topics for research on victimology

60 Victimology Topics & Examples

For your paper on crime prevention, penology, or violence in any form, take a look at our victimology research topics. Get a critical title from the collection prepared by our team .

🏆 Best Victimology Topics & Essay Examples

📌 interesting victimology research paper topics, ❓ victimology research questions.

• Victimology in the Case of Sarah Lawrence The purpose of this paper is to distinguish between the notions of criminology and victimology, examine the Sellin and Wolfgang’s victim typology, and apply this knowledge to the case of Sarah Lawrence college.
• Victimology: Definition, Theory and History Victimology is a science that dedicates itself to the study of the connection between the victim and the offender. The police use victimology in order to discover a correlation between the victims and the offenders, […]
• Victimology and Domestic Violence In this situation there are many victims; Anne is a victim of domestic violence and the children are also victims of the same as well as the tragic death of their father.
• The Green Victimology: Saving Non-Human Victims Consequently, a multidisciplinary study of green victimology is required to create solutions to protect victims and mitigate the detrimental effects of environmental crime.
• Career in Victimology But criminal victimologists continue to investigate the problems of victim-offender interactions, individual characteristics of victims within and outside of the context of a committed crime, relation of victims to latent criminality, etc.
• Victimology and Victimization The concept of the sideshow freak is a term inextricably linked to the various circuses and carnivals in the U.S.during the mid 19th to mid 20th century.
• The Victimology Project by Ellisha Shelsta The case revealed victims of the crime, described the behavioral pattern of the offender and provided insights into the relationship between the perpetrator and the injured party.
• Comparing Positivist and Radical Victimology Perspective
• Contribution to Victimology and Marginalisation
• Crime, Victimology and Victimization
• Female Victims of Assault Crimes Dealing With Victimology
• Feminism, Positivism, and Radical Victimology
• Historical Background of Victimology
• History of Victimology and Its Impact on Society
• Justice System and the Impact of Victimology
• Law Enforcement and the Study of Victimology
• Merton’s Strain Theory and Victimology Theories
• Similarities Between Criminology and Victimology
• The Politics of Victimization: Victims, Victimology, and Human Rights
• The Role of Victimology in Law Enforcement
• Victimology and Alternatives to the Traditional Criminal Justice System
• Victimology and Criminal Justice System
• Victimology and How to Avoid Becoming a Victim of a Crime
• Victimology and Its Effect on the Justice System
• Victimology and Restorative Justice
• Parallels Between Criminology and Victimology
• Victimology: Crime and Criminal Victimization
• Victimology: Criminology and Victim
• Victimology: The Cause of Domestic Violence
• Victimology: The Role of Victims When Influencing Crime
• What Is Victimology Criminology?
• Why Is the Victimology Perspective Important in Understanding Serial Murder?
• What Are the Contributions of the Different Personalities in Studying Victimology?
• What Is the Difference Between Victimology and Victimologists?
• What Is the Interrelationship Between Criminology, Penology, and Victimology?
• How Does Criminal Psychology Relate to Victimology?
• What Is the Definition of the Term Human Behavior and Victimology?
• What Degrees in Psychology Specialise in Criminal Victimology?
• What Is the Effect of Victimology in Society?
• What Is the Worst Classical School Theory in Explaining Victimology?
• What Are the Advantages of Victimology in the Philippines?
• Why Do We Need to Study Human Behavior and Victimology?
• What Victimology Says About Child Abuse?
• How Is Victimology Different From Sociology?
• What Are the Recent Areas of Research in Victimology?
• What Is Victimology and Why Is It Important?
• What Is Victimology in Human Behavior?
• What Role Does Victimology Play in the Study of Criminology and Criminal Justice?
• What Is the Difference Between Victimology and Psychology?
• Do You Think “White Victimology” Is a Valid Concept?
• In What Ways Can the State Be Considered a Perpetrator in Victimology?
• What Did Heidegger Think About Victimology?
• What Is the Summary of Hans von Hentig’s Victimology?
• What Are Similarities Among the Three Basic Theories of Victimology?
• What Is the Historical Overview of Victimology?
• Who Was the Father of Victimology?
• What Are the Different Types of Victimology?
• How Do You Determine Victimology?
• How Is Penology and Victimology Related?
• How Is Victimology Relevant in Law Enforcement?
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Victimology from clinical psychology perspective: psychological assessment of victims and professionals working with victims

Tuğba yılmaz.

İzmir Bakırçay University, İzmir, Turkey

Associated Data

Not available.

Victimology concerns victims of various traumas from accidents, disasters, assaults to wars. Survivors of trauma are also an area in clinical psychology since it is interested in the assessment and diagnosis of psychopathology and psychotherapy. Stress and mental health are intertwined; increased stress results in difficulties in feeling, thinking and behaving. The stress symptoms are an intrusion, avoidance, negative cognitions and mood, and arousal and reactivity . A trauma survivor might develop post-traumatic stress disorder. Healing trauma is so comprehensive that many professionals work from different aspects. From attorneys to mental health workers, many professionals deal with the aftereffects of trauma. Engaging with details of the trauma endangers not only the victims but also the professionals working with the victims. These professionals end up having psychological effects such as secondary trauma, vicarious trauma, compassion fatigue, countertransference and occupational burnout. Trauma has serious effects on its victims but not all effects are negative and paralyzing. Trauma victims might change their priorities in a way that they report more personal control over their life. This phenomenon is called posttraumatic growth. The paper aims to collaborate victimology with clinical psychology by highlighting psychopathology and psychological assessment.

Karmen ( 2012 ) postulated that victims are people who are affected negatively such as having an injury or a hardship because of an illegal action of people or group of people. Victimology is the name of the scientific study of victims and the victimization process (Turvey, 2014 ). Van Dijk ( 1999 ) suggested that victimology has variety in itself so that there are penal victimology and general victimology. This diversification depends on the idea that penal (interactionist) victimology heavily depends on criminal law and conceptualizes the victim in criminological and legal terms. On the other hand, general victimology defines the victim in a much broader manner than the other. In general victimology, victims are thought as people who had harm by different types of trauma such as accidents, disasters, assaults and wars (Van Dijk, 1999 ). This study aims to provide knowledge from clinical psychology in evaluating general victimology which is an interdisciplinary area involving law, forensic psychology, sociology, economics and so on.

Clinical psychology is a branch of psychology that concerns psychological assessment, and diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and behavioral problems (Plante, 2005 ). Victims are individuals who are negatively affected by an event such as a criminal act, disaster or accident. Being exposed to such a devastating event, individuals might be affected physically and/or psychologically. They might be suffering from some emotional, cognitive and behavioral problems. By adopting the biopsychosocial model (Engel, 1977 ) the effects a victim might experience should be conceptualized from biological, psychological and social aspects. This study tries to understand how a victim gets seriously affected by a negative event from a psychopathological viewpoint. The psychological treatment of psychopathologies after an adverse event is explained in the next section. After this, a different viewpoint will be highlighted by altering the focus point from victims to people who work with victims. Professionals whose job is to closely work with victims are also affected by the adverse events (Yılmaz & Karakuş, 2019 ). Following the discussion of secondary trauma, vicarious trauma, compassion fatigue and occupational burnout that professionals might feel, coping ways with these feelings are explained in the light of current literature.

The author also wants to point out the importance of working with victims by reviewing the critical points from the literature. Many professionals including clinical psychologists work with victims in the rehabilitation of aftereffects. The psychological effects of being a victim seem to affect professionals working with victims, too (Yılmaz & Karakuş, 2019 ). In the first part of this study, the author highlighted the psychological aftereffects of victims have after a devastating and/or criminal event. Psychological symptoms and disorders are discussed in terms of acute stress disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, dissociative disorders, depressive disorders, and substance use disorders. The groups of these psychopathologies are explained by taking the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5; American Psychological Association [APA, 2013 ) as a reference. A brief history of effects of victims in psychopathology, especially the effects of WWI and WWII and the rise of applied psychology (Schultz & Schultz, 2008 ) was described. Effects of victimization in DSM history were discussed by considering how victim-specific psychological diagnoses changed over time (Yılmaz, 2019a ). Treatment of psychopathologies were detailed throughout the study. The author suggested books, movies and series about victimization to support the discussion.

Stress and Mental Health

Stress is a kind of condition in which people feel challenged beyond their coping abilities (Shalev, 2009 ). Stress might have detrimental effects on physical health and psychological health. The negative effects of stress are acknowledged by the function of the HPA axis where the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal glands interact and prepare an organism to perform a stress response such as fight, freeze or flight (Bracha, 2004 ).

The effects of stress are well- acknowledged in the development of psychological diagnoses. As a result, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders fifth edition (DSM-5), the well-known handbook of psychological disorders that was published by American Psychiatric Association (APA) included a new diagnostic category named trauma and stress related disorders (APA, 2013 ). Under this diagnostic category, there are adjustment disorder, acute stress disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; APA, 2013 ). Formerly in DSM-IV-TR, acute stress disorders and PTSD are grouped under anxiety disorders category; whereas, adjustment disorders were a separate diagnostic category (Yılmaz, 2019a ). The reason lying behind the change of the diagnostic category of these disorders is the fact that major stressors are playing very crucial and central role in the development of them (Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2014 ).

Psychological Disorders a Victim Might Develop

Victims are individuals who are involved in a criminal activity and affected psychologically and physically (Van Dijk, 1999 ). The psychological effects of being a victim due to a criminal event have been investigated in clinical psychology literature, especially under trauma-related disorders. To exemplify, sexual and physical assault victims (Kimerling & Calhoun, 1994 ; Resick & Schnicke, 1992 ), rape victims (Foa, Rothbaum, Riggs, & Murdock, 1991 ; Nishith, Resick, & Griffin, 2002 ; Resick, Nishith, Weaver, Astin, & Feuer, 2002 ), victims of war and torture (Hensel-Dittmann et al., 2011 ), victims of traumatic head injury (Benedict, 1989 ), motor vehicle accident victims (Blanchard et al., 1995 ), traffic accident victims (Frommberger et al., 1999 ); cyberbullying victims (Campfield, 2008 ), disaster victims (Rubonis & Bickman, 1991 ; Rüstemli & Karanci, 1999 ; Sumer, Karanci, Berument, & Gunes, 2005 ) are the groups of people of whom psychologists evaluate, understand and treat. One important point to highlight in reviewing the literature is to realize that the number of people who report they had been victimized is lower than that of the actual people who had been victimized. Kilpatrick, Saunders, Veronen, Best, and Von ( 1987 ) stated that approximately half of the people who were victimized did not report the police. The highest reporting rate is for burglary whereas sexual assault had the lowest reporting rate. One in third of the victimized people stated that they had developed post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after the criminal event (Kilpatrick et al., 1987 ). These results suggest that there are victims who are unrecognized and unreported but these people continue their lives despite the serious adversity they had experienced. Research show that the effects of a trauma is inherited and transferred to next generation family members who are in fact not related to it (Öztürk, 2020 ; Wolynn, 2017 ). Moreover, research also indicate that the risk of being traumatized is increased if there is a prior personal experience with a traumatic event (Altınay & Arat, 2007 ; Zara-Page & İnce, 2008 ). Considering these important results, unrecognized and unreported victims who are traumatized are not just a concern for clinical psychology, psychiatry or victimology; they are also concern for public health.

Victimization is a distressing event and victims might have psychological problems after the event or during the event since some criminal activities are not one-time events. Well-known psychological outcome of being a victim is post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; Mason & Lodrick, 2013 ; Turvey, 2014 ). Compared to PTSD, having similar symptoms for a shorter duration deserves for acute stress disorder (ASD; APA, 2013 ). ASD and PTSD are psychopathologies acknowledged by DSM as well as adjustment disorders. PTSD might be comorbid with anxiety disorders, substance abuse disorders, dissociative disorders and depressive disorders. Some victims who developed PTSD might engage in self-harmful behaviors to alleviate the negative feelings due to the traumatic event (Mason & Lodrick, 2013 ). Turvey ( 2014 ) reviewed the trauma victim literature in the forensic area and concluded that although not recognized by APA in DSM, there are some victim specific syndromes in the literature. These syndromes are the battered woman syndrome (Walker, 1984 ), rape trauma syndrome (Burgess & Holmstrom, 1974 ), and stalking trauma syndrome (Colins & Wilkas, 2001 ).

In understanding symptomatology PTSD, DSM-5 criteria grouped symptoms under four categories, namely intrusion, avoidance, negative cognitions and mood, and arousal and reactivity. Intrusion refers to re-experiencing of the traumatic events in various ways such as nightmares, intrusive images and showing physiological reactivity to reminders of the trauma. Intrusion might lead accessing traumatic episodic memory, which might cause victim to experience autonomic nervous system arousal, i.e., physiological reactivity (Mason & Lodrick, 2013 ). This is particularly important for police interview and courtroom testimonies with which victims recall traumatic event and might re-experience the traumatic event (Mason & Lodrick, 2013 ). The second group of symptoms is avoidance, which includes symptoms related to victims’ efforts to avoid reminders, feelings and thoughts of the trauma. The third group of symptoms is negative cognitions and mood. This group includes victim’s blaming him/herself or others and other negative emotional states like shame, guilt, and anger. Feelings of detachment and estrangement from others, and inability to have positive emotions is also included in this group of symptoms. The last group of symptoms is called changes in arousal and reactivity. Sleep disturbance, hypervigilance, exaggerated startle response, and reckless and self-destructive behavior might be experienced in traumatized victims under this group of symptoms. The duration of PTSD must be more than one month. There are two sub-types of PTSD. The first is PTSD with dissociative symptoms such as depersonalization and derealization. The second is PTSD with delayed expression. In this sub-type, victims might now show the full-blown symptoms of PTSD until at least 6 months after the traumatic event. In this instance, the onset and the beginning of some symptoms might begin immediately.

Turvey ( 2014 ) shed light on important issues in terms of psychological assessment of victims. He suggested that victims are traumatized and victimized twice, one by the offender and the second by the criminal justice system. This is critically important since the adverse effects are repeated for living victims. Second, Turvey ( 2014 ) indicated that violent events rarely happen just one victim. Generally, there are more than one victim involved in the actual assault. Moreover, there are collateral victims who are spouses, friends and children of the assaulted victim. These individuals are also negatively affected by the adverse event. Even the diagnostic category of PTSD acknowledges that collateral victims could be diagnosed with PTSD as long as they show symptoms. Collateral victims might witness the assault in person, or they might learn a brutal or violent crime might happen to someone very close to them, or else they might experience extreme exposure to aversive details of the traumatic event (Butcher et al., 2014 ). Investigators, prosecutors, and defense attorneys should take these facts into consideration. As Mason and Lodrick ( 2013 ) postulated heightened in the interview of victims, ANS response might stimulate archaic structures of the brain which controls survival of the organism and the victims might feel as if the real danger is close to them, which might lead them to become more cooperative or compliant. This might cause inconsistencies between the accounts they have given in processing their complaints through the criminal justice system.

Acute stress disorder (ASD) is very similar to PTSD in terms of symptomatology. Intrusion symptoms, negative mood, dissociative symptoms, arousal, and avoidance symptoms include 14 different symptoms. The difference between ASD and PTSD is about the duration of the symptoms as the brief history of these disorders can tell. For ASD, symptoms are expected to begin after the trauma and to last at least 3 days and at most 1 month (APA, 2013 ). If the duration of the symptoms exceeds 1-month threshold, the diagnosis is altered to PTSD (Butcher et al., 2014 ). The function of ASD diagnose is to detect a victim who need immediate professional help and ensure him/her with evidence based psychological treatment.

Adjustment disorders (ADs) are yet another diagnosis that a victim might develop. In terms of symptomatology, ADs do not have a long list of symptoms. This diagnosis can be counted as a sign of an individual’s difficulty in returning to their routines after a stressor strike and ended. The individual has clinically high degree of stress in adjusting to their normal life. DSM-5 says that an individual has marked stress and/or impairment in important areas of functioning within 3 months of the onset of the stressor and once the stressor ended the symptoms do not last more than 6 months (APA, 2013 ). The connection between ADs and victimization was studied. For example, Bachem and Maercker ( 2016 ) studied with burglary victims who developed Ads at clinical and subclinical level. They compared intervention group and wait-list group in terms of Ads symptoms. The psychotherapeutic intervention in this study was bibliotherapeutic self-help intervention, which as its name implies did not have any therapists. Results yielded that was bibliotherapeutic self-help intervention worked well in terms of effectively treating symptoms of ADs (Lorenz, Bachem, & Maercker, 2016 ). Similarly, Sirles, Smith, and Kusama ( 1989 ) reported that children victims of intrafamilial sexual abuse might have different diagnoses, one of which is ADs. Lönnqvist et al. ( 1995 ) analyzed all adolescent suicides in Finland between 1987 and 1988. They reported that AD diagnosis was observed only in male suicide victims. All these studies indicate the importance of diagnosing ADs in both living or deceased victims.

Not every people can meet the full criteria for PTSD, ASD or ADs after a specified trauma and DSM appreciates this case by suggesting “ other-speficied trauma and stressor related disorder ” as a diagnosis. In assigning this diagnosis, a clinician is expected to specify the reason. The specifiers of this diagnosis are “adjustment-like disorders with delayed onset of symptoms that occur more than 3 months after the stressor”, “adjustment-like disorders with prolonged duration of more than 6 months without prolonged duration of stressor”, “Ataque de nervios”, “other cultural syndromes”, and “persistent complex bereavement disorder”. In cases for whom the trauma is not specified, there is another option. This option is “ unspecified trauma and stressor related disorder ”. A clinical might not have clear information in assigning a specific diagnosis in trauma and stressor related disorders diagnosis group and instead can assign “unspecified trauma and stressor related disorder”. This might happen in emergency settings and in crises (APA, 2013 ).

PTSD, ASD, ADs and other- or unspecified trauma and stressor related disorder are official diagnoses which are presented in DSM-5. Nevertheless, the literature has more options in terms of diagnoses. Turvey ( 2014 ) pointed out battered woman syndrome (Walker, 1984 ), rape trauma syndrome (Burgess & Holmstrom, 1974 ), and stalking trauma syndrome (Colins & Wilkas, 2001 ) are trauma syndromes discussed in the literature. All three syndromes share a common point in alleging that they are a part or sub-type of PTSD. Although these syndromes have not been assigned in DSM-5; authors suggesting these syndromes are a part of DSM-5 (Turvey, 2014 ).

Battered woman syndrome was first coined by Walker ( 1984 ) after conducting a study in which she interviewed 435 women who were victims of domestic violence. In offering battered woman syndrome, Walker’s aim is to explain why women chose to remain in a relationship in which she was experiencing violence. She formulated the cycle of violence in which learned helplessness is the reason why woman believe that they cannot change the ongoing relationship (Walker, 1984 ). the symptoms of battered woman syndrome are similar to PTSD. This syndrome is gender specific syndrome and actually was not supported by other studies other than those of Walker. Turvey ( 2014 ) points out that if a woman is facing physical violence and if a diagnosis is needed to be assigned; rather than thinking about PTSD as a first-line choice, the symptoms of the woman should be understood because other diagnoses might be plausible, too.

Rape trauma syndrome (RTS) was described for forcible rape or attempted forcible rape by Burgess and Holmstrom ( 1974 ) who interviewed 146 women victims of rape. They purported that there is an acute and long-term phase of RTS. In acute phase, which consists of immediate impact phase, victims are engaging in their emotions and might end up in two alternative responses: being expressive or guarded. Expressive victims unclose how they feel whereas guarded ones do not. The authors also acknowledge that a rape victim might change her emotional response from one another. Long term phase of RTS is reorganization when a victim realizes that her lifestyle is affected in different ways (Burgess & Holmstrom, 1974 ). Although once accredited as a mental diagnosis of victims in courts, RTS was not an official diagnosis. Turvey ( 2014 ) criticizes both RTS and BTS on many common points. One is these syndromes are not validated by other researchers. Second, there is no follow-up validation. Third, there are no control groups comparing the affected group against. Fourth, the samples from which both BWS and RTS were described were preselected samples. The last one is these syndromes are gender-specific. Because of these reasons and many others, DSM never listed these syndromes as official diagnoses although accepted rape as a serious trauma and/or stressor for PTSD diagnosis.

Stalking trauma syndrome (STS; (Colins & Wilkas, 2001 ) is yet another syndrome discussed in the literature regarding mental health of victims. First, stalkers are people who engage in repetitive acts to harass a victim. Stalking might happen in real or cyber lives. Turvey ( 2014 ) states that some stalkers might be delusional in inferring that the victim wants to form a relationship with them while most stalkers are people who are angry with the victim because of a break-up which in fact they deny. Colins and Wilkas ( 2001 ) stated that STS is different when compared to BWS and RTS. STS is not an outcome of one incident like rape, it is an ongoing stressor. Victims of STS experience traumatic symptoms for a while when stalking is in progress. Moreover, STS victims are in actual helplessness rather than learned helplessness occurred in BWS. The authors described crisis and anticipation phase of STS while recovery phase is absent due to continuous fear of next harassment (Colins & Wilkas, 2001 ). The authors suggested that stalking causes hopelessness and helplessness in victims. Turvey ( 2014 ) highlights that these are symptoms of any crime victim. In other words, the symptoms are not differentiating the effect of stalking; they are actually too general symptoms that might be seen in any victim. He states that pathologizing normal reactions of victims might be the case in introduction of these syndromes. These syndromes should have divergent validity, each one of them should be differentiated from one another.

Brief History of these Psychological Disorders

How psychopathology begin to recognize trauma-related disorders is related to wars and their aftereffects. Applied psychology including clinical psychology developed after World War I and II (Schultz & Schultz, 2008 ). After World War I, veterans return home suffering from combat. Shell shock and combat fatigue were the names of the syndromes for traumatized soldiers. After World War II, gross stress reaction was accepted as a diagnosis in the first edition of DSM. The second version of DSM excluded gross stress reaction diagnosis partly because this edition was prepared in a war-free era (Andreasen, 2004 ).

After Vietnam war, psychiatrists came to understand that veterans were not able to return to their lives prior to war (Butcher et al., 2014 ). First, DSM II task force suggested to include Post-Vietnam Syndrome in DSM, since psychiatrists relied on DSM II and unable to diagnose traumatized veterans. Then PTSD was added to DSM as a diagnosis as well as acute PTSD. Trauma was defined as a stressor which was outside the range of normal human experience (Andreasen, 2004 ; Butcher et al., 2014 ). Psychiatrists began to argue about the nature of the traumatic event and they broad the application of the diagnosis to other stressors such as childhood sexual abuse (Andreasen, 2004 ). DSM-III definition of PTSD relied on the qualities of the stressor; later version of the diagnosis in DSM-IV-TR emphasized the emotional response of the victim (Shalev, 2009 ). Acute PTSD was dropped in DSM-III-R but it was named as acute stress disorder and accepted as a diagnosis in DSM-IV (Andreasen, 2004 ). In terms of PTSD, DSM-IV-TR suggested that in addition to the fact that the stressor should be outside the range of normal human experience, the response to the stressor should involve helplessness, horror or intense fear (Butcher et al., 2014 ). This change highlights the focus of the PTSD diagnosis, now the focus is on the experience of the victim rather than the quality of the stressor.

DSM-5 is the latest version of psychopathology and there are other changes in PTSD diagnosis. The changes are about the definition of the traumatic event, the diagnosis for children 6 years and younger. Exposure to traumatic event was detailed, as well. Traumatic event might happen to victim him/herself or the victim might witness a traumatic event personally. Other way of exposure to a traumatic event is that a victim may learn that a violent or accidental event happened to some very close like a family member or a close friend. The exposure excludes experience of a traumatic event through electronic media. The requirement of emotional experience of the trauma in the form of helplessness, intense fear or horror removed. Diagnostic criteria were explained in a separate section for children who are 6 years of age or younger (APA, 2013 ; Yılmaz, 2019a ).

Treatment of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Post-traumatic stress disorder is a common type of psychopathology that can be seen surviving victims. Many clinical psychologists are working on psychological treatment of PTSD. There are many efficient and effective psychotherapies of PTSD.

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for PTSD is one of the important and successful methods in treatment of PTSD (Zayfert & Becker, 2019 ). CBT is an eclectic form of psychotherapy in which cognitive models of psychotherapy and behavior analysis incorporate. According to CBT, psychopathologies lie PTSD are an outcome of dysfunctional thinking and they can be altered by new learning. Hence, as a response to a traumatic event people have some cognitions and behaviors, which compose PTSD and related difficulties. CBT aims to modify these cognitions and behaviors which are after-effects of trauma. Keane and Barlow ( 2002 ) states that sustaining factor for PTSD is avoidance symptoms. Surviving victims, for instance, might prefer staying away from crime scene, or might prefer to avoid recalling the details of the traumatic event or a crime. These are the sustaining factors for crime- related anxiety, fear and related symptoms. Victims can also report anger, and other self-conscious emotions such as shame and guilt; these are emotions that make a victim’s disclosure of a traumatic event difficult. These emotions disrupt the processing of the traumatic event which is not a health way of coping with trauma. In addition, expectation of disapproval or disbelief from the social connections, which is seen particularly with victims of sexual assault, may exacerbate the symptomatology of PTSD (Zayfert & Becker, 2019 ).

Treatment of PTSD by CBT has two core components; namely, exposure and cognitive restructuring. These two components aims to decrease avoidance behaviors. By graded exposure which could be either in real life or virtual reality, patients are equipped with an ability to make a distinction between cues of danger and cues of safety. Reprocessing of the traumatic event is also part of graded exposure. Exploration of thinking is promoted with an aim to process and understand the traumatic event better. Thoughts abut trauma are revisited and victim’s conclusions of the traumatic event are critically examined.

There are other forms of CBT that draw attention in treatment of PTSD. One is stress inoculation therapy while the other is eye movement desensitization therapy (EMDR). The first form, stress inoculation therapy aims to teach a patient to manage stress effectively by some strategies like relaxation, thought stopping and assertive communication. While the other form; EMDR, aims to present a moving visual stimulus while revisiting the traumatic event. These processes are accompanied by cognitive restructuring to some degree (Zayfert & Becker, 2019 ).

Another approach in psychological treatment of PTSD is metacognitive treatment which is in fact a kind of cognitive therapy (Wells, 2000 ). In this approach, the main aim is to deal with reflexive adaptation process (RAP). Wells and Sembi ( 2004a ) points out that RAP is a normal reaction to immediate trauma and perseverance blocks RAP by metacognitions, i.e. cognitions about thinking style of oneself. Perseverations comprise of worry and rumination, threat monitoring, and dysfunctional though control mechanisms. Avoidance and dissociation further blocks emotional processing of trauma and give rise to perseveration. Depending on these premises, metacognitive therapy offers some ways to deal with perseverance including worry postponement, detached mindfulness, and attentional modification (Wells & Sembi, 2004a ). In another study, Wells and Sembi ( 2004b ) applied metacognitive therapy to victims of various traumas such as armed robbery and they had promising results. The sample they worked with showed marked improvement in their PTSD symptoms. Their resuls were also effective in follow up measurements. Wells, Walton, Lovell, and Proctor ( 2015 ) conducted a study to compare the effectiveness of metacognitive therapy with prolonged exposure therapy in PTSD patients; they also had wait list group. In this current study, it is seen that both types of psychotherapy were effective in decreasing symptoms of PTSD, anxiety and depression when compared to wait-list group. The difference between metacognitive therapy with prolonged exposure therapy occurred in post-treatment measures (Wells et al., 2015 ).

Considering that there are many types of psychotherapy offering treatment to PTSD and each one of them have strengths in improvement of PTSD symptoms. At this point, one should focus on the studies investigating the parts of a therapy which make it more efficient. Therapeutic alliance, the relationship between a patient and a psychotherapist makes important and positive effects in treatment outcome and effectiveness studies. Having positive alliance, trust and genuineness in psychotherapist-patient dyad could make a therapy effective (Howgego, Yellowlees, Owen, Meldrum, & Dark, 2003 ). In a study, sample consisted of people suffering from childhood abuse-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and successful therapy outcomes were result of therapeutic alliance and emotional regulation capacity (Cloitre, Chase Stovall-McClough, Miranda, & Chemtob, 2004 ).

Professionals Working with Victims: Secondary Trauma, Vicarious Trauma, Compassion Fatigue, Countertransference and Occupational Burnout

Once a devastating event occurs and people get affected from it whether directly or indirectly, many professionals begin working with this case to improve the consequences. Some of these professionals are ambulance drivers, the police, lawyers, search and rescue teams, paramedics, emergency department professionals such as physicians and nurses, psychologists, psychiatrists and social workers (Rothschild & Rand, 2006 ; Yılmaz & Karakuş, 2019 ).

Studies show that professionals working closely with victims of devastating events are also traumatized in different ways such as trauma related stress and occupational burnout (Newell & MacNeil, 2010 ). Secondary traumatic stress and vicarious trauma are also observed in these professionals (Gürdil Birinci & Erden, 2016 ). Because professionals working in humanitarian aid are engaging in interpersonal situations that have heavy emotional burden, they might have a specific kind of work-related stress which is called as “occupational burnout” (Leiter & Maslach, 1988 ; Maslach & Jackson, 1981 ).

Secondary traumatic stress refers to PTSD-related symptoms a person might have as a result of indirectly being exposed to trauma, this way of exposure occurs with working with survivors and/or victims with PTSD (Salston & Figley, 2003 ). Vicarious traumatization is a more time dependent change in psychology of professionals working with victims (Gürdil Birinci & Erden, 2016 ; Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995 ). Vicarious traumatization of professionals is a result of empathetic engagement with victims of trauma (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995 ). Unlike secondary traumatic stress which is close to PTSD symptomatology with a sudden onset, vicarious trauma affects belief system of professionals and is not related to PTSD symptomatology (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995 ). Belief about security, trust, dignity, intimacy and control are seriously affected in people forming interpersonal relationships with victims of devastating events (Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995 ). Compassion fatigue is another consequence that professionals working with victims might have. Compassion fatigue corresponds to feeling emotional and physical fatigue resulting from full appreciation of what a victim of a trauma experiences (Rothschild & Rand, 2006 ; Salston & Figley, 2003 ). Countertransference is yet another consequence a professional might have as a result of working with trauma victims (Salston & Figley, 2003 ). Traumatic countertransference is defined as “…the spontaneous or evoked responses of the therapist in regard to information provided, behaviors exhibited, emotions displayed by the traumatized client.” (Salston & Figley, 2003 , p.170). This type of countertransference retain psychotherapist in correctly diagnosing and treating trauma (Danieli, 1996 ).

Because of all these outcomes of working with victims of trauma, professionals, particularly mental health workers, should be offered alternative ways of treatment. They should be controlled on a regular basis to understand whether they have psychological consequences of working with victims. Group meetings, peer meetings, and supervision could offer professionals opportunities in sharing emotions, feelings, thoughts and behaviors related to their work.

Discussion and Suggestions

The aim of this study is to highlight a view from clinical psychology in discussing victimization. As a branch of psychology, psychological assessment, and diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and behavioral problems are main topics of clinical psychology (Plante, 2005 ). General victimology, as a multidisciplinary area, concerns victims of various types of traumas, from natural disasters to sexual assaults (Van Dijk, 1999 ). Clinical psychology addresses some common topics as victimization due to trauma with general victimology. Due to this intersection between clinical psychology and general victimization, the author discussed trauma related disorders, such as acute stress disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, adjustment disorders, all of which are official diagnoses (APA, 2013 ). In addition to this, unofficial diagnoses reviewed in the literature were accounted. These unofficial diagnoses are battered woman syndrome (Walker, 1984 ), rape trauma syndrome (Burgess & Holmstrom, 1974 ), and stalking trauma syndrome (Colins & Wilkas, 2001 ). Brief history of official diagnoses of victims of trauma was included to better understand how these diagnoses showed up and how traumatic experiences seriously affect their victims. Moreover, psychological treatment of PTSD was explained since PTSD is a frequent consequence of victimization. Secondary trauma, vicarious trauma, compassion fatigue, countertransference and occupational burnout were included to appreciate how professionals working in victimization area are also seriously and psychologically affected from their work. These outcomes demonstrate that professionals are also affected negatively and for long time. Their beliefs and emotions about staying safe changed due to indirect exposure to victimization.

Nevertheless, traumatic experiences might lead people to develop a better meaning in life. People can overcome the difficulties embedded in victimization and can move to a better psychological state with the help of deriving some other meaning in life. Their coping mechanisms improve and they report positive change. People can switch from suffering from a traumatic event to forming supportive relationships, feeling more personal strength, and reporting enriched existential and spiritual life (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004 ). Posttraumatic growth cannot be an excuse for victimization, but it is a consequence uncovering human potential to process and cope with suffering and trauma.

As a clinical psychologist, the author appreciates biopsychosocial model (Engel, 1977 ). This model offers to look for searching biological, psychological and social factors of a given outcome such as a traumatic event. Some people might have vulnerabilities to develop psychopathology and some others not, although they might experience the same event. These vulnerabilities might be biological or psychological. Psychological factors such as personality, social support and emotion regulation might protect a person from developing serious problems as a result of victimization. Social factors such as socioeconomic status and cultural norms might offer or hinder ways to a victim to recover from a traumatic event. All these factors are intertwined and constantly affecting each other. In terms of victimization, all these factors are better be investigated for victims, perpetrators, and for the context that the devastating event occurred. In other words, trauma is a serious event and its effects are long-lasting; hence, to fully understand it, factors surrounding the traumatic event should be analyzed altogether.

Mental health workers including clinical psychologists should be better equipped to engage in their work with victims and to feel well in performing their job. Training of mental health workers should include strategies to understand, empathize, connect with and treat victims of traumatic events. These strategies could include discussing real-life examples, hypothetical cases, and examples shown in various types of media. Books, movies, series, documentaries, and records of real-life examples are valuable sources of training. The author might suggest some media for fulfill as aim.

For instance, The Sinner, an American drama series is a perfect example of victimization, criminal justice and psychological interviewing and treatment of victims (Yılmaz, 2019b ). Another source is the book, The boy who was raised as a dog, by Perry and Szalavitz ( 2017 ) to better understand the situation of child victims. How children’s brain development is affected due to perpetual traumatic family interactions is explained in this book.

Authors’ Contributions

The author prepared all the manuscript.

This study received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data Availability

Declarations.

The author gives consent for publication in Current Psychology Journal.

This study is a review study; no data were gathered so informed consent was not necessary.

The Author declares no conflict of interest.

Not Applicable

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Victimology

Research, Policy and Activism

• © 2020
• Jacki Tapley 0 ,
• Pamela Davies 1

University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK

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Department of Social Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK

• Speaks to upper undergraduates and above, as well as to criminal justice practitioners, with case studies for discussion
• Encourages critical thinking about victims of crime and social harm and how to effect change
• Examines how victims are understood, represented and incorporated across the criminal justice system and society
• Captures the newest developments in the dynamic victimology space, following changes in policy and politics
• Discusses how activism has greatly contributed to growth of the Victimology discipline
• Analyses how victimology, theories, and research inform policies and professional practice

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Table of contents (15 chapters)

Front matter, victimology: a conversion of narratives.

• Jacki Tapley, Pamela Davies

Violence Against Women and Girls: Feminist Activism and Resistance

• Clare Wiper, Ruth Lewis

Victim Blaming, Responsibilization and Resilience in Online Sexual Abuse and Harassment

• Lisa Sugiura, April Smith

Gender-Based Violence: Victims, Activism and Namibia’s Dual Justice Systems

• Kate Mukungu, Ndumba J. Kamwanyah

Bereaved Family Activism

• Elizabeth A. Cook

Feminist Framings of Victim Advocacy in Criminal Justice Contexts

• Michele Burman, Oona Brooks-Hay

From Invisible to Conspicuous: The Rise of Victim Activism in the Politics of Justice

• Nicola O’Leary, Simon Green

Disablist Hate Crime: A Scar on the Conscience of the Criminal Justice System?

• Jemma Tyson

Politics, Policies and Professional Cultures: Creating Space for a Victim Perspective in the Crown Prosecution Service

Jacki Tapley

Police and Crime Commissioners and Victim Service Commissioning: From Activism to Marketisation?

• Matthew Hall

Partnerships and Activism: Community Safety, Multi-agency Partnerships and Safeguarding Victims

Pamela Davies

Environmental Victims and Climate Change Activists

• Valeria Vegh Weis, Rob White

From Cinderella to Consumer: How Crime Victims Can Go to the Ball

• Edna Erez, Jize Jiang, Kathy Laster

A Theory of Injustice and Victims’ Participation in Criminal Processes

• Antony Pemberton

Conclusion: Understanding Victimisation and Effecting Social Change

• Pamela Davies, Jacki Tapley
• victim advocacy
• mental health
• victimisation
• social harm
• mass killing
• media and crime
• human rights
• policy and victims

About this book

Editors and affiliations, about the editors.

Jacki Tapley is Principal Lecturer of Criminology at the University of Portsmouth, UK. She specialises in teaching and undertaking research focussing on victims of crime, and the development, implementation and evaluation of victim-centred policies and legislation. 

Pamela Davies is Professor of Criminology at the University of Northumbria, UK. Pam has longstanding research interests in the area of social harm and victimisation with a particular focus on how, where and when gender matters.

Bibliographic Information

Book Title : Victimology

Book Subtitle : Research, Policy and Activism

Editors : Jacki Tapley, Pamela Davies

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42288-2

Publisher : Palgrave Macmillan Cham

eBook Packages : Law and Criminology , Law and Criminology (R0)

Copyright Information : The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2020

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-030-42287-5 Published: 02 July 2020

eBook ISBN : 978-3-030-42288-2 Published: 01 July 2020

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XIII, 408

Number of Illustrations : 1 b/w illustrations

Topics : Popular Science in Law , Victimology , Social Justice, Equality and Human Rights , Social Work and Community Development , Forensic Psychology , Human Rights and Crime

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Article Contents

• Introduction: Shifting the Victimological Gaze
• Explaining the Strength-Growth-Resilience Framework
• The Language of AI: Driving Change in Victim Services
• The Dual Ethics of AI
• Desistance and Victimology: Turning Over a New Leaf in Victim Research
• Exploring Victim Identities: Insights From Desistance Research
• Acknowledgements
• < Previous

A New Approach for Researching Victims: The ‘Strength-Growth-Resilience’ Framework

• Article contents
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• Supplementary Data

Simon Green, Adam Calverley, Nicola O’Leary, A New Approach for Researching Victims: The ‘Strength-Growth-Resilience’ Framework, The British Journal of Criminology , Volume 61, Issue 3, May 2021, Pages 852–871, https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azaa093

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This paper proposes a new framework for researching victims that blends appreciative inquiry methods used by prison researchers with narrative interview methods used by desistance researchers to investigate victim ‘strength-growth-resilience’. Alongside established victimological concerns with the extent, distribution and treatment of crime victims, this framework offers an alternative lens that focuses on victim agency, identity and transformation. Building on the emancipatory project of feminist victimology, narrative and cultural criminology and an emerging narrative victimology the framework aims to provide a new conceptual reference point for victimological research. The article’s objectives are to demonstrate that this framework delivers a theoretically, empirically and ethically robust approach for exploring the mechanisms by which victims become resilient, and can even flourish, in the aftermath of criminal harm.

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Victimology A Comprehensive Approach

• Leah E. Daigle - Georgia State University, USA
• Lisa R. Muftic - Western New England University, USA
• Description

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Password-protected  Instructor Resources include the following:

• A  Microsoft® Word®   test bank  that provides a diverse range of pre-written options as well as the opportunity to edit any question and/or insert your own personalized questions to effectively assess students’ progress and understanding.
• Editable, chapter-specific PowerPoint® slides that offer flexibility when creating multimedia lectures and you can customize to your exact needs.
• Carefully selected  video and multimedia links  that feature relevant interviews, lectures, personal stories, inquiries, and other content for use in independent or classroom-based explorations of key topics.
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“Daigle and Muftic’s Victimology offers a thorough state-of-the-art review of victimology. It is required reading for both junior and senior scholars interested in learning about the causes and consequences of victimization across the life-course.”

“A solid, well-written, reasonably priced textbook that does well in covering the basics in the field of victimology.”

“For an undergraduate course, this is the most thorough text I have seen for victimology. I would recommend it over others because it has a clear scope and sequence, easily identifiable learning objectives, and excellent ancillary materials.”

“This textbook is a comprehensive overview of the study of victimization. It provides students with a detailed look at the field of victimology in terms of the nature and extent of victimization, as well as explanations and responses to victimization. It is extremely well written and accessible to students. I appreciate the authors’ incorporation of current literature and detailed description of key concepts in the field. I highly recommend it for undergraduate victimology courses.”

• A renewed focus on a trauma-informed approach has been incorporated throughout to better situate victimization as a form of trauma.
• A separate section on prevention , included in each chapter, highlights what can be done to reduce victimization.
• Emerging topics within the growing field of victimology are explored , such as immigration and victimization, bullying, homicides and sexual assaults involving LGBTQ persons, school shootings, and more.
• The use of social media and the internet as tools of sexual victimization is examined within the context of recent events , such as the #MeToo movement and the rise of revenge porn.
• Updated statistics provide students with the most up-to-date research and scholarly thinking in the field.
• The authors have reorganized and streamlined the text to hone in on the key issues in victimology.
• Each chapter consistently defines and measures a type of victimization, explores its characteristics, risk factors, and consequences of victimization , and concludes with the responses taken by the legal system, the criminal justice system, and other social services.
• An overarching focus on the extent, causes, and responses to victimization equips students with the foundational knowledge needed to apply key concepts to real-life situations.    
• A focus on international issues and a global perspective throughout the text offer students a comparative view for key topics and issues in victimology.
• A Victimology in the News boxed feature helps students apply chapter concepts to contemporary news stories.
• Research projects and findings within each chapter, both in Focus on Research boxes and throughout the narrative , highlight the connection and impact research has had in the field of victimology.
• Case Studies illustrate key concepts and connect students to individuals who are victims and perpetrators of crime.

Sample Materials & Chapters

Chapter 1: Introduction to Victimology

Chapter 3: The Victim–Offender Overlap

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Contemporary Issues in Victimology

Identifying patterns and trends, edited by carly m. hilinski-rosick and daniel r. lee - contributions by gaylene s. armstrong; kathryn a. branch; jaclyn m. cwick; elizabeth dretsch; carly m. hilinski-rosick; tonisha r. jones; soriyah khan; daniel r. lee; sadie j. mummert; johnny nhan; shannon womer phaneuf; kirsten a. piatak; jason spraitz; sheryl strasser; susannah n. tapp; john p. walsh and lindsey e. wylie, also available.

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Victimology - recent trends, additional details, no download available, availability, related topics.

We are a faculty-student research team focused on crime victims and crime victimization.

Victimology and Victim Studies Research Lab

The mission of the V ictimology and V ictim S tudies R esearch L ab ( VVSRL ) in the  UNO School of Criminology and Criminal Justice is to conduct high quality research related to crime victims and crime victimization, inform policy and practice, and help shape prevention and intervention efforts.

The VVSRL (1) Coordinates faculty efforts on research projects, grant proposals, and publications on the topic of victimology; (2) Promotes cross-teaching and cross-learning for faculty members and graduate students interested in victimology; (3) Creates opportunities for undergraduate students in UNO’s Victimology and Victim Studies minor/concentration to engage in research; and (4) Works with system actors to translate research into practice and policy.

The VVSRL conducts research related to crime victims and crime victimization. Our work informs policy and practice and helps shape prevention and intervention efforts.

Teaching and Learning

The VVSRL utilizes a structured mentoring model to develop future generations of victimology scholars. VVSRL student and faculty researchers work across a diverse portfolio to promote cross-teaching and learning.

Service to Practitioners

The VVRSL lends research capacity and expertise to practitioners, local/state working groups, and federal agencies. VVSRL faculty coordinate the annual Nebraska Victims Assistance Academy

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Interested in working with the VVSRL?

Contact VVSRL Co-Director, Dr. Tara Richards

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Victimization Topics

Victimization can be defined as the act or process of someone being injured or damaged by another person. The resulting damage may be physical (e.g., bruises, broken bones) or psychological (e.g., posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD], depression). Victimization is a frequent event that occurs within an interpersonal context, often involving an abuse of power, such as a parent who abuses a child; an adult child who abuses a frail, elderly parent; or a teacher who sexually abuses a student. Although past research on victimization has tended to be compartmentalized, a more integrative approach is needed not only because of the frequent comorbidity among the different types of victimization, but also because of the shared psychological issues. Read more about  Victimization .

Victimization Research Topics

• Battered Woman Syndrome
• Child Maltreatment
• Child Sexual Abuse
• Intimate Partner Violence
• Mild Traumatic Brain Injury
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
• Psychological Autopsy
• Rape Trauma Syndrome
• Reporting Crimes and Victimization
• Sexual Assault Victims Coping
• Sexual Harassment
• Victim Participation in Criminal Justice

To understand victimization, several core themes need to be acknowledged. Contrary to a layperson’s perspective, victimization is not a rare event that occurs only in a stranger-on-stranger context. On the contrary, victimization is an extraordinarily frequent event that most often occurs in, and adheres to, the ordinary roles of human life. Although stereotyped conceptions of victimization do occur (e.g., a woman raped by a stranger walking down a street at night) and are damaging and need to be addressed, these types of victimization are not the norm outside the context of a war. Rather, the most significant sources of victimization are those that arise out of our ordinary day-to-day roles, such as those of spouse, parent, child, and friend. Thus, victimization must be understood as an inherent part of human relationships.

Browse other Forensic Psychology Research Topics .

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More than half of Americans are following election news closely, and many are already worn out

A majority of Americans say they are closely following news about the 2024 U.S. presidential election, a slightly higher share than in April 2020. At the same time, many people already say they are worn out by so much coverage of the campaign and candidates, according to a Pew Research Center survey conducted this April.

To examine Americans’ habits and attitudes toward political and election news and information, Pew Research Center surveyed 8,709 U.S. adults from April 8 to 14, 2024.

Everyone who completed the survey is a member of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), an online survey panel that is recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. This way nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The surveys are weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other categories. Read more about the  ATP’s methodology .

Here are the  questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and its  methodology .

Pew Research Center is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts, its primary funder. This is the latest analysis in Pew Research Center’s ongoing investigation of the state of news, information and journalism in the digital age, a research program funded by The Pew Charitable Trusts, with generous support from the John S. and James L. Knight Foundation.

How closely Americans follow election news

More than half of Americans (58%) say they are following news about candidates for the 2024 presidential election very or fairly closely. Another 28% say they aren’t following it too closely, and 13% aren’t following it closely at all.

The share of Americans who are closely following election news is slightly higher now than it was in April 2020 (52%). In October 2020, however, that share increased to 75%.

This year, Republicans and independents who lean toward the Republican Party are slightly more likely than Democrats and Democratic leaners to say they are closely following election news (64% vs. 58%).

As in past presidential elections, older adults are more likely than younger adults to say they are closely following news about the candidates. Roughly eight-in-ten U.S. adults ages 65 and older (82%) currently say this, compared with 68% of those ages 50 to 64, 48% of those ages 30 to 49, and only 34% of those ages 18 to 29.

Fatigue over election coverage

Although many Americans are following news about the 2024 presidential candidates, they are also experiencing fatigue over election coverage. About six-in-ten U.S. adults (62%) already say they are worn out by so much coverage of the campaign and candidates, while 35% say they like seeing a lot of this coverage.

This is similar to the share of Americans who said they felt worn out at later points in the last two presidential election years. In June and July 2016 , 59% of Americans said they felt worn out, and in October 2020 , 61% felt this way.

Americans who are following election news closely are less likely than those who aren’t to be worn out by election coverage. Four-in-ten Americans who say they follow news about candidates very closely say they are worn out by so much coverage, compared with 77% of those who say they don’t follow it closely at all.

Republicans are slightly less likely than Democrats to say they are worn out by election coverage (58% vs. 66%). This gap is driven by conservative Republicans (55%), who are less likely than moderate or liberal Republicans (65%) to feel worn out.

How Americans come across election news

Americans are more likely to say they mostly get political news because they happen to come across it (57%) than because they are looking for it (42%).

However, there are striking differences on this question by age. Just a quarter of Americans ages 18 to 29 say they mostly get political news because they are looking for it, compared with 60% of those 65 and older – a gap of 35 percentage points.

Those who say they closely follow news about the 2024 presidential election are also far more likely to actively seek out political news. About six-in-ten U.S. adults who closely follow election news (58%) say they mostly get political news this way, compared with 18% of those who are not closely following election news.

Republicans and Democrats are equally likely to say they mostly get political news because they look for it (44% vs. 43%). However, independents who do not lean toward either party (21%) are about half as likely to say this.

Sources of election news

We also asked what type of sources Americans get most of their political and election news from. A majority of U.S. adults (62%) say they get most of this news from journalists and news organizations. (The question did not ask how people access that news , such as through TV, print, news websites or social media.)

Around one-in-ten Americans (11%) say they get most political and election news from friends, family and neighbors. Smaller shares say they get most of this news from celebrities and social media personalities (4%), politicians and political parties (3%), and ordinary people they don’t know (2%). An additional 17% say they don’t get most of their political or election news from any of these sources.

There are a few differences in election news sources by Americans’ age and political party:

• Older Americans are far more likely than younger ones to say they get most political and election news from journalists and news organizations. Around three-quarters of Americans ages 65 and older (78%) say this, compared with 68% of those ages 50 to 64, 55% of those 30 to 49, and 45% of those 18 to 29.
• Adults under 30 are significantly more likely than those 65 and older to say they get most of this news from celebrities and social media personalities (10% vs. 1%). They are also more likely to get this news from friends, family and neighbors (18% vs. 6%).
• Democrats are slightly more likely than Republicans to say they get most political and election news from journalists and news organizations (69% vs. 59%).
• Republicans are slightly more likely than Democrats to say they don’t get most political or election news from any of these sources (20% vs. 12%).

Note: Here are the questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and its methodology . Research Assistant Emily Tomasik contributed to this analysis.

• Election 2024
• Election News
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• Politics & Media

Kirsten Eddy is a senior researcher focusing on news and information at Pew Research Center .

Two-thirds of U.S. adults say they’ve seen their own news sources report facts meant to favor one side

A growing share of voters say it’s important to them to hear from the trump and biden campaigns, americans are following news about presidential candidates much less closely than covid-19 news, black and white democrats differ in their media diets, assessments of primaries, 5 key findings from our latest election news pathways survey, from impeachment to the democratic race, most popular.

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Tracking tiny stowaways, getting there and back, refining radiation detection, robot helpers.

Space, the saying goes, is hard. And the farther humans go, the harder it can get.

Some of the challenges on missions to explore the Moon and Mars include preventing microbial contamination of these destinations, navigating there safely, protecting crew members and hardware from radiation, and maintaining and repairing equipment.

Research on the International Space Station is helping NASA scientists develop tools and processes to ensure success on these important missions. Here are highlights from some of the investigations making space a little easier.

Bacteria and fungi live in and on all humans and all around us on Earth. Most of these microorganisms are beneficial or harmless but introducing them to other celestial bodies could adversely affect our ability to study ecosystems on those other worlds.

Crew members will conduct a spacewalk to collect samples near space station life support system vents for ISS External Microorganisms , an investigation to assess whether the orbiting laboratory releases microorganisms into space. Results could provide insight into the potential for organisms to survive and reproduce in space and help researchers determine which microbes would most likely contaminate other planetary bodies visited by crewed missions.

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Spacecraft must have sophisticated high-tech systems for navigating. Sextant Navigation tests the function of sextants in microgravity as an emergency backup navigation technique for Artemis and other future exploration missions. These mechanical devices have guided navigators for centuries, and Gemini and Apollo missions demonstrated they were useful for astronauts.

Missions beyond low Earth orbit increase exposure to radiation, which can pose a hazard to human health and interfere with equipment operation. As NASA prepares for future missions, providing adequate protection is vital.

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Artemis HERA on Space Station further modified the radiation detection system so researchers could continue to evaluate the hardware in the space radiation environment prior to Artemis II.

Active-Dosimeters , an investigation led by ESA (European Space Agency), tested a wearable system to measure radiation exposure to crew members on the space station and how it changes with the station’s orbit and altitude. Data from the wearable dosimeter improved radiation risk assessments and could lead to better protection for astronauts, including the ability to quickly respond to changes in exposure throughout future exploration missions.

On future exploration missions, robotic technology can help crew members with basic tasks, monitor and maintain equipment, and conduct operations such as sample collection, reducing the need to expose astronauts to harsh environments. Integrated System for Autonomous and Adaptive Caretaking demonstrates using autonomous robots to transfer and unpack cargo and to track and respond to maintenance issues such as leaks and fires, which could protect valuable equipment and reduce costly repairs on future missions. The investigation uses the space station’s Astrobee and Robonaut robots.

Multi-Resolution Scanning uses the station’s Astrobees to test sensors and robotics to support automated 3D sensing, mapping, and situational awareness functions. On future Gateway and lunar surface missions, such systems could automatically detect defects and conduct remote maintenance and autonomous operation of vehicles such as rovers.

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Feature Article: FloodAdapt Will Help Protect Flood-prone Communities

The Science and Technology Directorate (S&T) has partnered with Deltares USA to conduct demonstrations, trainings, and performance testing for the new accessible compound flood and impact assessment tool, which will help at-risk communities better prepare for and respond to severe weather events.

Our coastal communities have taken a real hit in recent years. With extreme weather events on the rise, learning from past incidents and emerging trends is the key to protecting lives and property. Having the right compound flood modeling systems and data in place to study, simulate, and predict threats makes collaboration and critical decision-making that much easier, so when the time comes, response can be swift.

S&T has been working with Deltares USA and the city of Charleston, South Carolina, for two years to develop and pilot a state-of-the-art suite of community-oriented flood-hazard modeling and impact assessment technologies and software that will soon be available to inform field operations and emergency response before and after any events make landfall. The tools, now collectively known as FloodAdapt , will provide responders, emergency managers, and policy makers in flood-prone communities with capabilities to establish stronger planning and preparation strategies.

“Our efforts in Charleston have played a critical role in the ongoing development of FloodAdapt,” said S&T Program Manager Ron Langhelm. “Thanks to engagement with local emergency managers, first responders, and community decision makers, along with continual performance and user testing, we’ve been able drastically improve upon FloodAdapt’s tools, and enhance their capabilities and scope of use.”

FloodAdapt has unique, user-friendly components that help users create community-specific flood simulations, study related impacts, and investigate the efficacy of potential preventive and mitigative efforts and responses.

SFINCS is an open-source modeling tool that rapidly and dynamically simulates compound flooding events that impact large-scale coastal environments, and calculates interactions between related phenomena such as rainfall, storm surges, and river discharge. Delft-FIAT is an open-source flood impact assessment modeling tool that evaluates flood damage to buildings, utilities, and roads.

FloodAdapt incorporates innovative decision-support features, helping bring them into practice. These include an equity-weighting tool that (optionally) incorporates income data in determining equity-weighted damages and risk, infographics that use social vulnerability data to evaluate the equitable distribution of impacts and benefits, and a benefits calculator to assess the risk-reduction benefits of measures or strategies that will help lessen the impact of future flood events.

“With these advanced capabilities, FloodAdapt is able to provide some of the most accurate flood-related models, infographics, and infometrics that are currently available,” explained Langhelm. “Users can integrate FloodAdapt into their own toolsets and plug in publicly available data or use their own. They can then study past weather events, simulate hypothetical scenarios, and evaluate vulnerabilities, risks, and mitigation strategies that are the most relevant to their needs or interests.”

While it is currently being piloted for coastal flooding research in Charleston, Langhelm and the Deltares team are working hard to raise awareness about and further improve FloodAdapt before it transitions to the field.

“Continuing to spread awareness about, improve, and develop new innovations for FloodAdapt are major priorities for us,” said Langhelm. “We want to make sure that it will always be accessible and useful to anyone who may want to use it—whether they are government organizations, academia, emergency managers and responders, or just everyday citizens who have their own interest in learning about flood modeling and research.”

To meet these goals, in March 2024 the Deltares team conducted demonstrations, trainings, and performance testing with members of the flood research and response communities in Charleston and Baltimore. Both trips were a great success.

“FloodAdapt made quite an impression in Charleston and Baltimore,” said Langhelm. “Our emergency managers in South Carolina were impressed with the improvements we’ve made and the capabilities we’ve added and are looking forward to using them with their current models and datasets as a part of their future flood research and planning efforts.”

“Our colleagues in Maryland weren’t as familiar with FloodAdapt,” continued Langhelm. “However, they found it to be a powerful, user-friendly tool, and believe that it can play a key role in their current flood research and mitigation efforts. We are preparing additional training materials for them so that they can continue to get more comfortable with FloodAdapt and eventually teach their regional partners how to use it as well.”

The team has also been consulting with academia to make FloodAdapt even more effective in the field.

“We’re working with the George Washington University to study income, population, and other related factors, and looking at how these social indicators should be better accounted for when implementing flood-related policies,” explained Langhelm. “And our colleagues at Dartmouth College’s School of Engineering have created an uncertainty framework for damage modeling, that, if incorporated into FloodAdapt, will help users more accurately predict the probability of a flood occurring in any given area.”

A growing number of international partners in the European Union, including the European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasts and emergency responders in Ireland and Denmark, are also interested in exploring ways to implement FloodAdapt into their regional and local coastal communities.

“All of these partnerships are critical,” said Langhelm. “Ultimately, we all have the same shared goal: to raise awareness about FloodAdapt and teach interested users how to effectively use it to enhance their communities’ resilience to flood events.”

In the coming year, the team will implement two new FloodAdapt capabilities to address technical gaps identified during recent user engagements: the ability to evaluate accessibility impacts (like access to a hospital) when roads are flooded and the ability to evaluate the damage-reduction effectiveness of coastal nature-based solutions (like coral reefs and coastal wetlands that serve as buffers from waves and high-tides).

Findings from the Charleston pilot will be documented in a peer-reviewed paper. The team is also creating and disseminating a series of FloodAdapt tutorial videos and technical manuals.

“The paper will serve as another means of spreading the word about FloodAdapt and its utility, while the videos and manuals will be valuable resources to anyone who is interested in accessing and using FloodAdapt,” explained Langhelm.

Each video will provide a brief overview of a specific functionality and demonstrate how it can be used, while the online technical manuals, which can be accessed directly from within FloodAdapt, will offer complementary written instruction.

S&T and Deltares plan to make FloodAdapt available to the public this October and will continue to expand upon, enhance, and promote it based on continual feedback from stakeholders in the flood research community.

For related media requests, please contact [email protected] . Visit S&T’s Community and Infrastructure Resilience page to learn more about our ongoing flood-related research and development efforts.

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