – continued their steady climb during 2023, according to NOAA scientists. 

While the rise in the three heat-trapping gases recorded in the air samples collected by NOAA’s Global Monitoring Laboratory (GML) in 2023 was not quite as high as the record jumps observed in recent years, they were in line with the steep increases observed during the past decade. 

“NOAA’s long-term air sampling program is essential for tracking causes of climate change and for supporting the U.S. efforts to establish an integrated national greenhouse gas measuring, monitoring and information system,” said GML Director Vanda Grubišić. “As these numbers show, we still have a lot of work to do to make meaningful progress in reducing the amount of greenhouse gases accumulating in the atmosphere.” 

The global surface concentration of CO 2 , averaged across all 12 months of 2023, was 419.3 parts per million (ppm), an increase of 2.8 ppm during the year. This was the 12th consecutive year CO 2 increased by more than 2 ppm, extending the highest sustained rate of CO 2 increases during the 65-year monitoring record. Three consecutive years of CO 2  growth of 2 ppm or more had not been seen in NOAA’s monitoring records prior to 2014. Atmospheric CO 2 is now more than 50% higher than pre-industrial levels.

This graph shows the globally averaged monthly mean carbon dioxide abundance measured at the Global Monitoring Laboratory’s global network of air sampling sites since 1980. Data are still preliminary, pending recalibrations of reference gases and other quality control checks. Credit: NOAA GML

“The 2023 increase is the third-largest in the past decade, likely a result of an ongoing increase of fossil fuel CO 2 emissions, coupled with increased fire emissions possibly as a result of the transition from La Nina to El Nino,” said Xin Lan, a CIRES scientist who leads GML’s effort to synthesize data from the NOAA Global Greenhouse Gas Reference Network for tracking global greenhouse gas trends .

Atmospheric methane, less abundant than CO 2 but more potent at trapping heat in the atmosphere, rose to an average of 1922.6 parts per billion (ppb). The 2023 methane increase over 2022 was 10.9 ppb, lower than the record growth rates seen in 2020 (15.2 ppb), 2021(18 ppb)  and 2022 (13.2 ppb), but still the 5th highest since renewed methane growth started in 2007. Methane levels in the atmosphere are now more than 160% higher than their pre-industrial level.

This graph shows globally-averaged, monthly mean atmospheric methane abundance determined from marine surface sites for the full NOAA time-series starting in 1983. Values for the last year are preliminary, pending recalibrations of standard gases and other quality control steps. Credit: NOAA GM

In 2023, levels of nitrous oxide, the third-most significant human-caused greenhouse gas, climbed by 1 ppb to 336.7 ppb. The two years of highest growth since 2000 occurred in 2020 (1.3 ppb) and 2021 (1.3 ppb). Increases in atmospheric nitrous oxide during recent decades are mainly from use of nitrogen fertilizer and manure from the expansion and intensification of agriculture. Nitrous oxide concentrations are 25% higher than the pre-industrial level of 270 ppb.

Taking the pulse of the planet one sample at a time NOAA’s Global Monitoring Laboratory collected more than 15,000 air samples from monitoring stations around the world in 2023 and analyzed them in its state-of-the-art laboratory in Boulder,

Colorado. Each spring, NOAA scientists release preliminary calculations of the global average levels of these three primary long-lived greenhouse gases observed during the previous year to track their abundance, determine emissions and sinks, and understand carbon cycle feedbacks.

Measurements are obtained from air samples collected from sites in NOAA’s Global Greenhouse Gas Reference Network , which includes about 53 cooperative sampling sites around the world, 20 tall tower sites, and routine aircraft operation sites from North America. 

Carbon dioxide emissions remain the biggest problem 

By far the most important contributor to climate change is CO 2 , which is primarily emitted by burning of fossil fuels. Human-caused CO 2 pollution increased from 10.9 billion tons per year in the 1960s – which is when the measurements at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii began – to about 36.8 billion tons per year in 2023. This sets a new record, according to the Global Carbon Project , which uses NOAA’s Global Greenhouse Gas Reference Network measurements to define the net impact of global carbon emissions and sinks.

The amount of CO 2 in the atmosphere today is comparable to where it was around 4.3 million years ago during the mid- Pliocene epoch , when sea level was about 75 feet higher than today, the average temperature was 7 degrees Fahrenheit higher than in pre-industrial times, and large forests occupied areas of the Arctic that are now tundra. 

About half of the CO 2 emissions from fossil fuels to date have been absorbed at the Earth’s surface, divided roughly equally between oceans and land ecosystems, including grasslands and forests. The CO 2 absorbed by the world’s oceans contributes to ocean acidification, which is causing a fundamental change in the chemistry of the ocean, with impacts to marine life and the people who depend on them. The oceans have also absorbed an estimated 90% of the excess heat trapped in the atmosphere by greenhouse gases. 

Research continues to point to microbial sources for rising methane

NOAA’s measurements show that atmospheric methane increased rapidly during the 1980s, nearly stabilized in the late-1990s and early 2000s, then resumed a rapid rise in 2007. 

A 2022 study by NOAA and NASA scientists and additional NOAA research in 2023 suggests that more than 85% of the increase from 2006 to 2021 was due to increased microbial emissions generated by livestock, agriculture, human and agricultural waste, wetlands and other aquatic sources. The rest of the increase was attributed to increased fossil fuel emissions. 

“In addition to the record high methane growth in 2020-2022, we also observed sharp changes in the isotope composition of the methane that indicates an even more dominant role of microbial emission increase,” said Lan. The exact causes of the recent increase in methane are not yet fully known. 

NOAA scientists are investigating the possibility that climate change is causing wetlands to give off increasing methane emissions in a feedback loop. 

To learn more about the Global Monitoring Laboratory’s greenhouse gas monitoring, visit: https://gml.noaa.gov/ccgg/trends/.

Media Contact: Theo Stein, [email protected] , 303-819-7409

5 science wins from the 2023 NOAA Science Report

Filling A Data Gap In The Tropical Pacific To Reveal Daily Air-Sea Interactions

Scientists detail research to assess viability and risks of marine cloud brightening

How social science helps us combat climate change

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Published on 17.4.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

Digital Interventions for Recreational Cannabis Use Among Young Adults: Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Behavior Change Technique Analysis of Randomized Controlled Studies

Authors of this article:

• José Côté 1, 2, 3 , RN, PhD   ; 
• Gabrielle Chicoine 3, 4 , RN, PhD   ; 
• Billy Vinette 1, 3 , RN, MSN   ; 
• Patricia Auger 2, 3 , MSc   ; 
• Geneviève Rouleau 3, 5, 6 , RN, PhD   ; 
• Guillaume Fontaine 7, 8, 9 , RN, PhD   ; 
• Didier Jutras-Aswad 2, 10 , MSc, MD  

1 Faculty of Nursing, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada

2 Research Centre of the Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada

3 Research Chair in Innovative Nursing Practices, Montreal, QC, Canada

4 Knowledge Translation Program, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael’s Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada

5 Department of Nursing, Université du Québec en Outaouais, Saint-Jérôme, QC, Canada

6 Women's College Hospital Institute for Health System Solutions and Virtual Care, Women's College Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada

7 Ingram School of Nursing, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada

8 Centre for Clinical Epidemiology, Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, Sir Mortimer B. Davis Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, QC, Canada

9 Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia

10 Department of Psychiatry and Addictology, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada

Corresponding Author:

José Côté, RN, PhD

Research Centre of the Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal

850 Saint-Denis

Montreal, QC, H2X 0A9

Phone: 1 514 890 8000

Email: [email protected]

Background: The high prevalence of cannabis use among young adults poses substantial global health concerns due to the associated acute and long-term health and psychosocial risks. Digital modalities, including websites, digital platforms, and mobile apps, have emerged as promising tools to enhance the accessibility and availability of evidence-based interventions for young adults for cannabis use. However, existing reviews do not consider young adults specifically, combine cannabis-related outcomes with those of many other substances in their meta-analytical results, and do not solely target interventions for cannabis use.

Objective: We aimed to evaluate the effectiveness and active ingredients of digital interventions designed specifically for cannabis use among young adults living in the community.

Methods: We conducted a systematic search of 7 databases for empirical studies published between database inception and February 13, 2023, assessing the following outcomes: cannabis use (frequency, quantity, or both) and cannabis-related negative consequences. The reference lists of included studies were consulted, and forward citation searching was also conducted. We included randomized studies assessing web- or mobile-based interventions that included a comparator or control group. Studies were excluded if they targeted other substance use (eg, alcohol), did not report cannabis use separately as an outcome, did not include young adults (aged 16-35 y), had unpublished data, were delivered via teleconference through mobile phones and computers or in a hospital-based setting, or involved people with mental health disorders or substance use disorders or dependence. Data were independently extracted by 2 reviewers using a pilot-tested extraction form. Authors were contacted to clarify study details and obtain additional data. The characteristics of the included studies, study participants, digital interventions, and their comparators were summarized. Meta-analysis results were combined using a random-effects model and pooled as standardized mean differences.

Results: Of 6606 unique records, 19 (0.29%) were included (n=6710 participants). Half (9/19, 47%) of these articles reported an intervention effect on cannabis use frequency. The digital interventions included in the review were mostly web-based. A total of 184 behavior change techniques were identified across the interventions (range 5-19), and feedback on behavior was the most frequently used (17/19, 89%). Digital interventions for young adults reduced cannabis use frequency at the 3-month follow-up compared to control conditions (including passive and active controls) by −6.79 days of use in the previous month (95% CI −9.59 to −4.00; P <.001).

Conclusions: Our results indicate the potential of digital interventions to reduce cannabis use in young adults but raise important questions about what optimal exposure dose could be more effective, both in terms of intervention duration and frequency. Further high-quality research is still needed to investigate the effects of digital interventions on cannabis use among young adults.

Trial Registration: PROSPERO CRD42020196959; https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=196959

Introduction

Cannabis use among young adults is recognized as a public health concern.

Young adulthood (typically the ages of 18-30 y) is a critical developmental stage characterized by a peak prevalence of substance use [ 1 , 2 ]. Worldwide, cannabis is a substance frequently used for nonmedical purposes due in part to its high availability in some regions and enhanced product variety and potency [ 3 , 4 ]. The prevalence of cannabis use (CU) among young adults is high [ 5 , 6 ], and its rates have risen in recent decades [ 7 ]. In North America and Oceania, the estimated past-year prevalence of CU is ≥25% among young adults [ 8 , 9 ].

While the vast majority of cannabis users do not experience severe problems from their use [ 4 ], the high prevalence of CU among young adults poses substantial global health concerns due to the associated acute and long-term health and psychosocial risks [ 10 , 11 ]. These include impairment of cognitive function, memory, and psychomotor skills during acute intoxication; increased engagement in behaviors with a potential for injury and fatality (eg, driving under the influence); socioeconomic problems; and diminished social functioning [ 4 , 12 - 14 ]. Importantly, an extensive body of literature reveals that subgroups engaging in higher-risk use, such as intensive or repeated use, are more prone to severe and chronic consequences, including physical ailments (eg, respiratory illness and reproductive dysfunction), mental health disorders (eg, psychosis, depression, and suicidal ideation or attempts), and the potential development of CU disorder [ 4 , 15 - 17 ].

Interventions to Reduce Public Health Impact of Young Adult CU

Given the increased prevalence of lifetime and daily CU among young adults and the potential negative impact of higher-risk CU, various prevention and intervention programs have been implemented to help users reduce or cease their CU. These programs primarily target young adults regardless of their CU status [ 2 , 18 ]. In this context, many health care organizations and international expert panels have developed evidence-based lower-risk CU guidelines to promote safer CU and intervention options to help reduce risks of adverse health outcomes from nonmedical CU [ 4 , 16 , 17 , 19 ]. Lower-risk guidance-oriented interventions for CU are based on concepts of health promotion [ 20 - 22 ] and health behavior change [ 23 - 26 ] and on other similar harm reduction interventions implemented in other areas of population health (eg, lower-risk drinking guidelines, supervised consumption sites and services, and sexual health) [ 27 , 28 ]. These interventions primarily aim to raise awareness of negative mental, physical, and social cannabis-related consequences to modify individual-level behavior-related risk factors.

Meta-analyses have shown that face-to-face prevention and treatment interventions are generally effective in reducing CU in young adults [ 18 , 29 - 32 ]. However, as the proportion of professional help seeking for CU concerns among young adults remains low (approximately 15%) [ 33 , 34 ], alternative strategies that consider the limited capacities and access-related barriers of traditional face-to-face prevention and treatment facilities are needed. Digital interventions, including websites, digital platforms, and mobile apps, have emerged as promising tools to enhance the accessibility and availability of evidence-based programs for young adult cannabis users. These interventions address barriers such as long-distance travel, concerns about confidentiality, stigma associated with seeking treatment, and the cost of traditional treatments [ 35 - 37 ]. By overcoming these barriers, digital interventions have the potential to have a stronger public health impact [ 18 , 38 ].

State of Knowledge of Digital Interventions for CU and Young Adults

The literature regarding digital interventions for substance use has grown rapidly in the past decade, as evidenced by several systematic reviews and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trial (RCT) studies on the efficacy or effectiveness of these interventions in preventing or reducing harmful substance use [ 2 , 39 - 41 ]. However, these reviews do not focus on young adults specifically. In addition, they combine CU-related outcomes with those of many other substances in their meta-analytical results. Finally, they do not target CU interventions exclusively.

In total, 4 systematic reviews and meta-analyses of digital interventions for CU among young people have reported mixed results [ 42 - 45 ]. In their systematic review (10 studies of 5 prevention and 5 treatment interventions up to 2012), Tait et al [ 44 ] concluded that digital interventions effectively reduced CU among adolescents and adults at the posttreatment time point. Olmos et al [ 43 ] reached a similar conclusion in their meta-analysis of 9 RCT studies (2 prevention and 7 treatment interventions). In their review, Hoch et al [ 42 ] reported evidence of small effects at the 3-month follow-up based on 4 RCTs of brief motivational interventions and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) delivered on the web. In another systematic review and meta-analysis, Beneria et al [ 45 ] found that web-based CU interventions did not significantly reduce consumption. However, these authors indicated that the programs tested varied significantly across the studies considered and that statistical heterogeneity was attributable to the inclusion of studies of programs targeting more than one substance (eg, alcohol and cannabis) and both adolescents and young adults. Beneria et al [ 45 ] recommend that future work “establish the effectiveness of the newer generation of interventions as well as the key ingredients” of effective digital interventions addressing CU by young people. This is of particular importance because behavior change interventions tend to be complex as they consist of multiple interactive components [ 46 ].

Behavior change interventions refer to “coordinated sets of activities designed to change specified behavior patterns” [ 47 ]. Their interacting active ingredients can be conceptualized as behavior change techniques (BCTs) [ 48 ]. BCTs are specific and irreducible. Each BCT has its own individual label and definition, which can be used when designing and reporting complex interventions and as a nomenclature system when coding interventions for their content [ 47 ]. The Behavior Change Technique Taxonomy version 1 (BCTTv1) [ 48 , 49 ] was developed to provide a shared, standardized terminology for characterizing complex behavior change interventions and their active ingredients. Several systematic reviews with meta-regressions that used the BCTTv1 have found interventions with certain BCTs to be more effective than those without [ 50 - 53 ]. A better understanding of the BCTs used in digital interventions for young adult cannabis users would help not only to establish the key ingredients of such interventions but also develop and evaluate effective interventions.

In the absence of any systematic review of the effectiveness and active ingredients of digital interventions designed specifically for CU among community-living young adults, we set out to achieve the following:

• conduct a comprehensive review of digital interventions for preventing, reducing, or ceasing CU among community-living young adults,
• describe the active ingredients (ie, BCTs) in these interventions from the perspective of behavior change science, and
• analyze the effectiveness of these interventions on CU outcomes.

Protocol Registration

We followed the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions [ 54 ] in designing this systematic review and meta-analysis and the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) 2020 guidelines in reporting our findings (see Multimedia Appendix 1 [ 55 ] for the complete PRISMA checklist). This review was registered in PROSPERO (CRD42020196959).

Search Strategy

The search strategy was designed by a health information specialist together with the research team and peer reviewed by another senior information specialist before execution using Peer Review of Electronic Search Strategies for systematic reviews [ 56 ]. The search strategy revolved around three concepts:

• CU (eg, “cannabis,” “marijuana,” and “hashish”)
• Digital interventions (eg, “telehealth,” “website,” “mobile applications,” and “computer”)
• Young adults (eg, “emerging adults” and “students”)

The strategy was initially implemented on March 18, 2020, and again on October 13, 2021, and February 13, 2023. The full, detailed search strategies for each database are presented in Multimedia Appendix 2 .

Information Sources

We searched 7 electronic databases of published literature: CINAHL Complete, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Embase, MEDLINE, PubMed, and PsycINFO. No publication date filters or language restrictions were applied. A combination of free-text keywords and Medical Subject Headings was tailored to the conventions of each database for optimal electronic searching. The research team also manually screened the reference lists of the included articles and the bibliographies of existing systematic reviews [ 18 , 31 , 42 - 45 ] to identify additional relevant studies (snowballing). Finally, a forward citation tracking procedure (ie, searching for articles that cited the included studies) was carried out in Google Scholar.

Inclusion Criteria

The population, intervention, comparison, outcome, and study design process is presented in Multimedia Appendix 3 . The inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) original research articles published in peer-reviewed journals; (2) use of an experimental study design (eg, RCT, cluster RCT, or pilot RCT); (3) studies evaluating the effectiveness (or efficacy) of digital interventions designed specifically to prevent, reduce, or cease CU as well as promote CU self-management or address cannabis-related harm and having CU as an outcome measure; (4) studies targeting young adults, including active and nonactive cannabis users; (5) cannabis users and nonusers not under substance use treatment used as controls in comparator, waitlist, or delayed-treatment groups offered another type of intervention (eg, pharmacotherapy or psychosocial) different from the one being investigated or participants assessed only for CU; and (6) quantitative CU outcomes (frequency and quantity) or cannabis abstinence. Given the availability of numerous CU screening and assessment tools with adequate psychometric properties and the absence of a gold standard in this regard [ 57 ], any instrument capturing aspects of CU was considered. CU outcome measures could be subjective (eg, self-reported number of CU days or joints in the previous 3 months) or objective (eg, drug screening test). CU had to be measured before the intervention (baseline) and at least once after.

Digital CU interventions were defined as web- or mobile-based interventions that included one or more activities (eg, self-directed or interactive psychoeducation or therapy, personalized feedback, peer-to-peer contact, and patient-to-expert communication) aimed at changing CU [ 58 ]. Mobile-based interventions were defined as interventions delivered via mobile phone through SMS text message, multimedia messaging service (ie, SMS text messages that include　multimedia content, such as pictures, videos, or emojis), or mobile apps, whereas web-based interventions (eg, websites and digital platforms) were defined as interventions designed to be accessed on the web (ie, the internet), mainly via computers. Interventions could include self-directed and web-based interventions with human support. We defined young adults as aged 16 to 35 years and included students and nonstudents. While young adulthood is typically defined as covering the ages of 18 to 30 years [ 59 ], we broadened the range given that the age of majority and legal age to purchase cannabis differs across countries and jurisdictions. This was also in line with the age range targeted by several digital CU interventions (college or university students or emerging adults aged 15-24 years) [ 31 , 45 ]. Given the language expertise of the research team members and the available resources, only English- and French-language articles were retained.

Exclusion Criteria

Knowledge synthesis articles, study protocols, and discussion papers or editorials were excluded, as were articles with cross-sectional, cohort, case study or report, pretest-posttest, quasi-experimental, or qualitative designs. Mixed methods designs were included only if the quantitative component was an RCT. We excluded studies if (1) use of substances other than cannabis (eg, alcohol, opioids, or stimulants) was the focus of the digital intervention (though studies that included polysubstance users were retained if CU was assessed and reported separately); (2) CU was not reported separately as an outcome or only attitudes or beliefs regarding, knowledge of, intention to reduce, or readiness or motivation to change CU was measured; and (3) the data reported were unpublished (eg, conferences and dissertations). Studies of traditional face-to-face therapy delivered via teleconference on mobile phones and computers or in a hospital-based setting and informational campaigns (eg, web-based poster presentations or pamphlets) were excluded as well. Studies with samples with a maximum age of <15 years and a minimum age of >35 years were also excluded. Finally, we excluded studies that focused exclusively on people with a mental health disorder or substance use disorder or dependence or on adolescents owing to the particular health care needs of these populations, which may differ from those of young adults [ 1 ].

Data Collection

Selection of studies.

Duplicates were removed from the literature search results in EndNote (version X9.3.3; Clarivate Analytics) using the Bramer method for deduplication of database search results for systematic reviews [ 60 ]. The remaining records were uploaded to Covidence (Veritas Health Innovation), a web-based systematic review management system. A reviewer guide was developed that included screening questions and a detailed description of each inclusion and exclusion criterion based on PICO (population, intervention, comparator, and outcome), and a calibration exercise was performed before each stage of the selection process to maximize consistency between reviewers. Titles and abstracts of studies flagged for possible inclusion were screened first by 2 independent reviewers (GC, BV, PA, and GR; 2 per article) against the eligibility criteria (stage 1). Articles deemed eligible for full-text review were then retrieved and screened for inclusion (stage 2). Full texts were assessed in detail against the eligibility criteria again by 2 reviewers independently. Disagreements between reviewers were resolved through consensus or by consulting a third reviewer.

Data Extraction Process

In total, 2 reviewers (GC, BV, PA, GR, and GF; 2 per article) independently extracted relevant data (or informal evidence) using a data extraction form developed specifically for this review and integrated into Covidence. The form was pilot-tested on 2 randomly selected studies and refined accordingly. Data pertaining to the following domains were extracted from the included studies: (1) Study characteristics included information on the first and corresponding authors, publication year, country of origin, aims and hypotheses, study period, design (including details on randomization and blinding), follow-up times, data collection methods, and types of statistical analysis. (2) Participant characteristics included study target population, participant inclusion and exclusion criteria, sex or gender, mean age, and sample sizes at each data collection time point. (3) Intervention characteristics, for which the research team developed a matrix inspired by the template for intervention description and replication 12-item checklist [ 61 ] to extract informal evidence (ie, intervention descriptions) from the included studies under the headings name of intervention, purpose, underpinning theory of design elements, treatment approach, type of technology (ie, web or mobile) and software used, delivery format (ie, self-directed, human involvement, or both), provider characteristics (if applicable), intervention duration (ie, length of treatment and number of sessions or modules), material and procedures (ie, tools or activities offered, resources provided, and psychoeducational content), tailoring, and unplanned modifications. (4) Comparator characteristics were details of the control or comparison group or groups, including nature (passive vs active), number of groups or clusters (if applicable), type and length of the intervention (if applicable), and number of participants at each data collection time point. (5) Outcome variables, including the primary outcome variable examined in this systematic review, that is, the mean difference in CU frequency before and after the intervention and between the experimental and control or comparison groups. When possible, we examined continuous variables, including CU frequency means and SDs at the baseline and follow-up time points, and standardized regression coefficients (ie, β coefficients and associated 95% CIs). The secondary outcomes examined included other CU outcome variables (eg, quantity of cannabis used and abstinence) and cannabis-related negative consequences (or problems). Details on outcome variables (ie, definition, data time points, and missing data) and measurements (ie, instruments, measurement units, and scales) were also extracted.

In addition, data on user engagement and use of the digital intervention and study attrition rates (ie, dropouts and loss to follow-up) were extracted. When articles had missing data, we contacted the corresponding authors via email (2 attempts were made over a 2-month period) to obtain missing information. Disagreements over the extracted data were limited and resolved through discussion.

Data Synthesis Methods

Descriptive synthesis.

The characteristics of the included studies, study participants, interventions, and comparators were summarized in narrative and table formats. The template for intervention description and replication 12-item checklist [ 61 ] was used to summarize and organize intervention characteristics and assess to what extent the interventions were appropriately described in the included articles. As not all studies had usable data for meta-analysis purposes and because of heterogeneity, we summarized the main findings (ie, intervention effects) of the included studies in narrative and table formats for each outcome of interest in this review.

The BCTs used in the digital interventions were identified from the descriptions of the interventions (ie, experimental groups) provided in the articles as well as any supplementary material and previously published research protocols. A BCT was defined as “an observable, replicable, and irreducible component of an intervention designed to alter or redirect causal processes that regulate behavior” [ 48 ]. The target behavior in this review was the cessation or reduction of CU by young adults. BCTs were identified and coded using the BCTTv1 [ 48 , 49 ], a taxonomy of 93 BCTs organized into 16 hierarchical thematic clusters or categories. Applying the BCTTv1 in a systematic review allows for the comparison and synthesis of evidence across studies in a structured manner. This analysis allows for the identification of the explicit mechanisms underlying the reported behavior change induced by interventions, successful or not, and, thus, avoids making implicit assumptions about what works [ 62 ].

BCT coding was performed by 2 reviewers independently—BV coded all studies, and GC and GF coded a subset of the studies. All reviewers completed web-based training on the BCTTv1, and GF is an experienced implementation scientist who had used the BCTTv1 in prior work [ 63 - 65 ]. The descriptions of the interventions in the articles were read line by line and analyzed for the clear presence of BCTs using the guidelines developed by Michie et al [ 48 ]. For each article, the BCTs identified were documented and categorized using supporting textual evidence. They were coded only once per article regardless of how many times they came up in the text. Disagreements about including a BCT were resolved through discussion. If there was uncertainty about whether a BCT was present, it was coded as absent. Excel (Microsoft Corp) was used to compare the reviewers’ independent BCT coding and generate an overall descriptive synthesis of the BCTs identified. The BCTs were summarized by study and BCT cluster.

Statistical Analysis

Meta-analyses were conducted to estimate the size of the effect of the digital interventions for young adult CU on outcomes of interest at the posttreatment and follow-up assessments compared with control or alternative intervention conditions. The outcome variables considered were (1) CU frequency and other CU outcome variables (eg, quantity of cannabis used and abstinence) at baseline and the posttreatment time point or follow-up measured using standardized instruments of self-reported CU (eg, the timeline followback [TLFB] method) [ 66 ] and (2) cannabis-related negative consequences measured using standardized instruments (eg, the Marijuana Problems Scale) [ 67 ].

Under our systematic review protocol, ≥2 studies were needed for a meta-analysis. On the basis of previous systematic reviews and meta-analyses in the field of digital CU interventions [ 31 , 42 - 45 ], we expected between-study heterogeneity regarding outcome assessment. To minimize heterogeneity, we chose to pool studies with similar outcomes of interest based on four criteria: (1) definition of outcome (eg, CU frequency, quantity consumed, and abstinence), (2) type of outcome variable (eg, days of CU in the previous 90 days, days high per week in the previous 30 days, and number of CU events in the previous month) and measure (ie, instruments or scales), (3) use of validated instruments, and (4) posttreatment or follow-up time points (eg, 2 weeks or 1 month after the baseline or 3, 6, and 12 months after the baseline).

Only articles that reported sufficient statistics to compute a valid effect size with 95% CIs were included in the meta-analyses. In the case of articles that were not independent (ie, more than one published article reporting data from the same clinical trial), only 1 was included, and it was represented only once in the meta-analysis for a given outcome variable regardless of whether the data used to compute the effect size were extracted from the original paper or a secondary analysis paper. We made sure that the independence of the studies included in the meta-analysis of each outcome was respected. In the case of studies that had more than one comparator, we used the effect size for each comparison between the intervention and control groups.

Meta-analyses were conducted only for mean differences based on the change from baseline in CU frequency at 3 months after the baseline as measured using the number of self-reported days of use in the previous month. As the true value of the estimated effect size for outcome variables might vary across different trials and samples, we used a random-effects model given that the studies retained did not have identical target populations. The random-effects model incorporates between-study variation in the study weights and estimated effect size [ 68 ]. In addition, statistical heterogeneity across studies was assessed using I 2 , which measures the proportion of heterogeneity to the total observed dispersion; 25% was considered low, 50% was considered moderate, and 75% was considered high [ 69 ]. Because only 3 studies were included in the meta-analysis [ 70 - 72 ], publication bias could not be assessed. All analyses were completed using Stata (version 18; StataCorp) [ 73 ].

Risk-of-Bias Assessment

The risk of bias (RoB) of the included RCTs was assessed using the Cochrane RoB 2 tool at the outcome level [ 74 ]. Each distinct risk domain (ie, randomization process, deviations from the intended intervention, missing outcome data, measurement of the outcome, and selection of the reported results) was assessed as “low,” “some concerns,” or “high” based on the RoB 2 criteria. In total, 2 reviewers (GC and BV) conducted the assessments independently. Disagreements were discussed, and if not resolved consensually by the 2, the matter was left for a third reviewer (GF) to settle. The assessments were summarized by risk domain and outcome and converted into figures using the RoB visualization tool robvis [ 75 ].

Search Results

The database search generated a total of 13,232 citations, of which 7822 (59.11%) were from the initial search on March 18, 2020, and 2805 (21.2%) and 2605 (19.69%) were from the updates on October 13, 2021, and February 13, 2023, respectively. Figure 1 presents the PRISMA study flow diagram [ 76 ]. Of the 6606 unique records, 6484 (98.15%) were excluded based on title and abstract screening. Full texts of the remaining 1.85% (122/6606) of the records were examined, as were those of 25 more reports found through hand searching. Of these 147 records, 128 (87.1%) were excluded after 3 rounds of full-text screening. Of these 128 records, 39 (30.5%) were excluded for not being empirical research articles (eg, research protocols). Another 28.1% (36/128) were excluded for not meeting our definition of digital CU intervention. The remaining records were excluded for reasons that occurred with a frequency of ≤14%, including young adults not being the target population and the study not meeting our study design criteria (ie, RCT, cluster RCT, or pilot RCT). Excluded studies and reasons for exclusion are listed in Multimedia Appendix 4 . Finally, 19 articles detailing the results of 19 original studies were included.

Description of Studies

Study characteristics.

Multimedia Appendix 5 [ 70 - 72 , 77 - 92 ] describes the general characteristics of the 19 included studies. The studies were published between 2010 and 2023, with 58% (11/19) published in 2018 or later. A total of 53% (10/19) of the studies were conducted in the United States [ 77 - 86 ], 11% (2/19) were conducted in Canada [ 87 , 88 ], 11% (2/19) were conducted in Australia [ 71 , 89 ], 11% (2/19) were conducted in Germany [ 72 , 90 ], 11% (2/19) were conducted in Switzerland [ 70 , 91 ], and 5% (1/19) were conducted in Sweden [ 92 ]. A total of 79% (15/19) were RCTs [ 70 - 72 , 77 , 79 , 81 - 83 , 86 - 92 ], and 21% (4/19) were pilot RCTs [ 78 , 80 , 84 , 85 ].

Participant Characteristics

The studies enrolled a total of 6710 participants—3229 (48.1%) in the experimental groups, 3358 (50%) in the control groups, and the remaining 123 (1.8%) from 1 study [ 82 ] where participant allocation to the intervention condition was not reported. Baseline sample sizes ranged from 49 [ 81 ] to 1292 [ 72 ] (mean 352.89, SD 289.50), as shown in Multimedia Appendix 5 . Participant mean ages ranged from 18.03 (SD 0.31) [ 79 ] to 35.3 (SD 12.6) years [ 88 ], and the proportion of participants who identified as female ranged from 24.7% [ 91 ] to 84.1% [ 80 ].

Of the 19 included studies, 10 (53%) targeted adults aged ≥18 years, of which 7 (70%) studies focused on adults who had engaged in past-month CU [ 70 , 71 , 80 , 84 , 85 , 90 , 91 ], 2 (20%) studies included adults who wished to reduce or cease CU [ 72 , 89 ], and 1 (10%) study focused on noncollege adults with a moderate risk associated with CU [ 88 ]. Sinadinovic et al [ 92 ] targeted young adults aged ≥16 years who had used cannabis at least once a week in the previous 6 months. The remaining 8 studies targeted college or university students (aged ≥17 y) specifically, of which 7 (88%) studies focused solely on students who reported using cannabis [ 78 , 79 , 81 - 83 , 86 , 87 ] and 1 (12%) study focused solely on students who did not report past-month CU (ie, abstainers) [ 77 ].

Intervention Characteristics

The 19 included studies assessed nine different digital interventions: (1) 5 (26%) evaluated Marijuana eCHECKUP TO GO (e-TOKE), a commercially available electronic intervention used at colleges throughout the United States and Canada [ 77 , 78 , 81 - 83 ]; (2) 2 (11%) examined the internationally known CANreduce program [ 70 , 91 ]; (3) 2 (11%) evaluated the German Quit the Shit program [ 72 , 90 ]; (4) 2 (11%) assessed a social media–delivered, physical activity–focused cannabis intervention [ 84 , 85 ]; (5) 1 (5%) investigated the Swedish Cannabishjälpen intervention [ 92 ]; (6) 1 (5%) evaluated the Australian Grassessment: Evaluate Your Use of Cannabis website program [ 89 ]; (7) 1 (5%) assessed the Canadian Ma réussite, mon choix intervention [ 87 ]; (8) 1 (5%) examined the Australian Reduce Your Use: How to Break the Cannabis Habit program [ 71 ]; and (9) 4 (21%) each evaluated a unique no-name intervention described as a personalized feedback intervention (PFI) [ 79 , 80 , 86 , 88 ]. Detailed information regarding the characteristics of all interventions as reported in each included study is provided in Multimedia Appendix 6 [ 70 - 72 , 77 - 113 ] and summarized in the following paragraphs.

In several studies (8/19, 42%), the interventions were designed to support cannabis users in reducing or ceasing their consumption [ 70 , 72 , 80 , 87 , 89 - 92 ]. In 37% (7/19) of the studies, the interventions aimed at reducing both CU and cannabis-related consequences [ 79 , 81 - 85 , 88 ]. Other interventions focused on helping college students think carefully about the decision to use cannabis [ 77 , 78 ] and on reducing either cannabis-related problems among undergraduate students [ 86 ] or symptoms associated with CU disorder in young adults [ 71 ].

In 26% (5/19) of the studies, theory was used to inform intervention design along with a clear rationale for theory use. Of these 5 articles, only 1 (20%) [ 87 ] reported using a single theory of behavior change, the theory of planned behavior [ 114 ]. A total of 21% (4/19) of the studies selected only constructs of theories (or models) for their intervention design. Of these 4 studies, 2 (50%) evaluated the same intervention [ 72 , 90 ], which focused on principles of self-regulation and self-control theory [ 93 ]; 1 (25%) [ 70 ] used the concept of adherence-focused guidance enhancement based on the supportive accountability model of guidance [ 94 ]; and 1 (25%) [ 71 ] reported that intervention design was guided by the concept of self-behavioral management.

The strategies (or approaches) used in the delivery of the digital interventions were discussed in greater detail in 84% (16/19) of the articles [ 70 - 72 , 79 - 81 , 83 - 92 ]. Many of these articles (9/19, 47%) reported using a combination of approaches based on CBT or motivational interviewing (MI) [ 70 , 71 , 79 , 83 - 85 , 90 - 92 ]. PFIs were also often mentioned as an approach to inform intervention delivery [ 7 , 71 , 79 , 86 - 88 ].

More than half (13/19, 68%) of all the digital interventions were asynchronous and based on a self-guided approach without support from a counselor or therapist. The study by Côté et al [ 87 ] evaluated the efficacy of a web-based tailored intervention focused on reinforcing a positive attitude toward and a sense of control over cannabis abstinence through psychoeducational messages delivered by a credible character in short video clips and personalized reinforcement messages. Lee et al [ 79 ] evaluated a brief, web-based personalized feedback selective intervention based on the PFI approach pioneered by Marlatt et al [ 95 ] for alcohol use prevention and on the MI approach described by Miller and Rollnick [ 96 ]. Similarly, Rooke et al [ 71 ] combined principles of MI and CBT to develop a web-based intervention delivered via web modules, which were informed by previous automated feedback interventions targeting substance use. The study by Copeland et al [ 89 ] assessed the short-term effectiveness of Grassessment: Evaluate Your Use of Cannabis, a brief web-based, self-complete intervention based on motivational enhancement therapy that included personalized feedback messages and psychoeducational material. In the studies by Buckner et al [ 80 ], Cunningham et al [ 88 ], and Walukevich-Dienst et al [ 86 ], experimental groups received a brief web-based PFI available via a computer. A total of 16% (3/19) of the studies [ 77 , 78 , 82 ] applied a program called the Marijuana eCHECKUP TO GO (e-TOKE) for Universities and Colleges, which was presented as a web-based, norm-correcting, brief preventive and intervention education program designed to prompt self-reflection on consequences and consideration of decreasing CU among students. Riggs et al [ 83 ] developed and evaluated an adapted version of e-TOKE that provided participants with university-specific personalized feedback and normative information based on protective behavioral strategies for CU [ 97 ]. Similarly, Goodness and Palfai [ 81 ] tested the efficacy of eCHECKUP TO GO-cannabis, a modified version of e-TOKE combining personalized feedback, norm correction, and a harm and frequency reduction strategy where a “booster” session was provided at 3 months to allow participants to receive repeated exposure to the intervention.

In the remaining 32% (6/19) of the studies, which examined 4 different interventions, the presence of a therapist guide was reported. The intervention evaluated by Sinadinovic et al [ 92 ] combined principles of psychoeducation, MI, and CBT organized into 13 web-based modules and a calendar involving therapist guidance, recommendations, and personal feedback. In total, 33% (2/6) of these studies evaluated a social media–delivered intervention with e-coaches that combined principles of MI and CBT and a harm reduction approach for risky CU [ 84 , 85 ]. Schaub et al [ 91 ] evaluated the efficacy of CANreduce, a web-based self-help intervention based on both MI and CBT approaches, using automated motivational and feedback emails, chat with a counselor, and web-based psychoeducational modules. Similarly, Baumgartner et al [ 70 ] investigated the effectiveness of CANreduce 2.0, a modified version of CANreduce, using semiautomated motivational and adherence-focused guidance-based email feedback with or without a personal online coach. The studies by Tossman et al [ 72 ] and Jonas et al [ 90 ] used a solution-focused approach and MI to evaluate the effectiveness of the German Quit the Shit web-based program that involves weekly feedback provided by counselors.

In addition to using different intervention strategies or approaches, the interventions were diverse in terms of the duration and frequency of the program (eg, web-based activities, sessions, or modules). Of the 12 articles that provided details in this regard, 2 (17%) on the same intervention described it as a brief 20- to 45-minute web-based program [ 77 , 78 ], 2 (17%) on 2 different interventions reported including 1 or 2 modules per week for a duration of 6 weeks [ 71 , 92 ], and 7 (58%) on 4 different interventions described them as being available over a longer period ranging from 6 weeks to 3 months [ 70 , 72 , 79 , 84 , 85 , 87 , 90 , 91 ].

Comparator Types

A total of 42% (8/19) of the studies [ 72 , 77 - 80 , 85 , 87 , 92 ] used a passive comparator only, namely, a waitlist control group ( Multimedia Appendix 5 ). A total of 26% (5/19) of the studies used an active comparator only where participants were provided with minimal general health feedback regarding recommended guidelines for sleep, exercise, and nutrition [ 81 , 82 ]; strategies for healthy stress management [ 83 ]; educational materials about risky CU [ 88 ]; or access to a website containing information about cannabis [ 71 ]. In another 21% (4/19) of the studies, which used an active comparator, participants received the same digital intervention minus a specific component: a personal web-based coach [ 70 ], extended personalized feedback [ 89 ], web-based chat counseling [ 91 ], or information on risks associated with CU [ 86 ]. A total of 21% (4/19) of the studies had more than one control group [ 70 , 84 , 90 , 91 ].

Outcome Variable Assessment and Summary of Main Findings of the Studies

The methodological characteristics and major findings of the included studies (N=19) are presented in Multimedia Appendix 7 [ 67 , 70 - 72 , 77 - 92 , 115 - 120 ] and summarized in the following sections for each outcome of interest in this review (ie, CU and cannabis-related consequences). Of the 19 studies, 11 (58%) were reported as efficacy trials [ 7 , 77 , 79 , 81 - 83 , 86 - 88 , 91 , 92 ], and 8 (42%) were reported as effectiveness trials [ 70 - 72 , 78 , 84 , 85 , 89 , 90 ].

Across all the included studies (19/19, 100%), participant attrition rates ranged from 1.6% at 1 month after the baseline [ 77 , 78 ] to 75.1% at the 3-month follow-up [ 70 ]. A total of 37% (7/19) of the studies assessed and reported results regarding user engagement [ 71 , 78 , 84 , 85 , 90 - 92 ] using different types of metrics. In one article on the Marijuana eCHECKUP TO GO (e-TOKE) web-based program [ 78 ], the authors briefly reported that participation was confirmed for 98.1% (158/161) of participants in the intervention group. In 11% (2/19) of the studies, which were on a similar social media–delivered intervention [ 84 , 85 ], user engagement was quantified by tallying the number of comments or posts and reactions (eg, likes and hearts) left by participants. In both studies [ 84 , 85 ], the intervention group, which involved a CU-related Facebook page, displayed greater interactions than the control groups, which involved a Facebook page unrelated to CU. One article [ 84 ] reported that 80% of participants in the intervention group posted at least once (range 0-60) and 50% posted at least weekly. In the other study [ 85 ], the results showed that intervention participants engaged (ie, posting or commenting or clicking reactions) on average 47.9 times each over 8 weeks. In total, 11% (2/19) of the studies [ 90 , 91 ] on 2 different web-based intervention programs, both consisting of web documentation accompanied by chat-based counseling, measured user engagement either by average duration or average number of chat sessions. Finally, 16% (3/19) of the studies [ 71 , 91 , 92 ], which involved 3 different web-based intervention programs, characterized user engagement by the mean number of web modules completed per participant. Overall, the mean number of web modules completed reported in these articles was quite similar: 3.9 out of 13 [ 92 ] and 3.2 [ 91 ] and 3.5 [ 71 ] out of 6.

Assessment of CU

As presented in Multimedia Appendix 7 , the included studies differed in terms of how they assessed CU, although all used at least one self-reported measure of frequency. Most studies (16/19, 84%) measured frequency by days of use, including days of use in the preceding week [ 91 ] or 2 [ 80 ], days of use in the previous 30 [ 70 - 72 , 78 , 84 - 86 , 88 - 90 ] or 90 days [ 79 , 81 , 82 ], and days high per week [ 83 ]. Other self-reported measures of CU frequency included (1) number of CU events in the previous month [ 87 , 90 ], (2) cannabis initiation or use in the previous month (ie, yes or no) [ 77 ], and (3) days without CU in the previous 7 days [ 92 ]. In addition to measuring CU frequency, 42% (8/19) of the studies also assessed CU via self-reported measures of quantity used, including estimated grams consumed in the previous week [ 92 ] or 30 days [ 72 , 85 , 90 ] and the number of standard-sized joints consumed in the previous 7 days [ 91 ] or the previous month [ 70 , 71 , 89 ].

Of the 19 articles included, 10 (53%) [ 70 - 72 , 80 , 84 - 86 , 89 , 90 , 92 ] reported using a validated instrument to measure CU frequency or quantity, including the TLFB instrument [ 66 ] (n=9, 90% of the studies) and the Marijuana Use Form (n=1, 10% of the studies); 1 (10%) [ 79 ] reported using CU-related questions from an adaptation of the Global Appraisal of Individual Needs–Initial instrument [ 115 ]; and 30% (3/10) [ 81 , 82 , 91 ] reported using a questionnaire accompanied by a calendar or a diary of consumption. The 19 studies also differed with regard to their follow-up time measurements for assessing CU, ranging from 2 weeks after the baseline [ 80 ] to 12 months after randomization [ 90 ], although 12 (63%) of the studies included a 3-month follow-up assessment [ 70 - 72 , 79 , 81 , 82 , 84 , 85 , 88 , 90 - 92 ].

Of all studies assessing and reporting change in CU frequency from baseline to follow-up assessments (19/19, 100%), 47% (9/19) found statistically significant differences between the experimental and control groups [ 70 - 72 , 80 , 81 , 83 , 85 , 87 , 91 ]. Importantly, 67% (6/9) of these studies showed that participants in the experimental groups exhibited greater decreases in CU frequency 3 months following the baseline assessment compared with participants in the control groups [ 70 - 72 , 81 , 85 , 91 ], 22% (2/9) of the studies showed greater decreases in CU frequency at 6 weeks after the baseline assessment [ 71 , 83 ], 22% (2/9) of the studies showed greater decreases in CU frequency at 6 months following the baseline assessment [ 81 , 85 ], 11% (1/9) of the studies showed greater decreases in CU frequency at 2 weeks after the baseline [ 80 ], and 11% (1/9) of the studies showed greater decreases in CU frequency at 2 months after treatment [ 87 ].

In the study by Baumgartner et al [ 70 ], a reduction in CU days was observed in all groups, but the authors reported that the difference was statistically significant only between the intervention group with the service team and the control group (the reduction in the intervention group with social presence was not significant). In the study by Bonar et al [ 85 ], the only statistically significant difference between the intervention and control groups at the 3- and 6-month follow-ups involved total days of cannabis vaping in the previous 30 days. Finally, in the study by Buckner et al [ 80 ], the intervention group had less CU than the control group 2 weeks after the baseline; however, this was statistically significant only for participants with moderate or high levels of social anxiety.

Assessment of Cannabis-Related Negative Consequences

A total of 53% (10/19) of the studies also assessed cannabis-related negative consequences [ 78 - 84 , 86 , 88 , 92 ]. Of these 10 articles, 8 (80%) reported using a validated self-report instrument: 4 (50%) [ 81 , 82 , 86 , 88 ] used the 19-item Marijuana Problems Scale [ 67 ], 2 (25%) [ 78 , 79 ] used the 18-item Rutgers Marijuana Problem Index [ 121 , 122 ], and 2 (25%) [ 80 , 84 ] used the Brief Marijuana Consequences Questionnaire [ 116 ]. Only 10% (1/10) of the studies [ 92 ] used a screening tool, the Cannabis Abuse Screening Test [ 117 , 118 ]. None of these 10 studies demonstrated a statistically significant difference between the intervention and control groups. Of note, Walukevich-Dienst et al [ 86 ] found that women (but not men) who received an web-based PFI with additional information on CU risks reported significantly fewer cannabis-related problems than did women in the control group at 1 month after the intervention ( B =−1.941; P =.01).

Descriptive Summary of BCTs Used in Intervention Groups

After the 19 studies included in this review were coded, a total of 184 individual BCTs targeting CU in young adults were identified. Of these 184 BCTs, 133 (72.3% ) were deemed to be present beyond a reasonable doubt, and 51 (27.7%) were deemed to be present in all probability. Multimedia Appendix 8 [ 48 , 70 - 72 , 77 - 92 ] presents all the BCTs coded for each included study summarized by individual BCT and BCT cluster.

The 184 individual BCTs coded covered 38% (35/93) of the BCTs listed in the BCTTv1 [ 48 ]. The number of individual BCTs identified per study ranged from 5 to 19, with two-thirds of the 19 studies (12/19, 63%) using ≤9 BCTs (mean 9.68). As Multimedia Appendix 8 shows, at least one BCT fell into 13 of the 16 possible BCT clusters. The most frequent clusters were feedback monitoring , natural consequences , goal planning , and comparison of outcomes .

The most frequently coded BCTs were (1) feedback on behavior (BCT 2.2; 17/19, 89% of the studies; eg, “Once a week, participants receive detailed feedback by their counselor on their entries in diary and exercises. Depending on the involvement of each participant, up to seven feedbacks are given” [ 90 ]), (2) social support (unspecified) (BCT 3.1; 15/19, 79% of the studies; eg, “The website also features [...] blogs from former cannabis users, quick assist links, and weekly automatically generated encouragement emails” [ 71 ]), and (3) pros and cons (BCT 9.2; 14/19, 74% of the studies; eg, “participants are encouraged to state their personal reasons for and against their cannabis consumption, which they can review at any time, so they may reflect on what they could gain by successfully completing the program” [ 70 ]). Other commonly identified BCTs included social comparison (BCT 6.2; 12/19, 63% of the studies) and information about social and environmental consequences (BCT 5.3; 11/19, 58% of the studies), followed by problem solving (BCT 2.1; 10/19, 53% of the studies) and information about health consequences (BCT 5.1; 10/19, 53% of the studies).

RoB Assessment

Figure 2 presents the overall assessment of risk in each domain for all the included studies, whereas Figure 3 [ 70 - 72 , 77 - 92 ] summarizes the assessment of each study at the outcome level for each domain in the Cochrane RoB 2 [ 74 ].

Figure 2 shows that, of the included studies, 93% (27/29) were rated as having a “low” RoB arising from the randomization process (ie, selection bias) and 83% (24/29) were rated as having a “low” RoB due to missing data (ie, attrition bias). For bias due to deviations from the intended intervention (ie, performance bias), 72% (21/29) were rated as having a “low” risk, and for selective reporting of results, 59% (17/29) were rated as having a “low” risk. In the remaining domain regarding bias in measurement of the outcome (ie, detection bias), 48% (14/29) of the studies were deemed to present “some concerns,” mainly owing to the outcome assessment not being blinded (eg, self-reported outcome measure of CU). Finally, 79% (15/19) of the included studies were deemed to present “some concerns” or were rated as having a “high” RoB at the outcome level ( Figure 3 [ 70 - 72 , 77 - 92 ]). The RoB assessment for CU and cannabis consequences of each included study is presented in Multimedia Appendix 9 [ 70 - 72 , 77 - 92 ].

Meta-Analysis Results

Due to several missing data points and despite contacting the authors, we were able to carry out only 1 meta-analysis of our primary outcome, CU frequency. Usable data were retrieved from only 16% (3/19) [ 70 - 72 ] of the studies included in this review. These 3 studies provided sufficient information to calculate an effect size, including mean differences based on change-from-baseline measurements and associated 95% CIs (or SE of the mean difference) and sample sizes per intervention and comparison conditions. The reasons for excluding the other 84% (16/19) of the studies included heterogeneity in outcome variables or measurements, inconsistent results, and missing data ( Multimedia Appendix 10 [ 77 - 92 ]).

Figure 4 [ 70 - 72 ] illustrates the mean differences and associated 95% CIs of 3 unique RCTs [ 70 - 72 ] that provided sufficient information to allow for the measurement of CU frequency at 3 months after the baseline relative to a comparison condition in terms of the number of self-reported days of use in the previous month using the TLFB method. Overall, the synthesized effect of digital interventions for young adult cannabis users on CU frequency, as measured using days of use in the previous month, was −6.79 (95% CI −9.59 to −4.00). This suggests that digital CU interventions had a statistically significant effect ( P <.001) on reducing CU frequency at the 3-month follow-up compared with the control conditions (both passive and active controls). The results of the meta-analysis also showed low between-study heterogeneity ( I 2 =48.3%; P =.12) across the 3 included studies.

The samples of the 3 studies included in the meta-analysis varied in size from 225 to 1292 participants (mean 697.33, SD 444.11), and the mean age ranged from 24.7 to 31.88 years (mean 26.38, SD 3.58 years). These studies involved 3 different digital interventions and used different design approaches to assess intervention effectiveness. One study assessed the effectiveness of a web-based counseling program (ie, Quit the Shit) against a waitlist control [ 72 ], another examined the effectiveness of a fully self-guided web-based treatment program for CU and related problems (ie, Reduce Your Use: How to Break the Cannabis Habit) against a control condition website consisting of basic educational information on cannabis [ 71 ], and the third used a 3-arm RCT design to investigate whether the effectiveness of a minimally guided internet-based self-help intervention (ie, CANreduce 2.0) might be enhanced by implementing adherence-focused guidance and emphasizing the social presence factor of a personal e-coach [ 70 ].

Summary of Principal Findings

The primary aim of this systematic review was to evaluate the effectiveness of digital interventions in addressing CU among community-living young adults. We included 19 randomized controlled studies representing 9 unique digital interventions aimed at preventing, reducing, or ceasing CU and evaluated the effects of 3 different digital interventions on CU. In summary, the 3 digital interventions included in the meta-analysis proved superior to control conditions in reducing the number of days of CU in the previous month at the 3-month follow-up.

Our findings are consistent with those of 2 previous meta-analyses by Olmos et al [ 43 ] and Tait et al [ 44 ] and with the findings of a recently published umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses of RCTs [ 123 ], all of which revealed a positive effect of internet- and computer-based interventions on CU. However, a recent systematic review and meta-analysis by Beneria et al [ 45 ] found that web-based CU interventions did not significantly reduce CU. Beneria et al [ 45 ] included studies with different intervention programs that targeted diverse population groups (both adolescents and young adults) and use of more than one substance (eg, alcohol and cannabis). In our systematic review, a more conservative approach was taken—we focused specifically on young adults and considered interventions targeting CU only. Although our results indicate that digital interventions hold great promise in terms of effectiveness, an important question that remains unresolved is whether there is an optimal exposure dose in terms of both duration and frequency that might be more effective. Among the studies included in this systematic review, interventions varied considerably in terms of the number of psychoeducational modules offered (from 2 to 13), time spent reviewing the material, and duration (from a single session to a 12-week spread period). Our results suggest that an intervention duration of at least 6 weeks yields better results.

Another important finding of this review is that, although almost half (9/19, 47%) of the included studies observed an intervention effect on CU frequency, none reported a statistically significant improvement in cannabis-related negative consequences, which may be considered a more distal indicator. More than half (10/19, 53%) of the included studies investigated this outcome. It seems normal to expect to find an effect on CU frequency given that reducing CU is often the primary objective of interventions and because the motivation of users’ is generally focused on changing consumption behavior. It is plausible to think that the change in behavior at the consumption level must be maintained over time before an effect on cannabis-related negative consequences can be observed. However, our results showed that, in all the included studies, cannabis-related negative consequences and change in behavior (CU frequency) were measured at the same time point, namely, 3 months after the baseline. Moreover, Grigsby et al [ 124 ] conducted a scoping review of risk and protective factors for CU and suggested that interventions to reduce negative CU consequences should prioritize multilevel methods or strategies “to attenuate the cumulative risk from a combination of psychological, contextual, and social influences.”

A secondary objective of this systematic review was to describe the active ingredients used in digital interventions for CU among young adults. The vast majority of the interventions were based on either a theory or an intervention approach derived from theories such as CBT, MI, and personalized feedback. From these theories and approaches stem behavior change strategies or techniques, commonly known as BCTs. Feedback on behavior , included in the feedback monitoring BCT cluster, was the most common BCT used in the included studies. This specific BCT appears to be a core strategy in behavior change interventions [ 125 , 126 ]. In their systematic review of remotely delivered alcohol or substance misuse interventions for adults, Howlett et al [ 53 ] found that feedback on behavior , problem solving , and goal setting were the most frequently used BCTs in the included studies. In addition, this research group noted that the most promising BCTs for alcohol misuse were avoidance/reducing exposure to cues for behavior , pros and cons , and self-monitoring of behavior, whereas 2 very promising strategies for substance misuse in general were problem solving and self-monitoring of behavior . In our systematic review, in addition to feedback on behavior , the 6 most frequently used BCTs in the included studies were social support , pros and cons , social comparison , problem solving , information about social and environmental consequences , and information about health consequences . Although pros and cons and problem solving were present in all 3 studies of digital interventions included in our meta-analysis, avoidance/reducing exposure to cues for behavior was reported in only 5% (1/19) of the articles, and feedback on behavior was more frequently used than self-monitoring of behavior. However, it should be noted that the review by Howlett et al [ 53 ] examined digital interventions for participants with alcohol or substance misuse problems, whereas in this review, we focused on interventions that targeted CU from a harm reduction perspective. In this light, avoidance/reducing exposure to cues for behavior may be a BCT better suited to populations with substance misuse problems. Lending support to this, a meta-regression by Garnett et al [ 127 ] and a Cochrane systematic review by Kaner et al [ 128 ] both found interventions that used behavior substitution and credible source to be associated with greater reduction in excessive alcohol consumption compared with interventions that used other BCTs.

Beyond the number and types of BCTs used, reflecting on the extent to which each BCT in a given intervention suits (or does not suit) the targeted determinants (ie, behavioral and environmental causes) is crucial for planning intervention programs [ 26 ]. It is important when designing digital CU interventions not merely to pick a combination of BCTs that have been associated with effectiveness. Rather, the active ingredients must fit the determinants that the interventionists seek to influence. For example, action planning would be more relevant as a BCT for young adults highly motivated and ready to take action on their CU than would pros and cons , which aims instead to bolster motivation. Given that more than half of all digital interventions are asynchronous and based on a self-guided approach and do not offer counselor or therapist support, a great deal of motivation is required to engage in intervention and behavior change. Therefore, it is essential that developers consider the needs and characteristics of the targeted population to tailor intervention strategies (ie, BCTs) for successful behavior change (eg, tailored to the participant’s stage of change). In most of the digital interventions included in this systematic review, personalization was achieved through feedback messages about CU regarding descriptive norms, motives, risks and consequences, and costs, among other things.

Despite the high number of recent studies conducted in the field of digital CU interventions, most of the included articles in our review (17/19, 89%) reported on the development and evaluation of web-based intervention programs. A new generation of health intervention modalities such as mobile apps and social media has drawn the attention of researchers in the past decade and is currently being evaluated. In this regard, the results from a recently published scoping review [ 129 ], which included 5 studies of mobile apps for nonmedical CU, suggested that these novel modes of intervention delivery demonstrated adequate feasibility and acceptability. Nevertheless, the internet remains a powerful and convenient medium for reaching young adults with digital interventions intended to support safe CU behaviors [ 123 , 130 ].

Quality of Evidence

The GRADE (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation) approach [ 131 - 133 ] was used to assess the quality of the evidence reviewed. It was deemed to be moderate for the primary outcome of this review, that is, CU frequency in terms of days of use in the previous month (see the summary of evidence in Multimedia Appendix 11 [ 70 , 72 ]). The direction of evidence was broadly consistent—in all 3 RCT studies [ 70 - 72 ] included in the meta-analysis, participants who received digital CU interventions reduced their consumption compared with those who received no or minimal interventions. The 3 RCTs were similar in that they all involved a web-based, multicomponent intervention program aimed at reducing or ceasing CU. However, the interventions did differ or vary in terms of several characteristics, including the strategies used, content, frequency, and duration. Given the small number of studies included in the meta-analysis, we could not conclude with certainty which intervention components, if any, contributed to the effect estimate observed.

Although inconsistency, indirectness, and imprecision were not major issues in the body of evidence, we downgraded the evidence from high to moderate quality on account of RoB assessments at the outcome level. The 3 RCT studies included in the meta-analysis were rated as having “some concerns” of RoB, mainly due to lack of blinding, which significantly reduced our certainty relative to subjective outcomes (ie, self-reported measures of CU frequency). A positive feature of these digital intervention trials is that most procedures are fully automated, and so there was typically a low RoB regarding randomization procedures, allocation to different conditions, and intervention delivery. It is impossible to blind participants to these types of behavior change interventions, and although some researchers have made attempts to counter the impact of this risk, performance bias is an inescapable issue in RCT studies of this kind. Blinding of intervention providers was not an issue in the 3 RCTs included in the meta-analysis because outcome data collection was automated. However, this same automated procedure made it very difficult to ensure follow‐up. Consequently, attrition was another source of bias in these RCT studies [ 70 - 72 ]. The participants lost to follow-up likely stopped using the intervention. However, there is no way of determining whether these people would have benefited more or less than the completers if they had seen the trial through.

The 3 RCTs included in the meta-analysis relied on subjective self-reported measures of CU at baseline and follow‐up, which are subject to recall and social desirability bias. However, all 3 studies used a well-validated instrument of measurement to determine frequency of CU, the TLFB [ 66 ]. This is a widely used, subjective self-report tool for measuring frequency (or quantity) of substance use (or abstinence). It is considered a reliable measure of CU [ 134 , 135 ]. Finally, it should be pointed out that any potential bias related to self‐reported CU frequency would have affected both the intervention and control groups (particularly in cases in which control groups received cannabis‐related information), and thus, it was unlikely to account for differential intervention effects. Moreover, we found RoB due to selective reporting in some studies owing mainly to the absence of any reference to a protocol. Ultimately, these limitations may have biased the results of the meta-analysis. Consequently, future research is likely to further undermine our confidence in the effect estimate we observed and report considerably different estimates.

Strengths and Limitations

Our systematic review and meta-analysis has a number of strengths: (1) we included only randomized controlled studies to ensure that the included studies possessed a rigorous research design, (2) we focused specifically on cannabis (rather than combining multiple substances), (3) we assessed the effectiveness of 3 different digital interventions on CU frequency among community-living young adults, and (4) we performed an exhaustive synthesis and comparison of the BCTs used in the 9 digital interventions examined in the 19 studies included in our review based on the BCTTv1.

Admittedly, this systematic review and meta-analysis has limitations that should be recognized. First, although we searched a range of bibliographic databases, the review was limited to articles published in peer-reviewed journals in English or French. This may have introduced publication bias given that articles reporting positive effects are more likely to be published than those with negative or equivocal results. Consequently, the studies included in this review may have overrepresented the statistically significant effects of digital CU interventions.

Second, only a small number of studies were included in the meta-analyses because many studies did not provide adequate statistical information for calculating and synthesizing effect sizes, although significant efforts were made to contact the authors in case of missing data. Because of the small sample size used in the meta-analysis, the effect size estimates may not be highly reflective of the true effects of digital interventions on CU frequency among young adults. Furthermore, synthesizing findings across studies that evaluated different modalities of web-based intervention programs (eg, fully self-guided vs with therapist guidance) and types of intervention approaches (eg, CBT, MI, and personalized feedback) may have introduced bias in the meta-analytical results due to the heterogeneity of the included studies, although heterogeneity was controlled for using a random-effects model and our results indicated low between-study heterogeneity.

Third, we took various measures to ensure that BCT coding was carried out rigorously throughout the data extraction and analysis procedures: (1) all coders received training on how to use the BCTTv1; (2) all the included articles were read line by line so that coders became familiar with intervention descriptions before initiating BCT coding; (3) the intervention description of each included article was double coded after a pilot calibration exercise with all coders, and any disagreements regarding the presence or absence of a BCT were discussed and resolved with a third party; and (4) we contacted the article authors when necessary and possible for further details on the BCTs they used. However, incomplete reporting of intervention content is a recognized issue [ 136 ], which may have resulted in our coding BCTs incorrectly as present or absent. Reliably specifying the BCTs used in interventions allows their active ingredients to be identified, their evidence to be synthesized, and interventions to be replicated, thereby providing tangible guidance to programmers and researchers to develop more effective interventions.

Finally, although this review identified the BCTs used in digital interventions, our approach did not allow us to draw conclusions regarding their effectiveness. Coding BCTs simply as present or absent does not consider the frequency, intensity, and quality with which they were delivered. For example, it is unclear how many individuals should self‐monitor their CU. In addition, the quality of BCT implementation may be critical in digital interventions where different graphics and interface designs and the usability of the BCTs used can have considerable influence on the level of user engagement [ 137 ]. In the future, it may be necessary to develop new methods to evaluate the dosage of individual BCTs in digital health interventions and characterize their implementation quality to assess their effectiveness [ 128 , 138 ]. Despite its limitations, this review suggests that digital interventions represent a promising avenue for preventing, reducing, or ceasing CU among community-living young adults.

Conclusions

The results of this systematic review and meta-analysis lend support to the promise of digital interventions as an effective means of reducing recreational CU frequency among young adults. Despite the advent and popularity of smartphones, web-based interventions remain the most common mode of delivery for digital interventions. The active ingredients of digital interventions are varied and encompass a number of clusters of the BCTTv1, but a significant number of BCTs remain underused. Additional research is needed to further investigate the effectiveness of these interventions on CU and key outcomes at later time points. Finally, a detailed assessment of user engagement with digital interventions for CU and understanding which intervention components are the most effective remain important research gaps.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Bénédicte Nauche, Miguel Chagnon, and Paul Di Biase for their valuable support with the search strategy development, statistical analysis, and linguistic revision, respectively. This work was supported by the Ministère de la Santé et des Services sociaux du Québec as part of a broader study aimed at developing and evaluating a digital intervention for young adult cannabis users. Additional funding was provided by the Research Chair in Innovative Nursing Practices. The views and opinions expressed in this manuscript do not necessarily reflect those of these funding entities.

Data Availability

The data sets generated and analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Authors' Contributions

JC contributed to conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, writing—original draft, supervision, and funding acquisition. GC contributed to conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, writing—original draft, visualization, and project administration. BV contributed to conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, writing—original draft, and visualization. PA contributed to conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, writing—original draft, visualization, and project administration. GR contributed to conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, and writing—review and editing. GF contributed to conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, and writing—review and editing. DJA contributed to conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, writing—review and editing, and funding acquisition.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) checklist.

Detailed search strategies for each database.

Population, intervention, comparison, outcome, and study design strategy.

Excluded studies and reasons for exclusion.

Study and participant characteristics.

Description of intervention characteristics in the included articles.

Summary of methodological characteristics and major findings of the included studies categorized by intervention name.

Behavior change techniques (BCTs) coded in each included study summarized by individual BCT and BCT cluster.

Risk-of-bias assessment of each included study for cannabis use and cannabis consequences.

Excluded studies and reasons for exclusion from the meta-analysis.

Summary of evidence according to the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation tool.

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Abbreviations

Edited by T Leung, G Eysenbach; submitted 30.11.23; peer-reviewed by H Sedrati; comments to author 02.01.24; revised version received 09.01.24; accepted 08.03.24; published 17.04.24.

©José Côté, Gabrielle Chicoine, Billy Vinette, Patricia Auger, Geneviève Rouleau, Guillaume Fontaine, Didier Jutras-Aswad. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 17.04.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://www.jmir.org/, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

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Australians are eating less fruit and vegetables and drinking less milk, says latest Australian Bureau of Statistics report

Australians are consuming less of all major food groups with vegetables, fruit and milk products leading the decline.  

A total of 14.8 million tonnes of food and non-alcoholic beverages were sold across Australia in 2022-23, according to a new report released by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). 

It marked a decrease of 1.9 per cent on the previous year.

The ABS report measures "apparent consumption", which is the amount of food and non-alcoholic beverages purchased from supermarkets and smaller food retail outlets.

This does not include food purchased from fast food outlets, cafes, restaurants or "institutions utilising catering services that source from non-supermarket supplies".

It also does not include food obtained via home-growing, foraging, hunting or fishing.

"Overall lower estimates of consumption in 2022-23 compared with previous years may be associated with recent food price inflation," the report said. 

"The recent price increases in food, along with a general increase in all consumer prices, is consistent with a lower volume of food being purchased despite the value of food retail turnover in 2022-23 exceeding previous years." 

Vegetables had the largest drop in consumption, decreasing by 14 grams per person per day, followed by fruit (down 12 grams) and milk (down 11 grams). 

ABS health statistics spokesperson Paul Atyeo said: "Many of the foods that dropped during 2022-23 are part of longer-term trends. 

"We're consuming between 5 and 8 per cent less cow's milk, bread and fruit juice per person compared to 2018-19."

Australians consumed 1.6 per cent more bottled water in the 2022-23 period compared to the previous 12 months. 

Energy and sports drinks also increased by 3.3 per cent, along with "chicken dishes like nuggets", which jumped 2.6 per cent. 

Potato chips, cereals and convenience meals also increased compared to previous years. 

But "despite the annual fall", the report said consumption of dairy and meat substitutes has increased by 30 per cent between 2018 and 2023. 

"Similarly, per capita consumption of snack foods grew 10 per cent between 2018-19 and 2022-23, despite the recent annual drop of 3.2 per cent," the report said.

Australians on average failed to meet the recommended minimum daily servings of five major food groups — something consistent over a five-year period. 

Australians on average ate just 2.2 serves of vegetables and legumes/beans in 2022-23, compared to the recommended minimum of 5.0 servings. 

The numbers mirrored  a CSIRO report released in September , which said only two in five Australians were eating enough vegetables.

The CSIRO report scored Australians best for beverages, noting the majority were opting for water over soft drinks or juices. 

The ABS data does not account for tap water, "and therefore will significantly under-represent total beverage consumption of the population". 

"Per capita apparent consumption of selected non-alcoholic beverages was 378 mL per day in 2022-23, down 2.3 per cent from 386 mL per day in 2021-22," the report says.

"The recent drop of 8.7 mL per capita follows consecutive year-on-year increases between 2018-19 and 2021-22.

"[This results] in the 2022-23 figure being a 38 mL (11 per cent) increase from 2018-19.

"The most significant increase … was for bottled water, which rose 2.2 mL to 139 mL per capita (up 1.6 per cent)."

Volumes of electrolyte drinks and energy drinks "increased 48 per cent and 46 per cent respectively over the five years to 2022-23".

Australians drank 9.4 mL less soft drinks (-5.5 per cent) and 1.7 mL less fruit and vegetable drinks (-9.9 per cent) on average per day. 

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