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Writing Theses and Dissertations

• Understanding the Publication Cycle
• Understanding Authorship
• Writing About Data
• Explaining Research to Diverse Audiences
• Writing with Integrity
• Revising with Intent
• Staying Motivated and Productive
• Creating a Writing Toolkit
• Building Grammatical Confidence

Graduate Writing: Writing Theses and Dissertations

Most research-based graduate programs require students to produce a thesis or dissertation. This document is evidence of the research project that you carried out as part of your degree. Many graduate students enter their program having previously completed an undergraduate thesis, but for some students this may be a new and potentially daunting task. Regardless of whether you have previous experience or not, you will need to understand what you will need to produce to successfully write and defend your thesis or dissertation .

Take time to review the Grad Hub's Thesis/Dissertation Roadmap , which covers everything from purpose to formatting. Your supervisor and your committee members will also be key sources of information as you put together this document.

The IMRD Thesis or Dissertation

IMRD stands for Introduction, Methodology, Results, and Discussion and refers to a common structure for theses, dissertations as well as journal articles. This structure offers flexibility to capture a wide range of research projects and consequently is commonly used in many disciplines, primarily within the social and physical sciences, but is useful for writing up any empirical or applied project.

The IMRD structure is an overarching organizing principle that can be modified to accommodate one or more studies. Introductions may serve as a standalone chapter or be merged with a Literature Review, while a Discussion chapter may also include the Conclusion. If reporting on multiple studies, there may be multiple Results and/or Discussion chapters followed by a separate Conclusion. Many theses and dissertations will also include an Appendix that contains supplementary material for your committee to reference and understand your project.

Using LaTex to write your thesis? Consider downloading the LaTex template developed by Professor Mark Eramian in the Department of Computer Science. 

Looking for more information about how to structure an IMRD thesis or dissertation?

• Bitchener, J. (2010). Writing an applied linguistics thesis or dissertation: A guide to presenting empirical research . Palgrave Macmillan.
• Note: Available as an ebook through the University Library .

Humanities Theses and Dissertations

Depending on the nature of their graduate research, some humanities students may opt for an IMRD structure to write up their project. However, these texts often follow a looser structure that focuses on building and sustaining a central argument, with chapters organized thematically in service of this aim.

Reviewing sample theses and dissertations that have been recently published within one’s discipline can provide insight into the different ways in which these texts can be structured.

Looking for more information on how to structure a humanities thesis or dissertation?

• Research & Learning Online. (2021). Structuring a long text. Monash University. https://www.monash.edu/rlo/graduate-research-writing/write-the-thesis/writing-the-thesis-chapters/structuring-a-long-text

The Manuscript-Style Thesis or Dissertation

A manuscript-style thesis or dissertation is composed of a series of previously published articles bookended with an introduction and conclusion identifying the overarching themes of the collected work.

In its guidelines on Manuscript-Style Theses and Dissertations , the university explicitly states “A manuscript-style thesis is not . . . merely a collection of published or publishable papers. It must meet the principles and objectives required of a thesis” (para. 2).  What does this mean? Simply, that the work must cohere and build to a central theme that sufficiently contributes to knowledge (for more on this topic, visit Establishing a Project’s Value ).

This type of dissertation tends to be more popular in PhD programs and is sometimes referred to as a “PhD by publication.” If any of the previously published papers include co-authors, such texts commonly mandate an explicit statement of contribution to clarify the student’s involvement (e.g., data collection, data analysis, drafting of text). Having co-authored papers tends to be more conventional in the sciences as it is more common to work on projects as part of a larger laboratory or investigative team.

Looking for more information about manuscript-style theses and dissertations?

• Filippou, K. (2020, March 1). Writing a thesis by publication. Some reasons for and against. DoctoralWriting SIG . https://doctoralwriting.wordpress.com/2020/03/01/writing-a-thesis-by-publication-some-reasons-for-and-against/
• Pacheco-Vega, R. (2019, September 13). The dissertation analytical table (DAT) – an overview device to formulate a 3-papers thesis/doctoral dissertation. Raul Pacheco-Vega, PhD . http://www.raulpacheco.org/2019/09/the-dissertation-analytical-table-dat-an-overview-device-to-formulate-a-3-papers-thesis-doctoral-dissertation/
• Trietsch, C. (2019, October 24). Dear STEM students: Don’t write thesis chapters -- Write manuscripts. Insider Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/blogs/gradhacker/dear-stem-students-don%E2%80%99t-write-thesis-chapters-write-manuscripts  

Alternate Formats

The structure of any thesis or dissertation should reflect the nature and purpose of the research project. While non-standard structures are often characteristic of certain creative arts disciplines, they are gaining traction in other fields too, such as the digital humanities.

Alternate theses and dissertations can also be very appealing for students who are foregrounding decolonization in their research as a non-standard structure may more accurately represent the scholarly perspectives or content contained therein. 

In discussion with your supervisor, committee members, and other university stakeholders, you will determine if it is appropriate, valuable, and permissible to present your work in a non-standard way. Like any decision, this should be made carefully. Regardless of the format you choose, what remains critical is that the text clearly and convincingly demonstrates to your committee members how you have advanced knowledge in a meaningful way.

Looking for more information about alternate formats?

• Canadian Association for Graduate Studies. (2021). Rethinking the PhD: Broadening the dissertation . https://cags.ca/rethinkingphd-dissertation/
• Carter, S. (2015, November 19). Innovation in the doctoral thesis: Cutting edge or over the edge? DoctoralWriting SIG . https://doctoralwriting.wordpress.com/2015/11/19/innovation-in-the-doctoral-thesis-cutting-edge-or-over-the-edge/
• Note: Available at the Education and Music Library, Indigenous Education Collection (LB2369 .J337 2008)
• University of Pittsburgh. (2022). Innovative dissertations.  Humanities Engage.    https://www.humanitiescareers.pitt.edu/innovative-dissertations

Planning and Project Management

Even if you are incredibly passionate about your research, it can be a challenge to carry your thesis or dissertation to the finish line. This text may be the longest you’ve ever written (and may ever write) so having a plan is essential, especially to circumvent those days (or weeks) when you just do not feel like writing.

As part of your early planning, look at a range of sample theses or dissertations in your field and ask yourself the following questions:

• How long are they?
• How are they structured?
• What commonalities do you see?
• What makes one more readable than another?

This review process will help you construct a mental framework, coupled with the formal guidelines from your department and/or CGPS. After all, what is the point in trying to write a 300-page document if a 180-page one will do?

Sample theses and dissertations can be found in repositories like USask’s HARVEST and other university repositories and/or showcases (e.g., Queen’s University ), ProQuest Dissertations & Theses , and Library and Archives Canada .

Having a clear understanding of what the final product will be is often key; from there, you can work backward to understand what steps they need to take to reach the end goal. To help with this process, a dissertation calculator can be a useful tool for helping to conceptualize a workable timeline.

Once you have the bigger picture in place, figure out a realistic schedule that identifies monthly, weekly, and daily goals—while also accounting for setbacks.

Keep in mind that it will be easier to write your thesis or dissertation if you have a regular writing practice and do not wait until your research is “finished” before starting to write up your work. Such writing might involve writing sections of your literature review or methodology or keeping a research journal that will then serve as stimulus material for your discussion. Plus, having a regular writing practice can help make writing less intimidating and more mundane and help reduce potential tendencies toward perfectionism that can make it difficult to get started on the project.

Looking for more information on planning and project management?

• Golding, C. (2017) Advice for writing a thesis (based on what examiners do),  Open Review of Educational Research ,  4 (1): 46-60, https://doi.org/10.1080/23265507.2017.1300862
• Lantsoght, E. (2018, January 11). Seven essential tips for managing a large research project. The Wiley Network. https://www.wiley.com/network/researchers/writing-and-conducting-research/seven-essential-tips-for-managing-a-large-research-project
• Santiago-Lopez, A. (2019, January 04). Six project-management tips for your PhD. Nature. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-07860-6
• Saunders, F. (2014, November 05). How can you treat your PhD like a project? The Thesis Whisperer . https://thesiswhisperer.com/2014/11/05/how-can-you-treat-your-phd-like-a-project/

Productivity and Avoiding Burnout

As you write your thesis or dissertation, you may feel blocked, unmotivated, overwhelmed, or even hostile to the process. Such emotional responses are completely normal and reflect the complexity of the task at hand.

Fortunately, there are strategies you can use to help ensure that you continue to meet your goals while also maintaining your well-being.

Many productive academic writers identify daily writing as key to their success. Daily writing does not necessarily mean 3–4 hours of uninterrupted time, rather it could mean having anywhere from 30–90 minutes set aside.

These writers also set concrete, achievable, time-restricted tasks as part of daily writing. For instance, rather than saying, “I’m going to write for 60 minutes today,” they say, “Between 9–10:30am today I’m going to write two paragraphs for my literature review.” Having a tangible plan in place before writing means that writing time remains focused and outcome oriented. These outcomes might be small, but they add up quickly.

Having such plans in place can help with productivity, but it is also important to plan for life—and fun! By nurturing relationships and hobbies, we promote and protect our well-being and prevent burnout.

If you find yourself struggling or are finding it difficult to cope at any stage of your program, do connect with the Student Wellness Centre .  

Looking for more information on productivity and avoiding burnout?

• Ali, S. G. (2021, September 21). 6 tips for the final year of your dissertation marathon. Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/advice/2021/09/21/tips-final-year-writing-your-thesis-opinion
• Belleville, G. (2019). Sit down and write your thesis! Practical and motivational tips for scientific writing. Canadian Journal of Cardiology, 35 (8), 945-947. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cjca.2019.04.011
• Bérubé-Lupien, É. (2021, March 23). 7 tips for efficient thesis writing. University Affairs. https://www.universityaffairs.ca/career-advice/career-advice-article/7-tips-for-efficient-thesis-writing/
• Office of Graduate Research Flinders University. (2020, March 5). Vlog 207 - How to set up your life to write [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sZ6WohkWBZg
• Pain, E. (2018, April 30). How to write your Ph.D. thesis. Science Careers. https://www.science.org/content/article/how-write-your-phd-thesis
• << Previous: Writing Literature Reviews
• Next: Understanding the Publication Cycle >>
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This book has been authored with PhD scholars in mind. The author believes that this would be a good starting point for these scholars. The following chapters have been included: Chapters: 1. Introduction to Thesis Writing 2. Choosing a Topic and Developing a Thesis Statement 3. Conducting Literature Review 4. Methodology and Data Collection 5. Writing the Introduction and Background of Your Thesis 6. Presenting Your Findings and Analysis 7. Writing the Discussion and Conclusion of Your Thesis 8. Formatting and Structuring Your Thesis 9. Referencing and Citations 10. Defending Your Thesis: Preparing for the Viva Voce 11. Revising and Editing Your Thesis 12. Time Management and Staying on Track 13. Overcoming Writer's Block and Staying Motivated 14. Using Technology and Tools to Enhance Your Thesis Writing Process 15. Publishing Your Thesis and Next Steps. 16. Data visualization 17. Statistical tools This book also contains tips about choosing an ideal thesis topic. It also warns the student about the various pitfalls involved in choosing a research topic. The topic on referencing citations would be very useful for even a novice researcher. This book also introduces the researcher to the myriad of software tools that are available to the scholar. Using these software tools would make the life of the researcher that much easier.

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How to Write and Publish a Research Paper for a Peer-Reviewed Journal

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• Published: 30 April 2020
• Volume 36 , pages 909–913, ( 2021 )

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• Clara Busse   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0178-1000 1 &
• Ella August   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5151-1036 1 , 2  

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Communicating research findings is an essential step in the research process. Often, peer-reviewed journals are the forum for such communication, yet many researchers are never taught how to write a publishable scientific paper. In this article, we explain the basic structure of a scientific paper and describe the information that should be included in each section. We also identify common pitfalls for each section and recommend strategies to avoid them. Further, we give advice about target journal selection and authorship. In the online resource 1 , we provide an example of a high-quality scientific paper, with annotations identifying the elements we describe in this article.

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Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Writing a scientific paper is an important component of the research process, yet researchers often receive little formal training in scientific writing. This is especially true in low-resource settings. In this article, we explain why choosing a target journal is important, give advice about authorship, provide a basic structure for writing each section of a scientific paper, and describe common pitfalls and recommendations for each section. In the online resource 1 , we also include an annotated journal article that identifies the key elements and writing approaches that we detail here. Before you begin your research, make sure you have ethical clearance from all relevant ethical review boards.

Select a Target Journal Early in the Writing Process

We recommend that you select a “target journal” early in the writing process; a “target journal” is the journal to which you plan to submit your paper. Each journal has a set of core readers and you should tailor your writing to this readership. For example, if you plan to submit a manuscript about vaping during pregnancy to a pregnancy-focused journal, you will need to explain what vaping is because readers of this journal may not have a background in this topic. However, if you were to submit that same article to a tobacco journal, you would not need to provide as much background information about vaping.

Information about a journal’s core readership can be found on its website, usually in a section called “About this journal” or something similar. For example, the Journal of Cancer Education presents such information on the “Aims and Scope” page of its website, which can be found here: https://www.springer.com/journal/13187/aims-and-scope .

Peer reviewer guidelines from your target journal are an additional resource that can help you tailor your writing to the journal and provide additional advice about crafting an effective article [ 1 ]. These are not always available, but it is worth a quick web search to find out.

Identify Author Roles Early in the Process

Early in the writing process, identify authors, determine the order of authors, and discuss the responsibilities of each author. Standard author responsibilities have been identified by The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) [ 2 ]. To set clear expectations about each team member’s responsibilities and prevent errors in communication, we also suggest outlining more detailed roles, such as who will draft each section of the manuscript, write the abstract, submit the paper electronically, serve as corresponding author, and write the cover letter. It is best to formalize this agreement in writing after discussing it, circulating the document to the author team for approval. We suggest creating a title page on which all authors are listed in the agreed-upon order. It may be necessary to adjust authorship roles and order during the development of the paper. If a new author order is agreed upon, be sure to update the title page in the manuscript draft.

In the case where multiple papers will result from a single study, authors should discuss who will author each paper. Additionally, authors should agree on a deadline for each paper and the lead author should take responsibility for producing an initial draft by this deadline.

Structure of the Introduction Section

The introduction section should be approximately three to five paragraphs in length. Look at examples from your target journal to decide the appropriate length. This section should include the elements shown in Fig.  1 . Begin with a general context, narrowing to the specific focus of the paper. Include five main elements: why your research is important, what is already known about the topic, the “gap” or what is not yet known about the topic, why it is important to learn the new information that your research adds, and the specific research aim(s) that your paper addresses. Your research aim should address the gap you identified. Be sure to add enough background information to enable readers to understand your study. Table 1 provides common introduction section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

The main elements of the introduction section of an original research article. Often, the elements overlap

Methods Section

The purpose of the methods section is twofold: to explain how the study was done in enough detail to enable its replication and to provide enough contextual detail to enable readers to understand and interpret the results. In general, the essential elements of a methods section are the following: a description of the setting and participants, the study design and timing, the recruitment and sampling, the data collection process, the dataset, the dependent and independent variables, the covariates, the analytic approach for each research objective, and the ethical approval. The hallmark of an exemplary methods section is the justification of why each method was used. Table 2 provides common methods section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Results Section

The focus of the results section should be associations, or lack thereof, rather than statistical tests. Two considerations should guide your writing here. First, the results should present answers to each part of the research aim. Second, return to the methods section to ensure that the analysis and variables for each result have been explained.

Begin the results section by describing the number of participants in the final sample and details such as the number who were approached to participate, the proportion who were eligible and who enrolled, and the number of participants who dropped out. The next part of the results should describe the participant characteristics. After that, you may organize your results by the aim or by putting the most exciting results first. Do not forget to report your non-significant associations. These are still findings.

Tables and figures capture the reader’s attention and efficiently communicate your main findings [ 3 ]. Each table and figure should have a clear message and should complement, rather than repeat, the text. Tables and figures should communicate all salient details necessary for a reader to understand the findings without consulting the text. Include information on comparisons and tests, as well as information about the sample and timing of the study in the title, legend, or in a footnote. Note that figures are often more visually interesting than tables, so if it is feasible to make a figure, make a figure. To avoid confusing the reader, either avoid abbreviations in tables and figures, or define them in a footnote. Note that there should not be citations in the results section and you should not interpret results here. Table 3 provides common results section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Discussion Section

Opposite the introduction section, the discussion should take the form of a right-side-up triangle beginning with interpretation of your results and moving to general implications (Fig.  2 ). This section typically begins with a restatement of the main findings, which can usually be accomplished with a few carefully-crafted sentences.

Major elements of the discussion section of an original research article. Often, the elements overlap

Next, interpret the meaning or explain the significance of your results, lifting the reader’s gaze from the study’s specific findings to more general applications. Then, compare these study findings with other research. Are these findings in agreement or disagreement with those from other studies? Does this study impart additional nuance to well-accepted theories? Situate your findings within the broader context of scientific literature, then explain the pathways or mechanisms that might give rise to, or explain, the results.

Journals vary in their approach to strengths and limitations sections: some are embedded paragraphs within the discussion section, while some mandate separate section headings. Keep in mind that every study has strengths and limitations. Candidly reporting yours helps readers to correctly interpret your research findings.

The next element of the discussion is a summary of the potential impacts and applications of the research. Should these results be used to optimally design an intervention? Does the work have implications for clinical protocols or public policy? These considerations will help the reader to further grasp the possible impacts of the presented work.

Finally, the discussion should conclude with specific suggestions for future work. Here, you have an opportunity to illuminate specific gaps in the literature that compel further study. Avoid the phrase “future research is necessary” because the recommendation is too general to be helpful to readers. Instead, provide substantive and specific recommendations for future studies. Table 4 provides common discussion section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Follow the Journal’s Author Guidelines

After you select a target journal, identify the journal’s author guidelines to guide the formatting of your manuscript and references. Author guidelines will often (but not always) include instructions for titles, cover letters, and other components of a manuscript submission. Read the guidelines carefully. If you do not follow the guidelines, your article will be sent back to you.

Finally, do not submit your paper to more than one journal at a time. Even if this is not explicitly stated in the author guidelines of your target journal, it is considered inappropriate and unprofessional.

Your title should invite readers to continue reading beyond the first page [ 4 , 5 ]. It should be informative and interesting. Consider describing the independent and dependent variables, the population and setting, the study design, the timing, and even the main result in your title. Because the focus of the paper can change as you write and revise, we recommend you wait until you have finished writing your paper before composing the title.

Be sure that the title is useful for potential readers searching for your topic. The keywords you select should complement those in your title to maximize the likelihood that a researcher will find your paper through a database search. Avoid using abbreviations in your title unless they are very well known, such as SNP, because it is more likely that someone will use a complete word rather than an abbreviation as a search term to help readers find your paper.

After you have written a complete draft, use the checklist (Fig. 3 ) below to guide your revisions and editing. Additional resources are available on writing the abstract and citing references [ 5 ]. When you feel that your work is ready, ask a trusted colleague or two to read the work and provide informal feedback. The box below provides a checklist that summarizes the key points offered in this article.

Checklist for manuscript quality

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Ella August is grateful to the Sustainable Sciences Institute for mentoring her in training researchers on writing and publishing their research.

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Busse, C., August, E. How to Write and Publish a Research Paper for a Peer-Reviewed Journal. J Canc Educ 36 , 909–913 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13187-020-01751-z

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