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Color Theory

What is color theory.

Color theory is the study of how colors work together and how they affect our emotions and perceptions. It's like a toolbox for artists, designers, and creators to help them choose the right colors for their projects. Color theory enables you to pick colors that go well together and convey the right mood or message in your work.

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Color is in the Beholders’ Eyes

“Color! What a deep and mysterious language, the language of dreams.” — Paul Gauguin, Famous post-Impressionist painter

Sir Isaac Newton established color theory when he invented the color wheel in 1666. Newton understood colors as human perceptions —not absolute qualities—of wavelengths of light . By systematically categorizing colors, he defined three groups:

Primary (red, blue, yellow).

Secondary (mixes of primary colors).

Tertiary (or intermediate —mixes of primary and secondary colors).

What Are Hue, Value and Saturation?

© Interaction Design Foundation, CC BY-SA 4.0

Hue is the attribute of color that distinguishes it as red, blue, green or any other specific color on the color wheel.

Value represents a color's relative lightness or darkness or grayscale and it’s crucial for creating contrast and depth in visual art.

Saturation , also known as chroma or intensity, refers to the purity and vividness of a color, ranging from fully saturated (vibrant) to desaturated (grayed).

In user experience (UX) design , you need a firm grasp of color theory to craft harmonious, meaningful designs for your users.

Use a Color Scheme and Color Temperature for Design Harmony

In screen design, designers use the additive color model , where red, green and blue are the primary colors. Just as you need to place images and other elements in visual design strategically, your color choices should optimize your users’ experience in attractive interfaces with high usability . When starting your design process, you can consider using any of these main color schemes:

Monochromatic : Take one hue and create other elements from different shades and tints of it.

Analogous : Use three colors located beside one another on the color wheel (e.g., orange, yellow-orange and yellow to show sunlight). A variant is to mix white with these to form a “high-key” analogous color scheme (e.g., flames).

Complementary : Use “opposite color” pairs—e.g., blue/yellow—to maximize contrast.

Split-Complementary (or Compound Harmony ): Add colors from either side of your complementary color pair to soften the contrast.

Triadic : Take three equally distant colors on the color wheel (i.e., 120° apart: e.g., red/blue/yellow). These colors may not be vibrant, but the scheme can be as it maintains harmony and high contrast. It’s easier to make visually appealing designs with this scheme than with a complementary scheme.

Tetradic : Take four colors that are two sets of complementary pairs (e.g., orange/yellow/blue/violet) and choose one dominant color. This allows rich, interesting designs. However, watch the balance between warm and cool colors.

Square : A variant of tetradic; you find four colors evenly spaced on the color wheel (i.e., 90° apart). Unlike tetradic, square schemes can work well if you use all four colors evenly.

Your colors must reflect your design’s goal and the brand’s personality . You should also apply color theory to optimize a positive psychological impact on users . So, you should carefully determine how the color temperature (i.e., your use of warm, neutral and cool colors) reflects your message.

For example, you can make a neutral color such as grey warm or cool depending on factors such as your organization’s character and the industry.

Use Color Theory to Match What Your Users Want to See

The right contrast is vital to catching users’ attention in the first place. The vibrancy you choose for your design is likewise crucial to provoking desired emotional responses from users. How they react to color choices depends on factors such as gender, experience, age and culture. In all cases, you should design for accessibility —e.g., regarding red-green color blindness. You can fine-tune color choices through UX research to resonate best with specific users. Your users will encounter your design with their expectations of what a design in a certain industry should look like. That’s why you must also design to meet your market’s expectations geographically . For example, blue, an industry standard for banking in the West, has positive associations in other cultures.

However, some colors can evoke contradictory feelings from certain nationalities (e.g., red: good fortune in China, mourning in South Africa, danger/sexiness in the USA). Overall, you should use usability testing to confirm your color choices.

Learn More about Color Theory

Take our course Visual Design: The Ultimate Guide .

Register for the How To Use Color Theory To Enhance Your Designs Master Class webinar with color experts Arielle Eckstut and Joann Eckstut.

See designer and author Cameron Chapman’s in-depth piece for insights, tips and examples of color theory at work.

For more on concepts associated with color theory and color scheme examples, read Tubik Studio’s guide .

Questions related to Color Theory

As an artist, it's important to have a solid understanding of color theory. This framework allows you to explore how colors interact and can be combined to achieve specific effects or reactions. It involves studying hues, tints, tones, and shades, as well as the color wheel and classifications of primary, secondary, and tertiary colors.

The Color Wheel © Interaction Design Foundation, CC BY-SA 4.0

Complementary and analogous colors are also important concepts to understand, as they can be used to create stunning color combinations. Additionally, color theory delves into the psychological effects of color, which can greatly impact the aesthetic and emotional impact of your art. By utilizing color theory, you can make informed decisions about color choices in your work and create art that truly resonates with your audience.

Color theory is a concept used in visual arts and design that explains how colors interact with each other and how they can be combined to create certain feelings, moods, and reactions. Arielle Eckstut, co-author of 'What Is Color? 50 Questions and Answers on the Science of Color,' explains that color does not exist outside of our perception, and different brains process visual information differently. Our retina, a part of the brain, plays a crucial role in color vision, and our brains constantly take in information from the outside world to inform us about our surroundings.

Watch this video for a deeper understanding of the science behind color:

To learn color theory, enroll in the ' Visual Design: The Ultimate Guide ' course on Interaction Design Foundation. This comprehensive course covers all aspects of visual design, including color theory. You will learn how colors interact with each other, how to combine them to create specific feelings and reactions, and how to use them effectively in your designs. 

The course includes video lectures, articles, and interactive exercises that will help you master color theory and other key concepts of visual design. Start your journey to becoming a color theory expert by signing up for the course today !

Color theory helps us make sense of the world around us by providing a shorthand for using products, distinguishing objects, and interpreting information. For instance, colors can help us quickly identify pills in a bottle or different dosages.

Designers also consider cultural, personal, and biological influences on color perception to ensure the design communicates the right information. Ultimately, color helps us navigate the world safely, quickly, and with joy. Find out more about the significance of color in design by watching this video:

To use color theory effectively, consider the following tips from Joann Eckstut, co-author of 'What Is Color? 50 Questions and Answers on the Science of Color, in this video:

Understand the effect of light: Daylight constantly changes, affecting the colors we see. Changing the light source will change the color appearance of objects.

Consider the surroundings: Colors appear to change depending on the colors around them, a phenomenon known as simultaneous contrast.

Be aware of metamerism: Colors that match under one light source may not fit under another.

Remember that various factors such as light source and surrounding colors influence color, which is not a fixed entity. Being aware of these factors will prepare you to work effectively with color. Watch the full video for more insights and examples.

Color theory, as we know it today, is a culmination of ideas developed over centuries by various artists and scientists. However, one key figure in its development is Sir Isaac Newton, who, in 1666, discovered the color spectrum by passing sunlight through a prism. He then arranged these colors in a closed loop, creating the first color wheel. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe later expanded on this with his book "Theory of Colours" in 1810, exploring the psychological effects of colors. 

Modern color theory has since evolved, incorporating principles from both Newton and Goethe, along with contributions from numerous other artists and researchers. To learn more about color theory, consider enrolling in the Visual Design - The Ultimate Guide course.

Understanding color theory might seem daunting at first, but it is manageable. Michal Malewicz emphasizes in the video below, that initially, a UX designer only needs three colors: a background color, a foreground (text) color, and an accent color. 

It's advisable to start with fewer colors and gradually incorporate more as you become comfortable. Also, avoid color combinations like red mixed with saturated blue or green, and always test your colors for contrast and accessibility. Mastering color theory ultimately comes down to practice and observation. If it looks good, then it is good. For a comprehensive learning experience, consider enrolling in the Visual Design - The Ultimate Guide course on Interaction Design Foundation. Enroll now

Literature on Color Theory

Here’s the entire UX literature on Color Theory by the Interaction Design Foundation, collated in one place:

Learn more about Color Theory

Take a deep dive into Color Theory with our course Visual Design: The Ultimate Guide .

In this course, you will gain a holistic understanding of visual design and increase your knowledge of visual principles , color theory , typography , grid systems and history . You’ll also learn why visual design is so important, how history influences the present, and practical applications to improve your own work. These insights will help you to achieve the best possible user experience.

In the first lesson, you’ll learn the difference between visual design elements and visual design principles . You’ll also learn how to effectively use visual design elements and principles by deconstructing several well-known designs. 

In the second lesson, you’ll learn about the science and importance of color . You’ll gain a better understanding of color modes, color schemes and color systems. You’ll also learn how to confidently use color by understanding its cultural symbolism and context of use. 

In the third lesson, you’ll learn best practices for designing with type and how to effectively use type for communication . We’ll provide you with a basic understanding of the anatomy of type, type classifications, type styles and typographic terms. You’ll also learn practical tips for selecting a typeface, when to mix typefaces and how to talk type with fellow designers. 

In the final lesson, you’ll learn about grid systems and their importance in providing structure within design . You’ll also learn about the types of grid systems and how to effectively use grids to improve your work.

You’ll be taught by some of the world’s leading experts . The experts we’ve handpicked for you are the Vignelli Distinguished Professor of Design Emeritus at RIT R. Roger Remington , author of “American Modernism: Graphic Design, 1920 to 1960”; Co-founder of The Book Doctors Arielle Eckstut and leading color consultant Joann Eckstut , co-authors of “What Is Color?” and “The Secret Language of Color”; Award-winning designer and educator Mia Cinelli , TEDx speaker of “The Power of Typography”; Betty Cooke and William O. Steinmetz Design Chair at MICA Ellen Lupton , author of “Thinking with Type”; Chair of the Graphic + Interactive communication department at the Ringling School of Art and Design Kimberly Elam , author of "Grid Systems: Principles of Organizing Type.”

Throughout the course, we’ll supply you with lots of templates and step-by-step guides so you can go right out and use what you learn in your everyday practice.

In the “ Build Your Portfolio Project: Redesign ,” you’ll find a series of fun exercises that build upon one another and cover the visual design topics discussed. If you want to complete these optional exercises, you will get hands-on experience with the methods you learn and in the process you’ll create a case study for your portfolio which you can show your future employer or freelance customers.

You can also learn with your fellow course-takers and use the discussion forums to get feedback and inspire other people who are learning alongside you. You and your fellow course-takers have a huge knowledge and experience base between you, so we think you should take advantage of it whenever possible.

You earn a verifiable and industry-trusted Course Certificate once you’ve completed the course. You can highlight it on your resume , your LinkedIn profile or your website .

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MINI REVIEW article

Color and psychological functioning: a review of theoretical and empirical work.

• Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA

In the past decade there has been increased interest in research on color and psychological functioning. Important advances have been made in theoretical work and empirical work, but there are also important weaknesses in both areas that must be addressed for the literature to continue to develop apace. In this article, I provide brief theoretical and empirical reviews of research in this area, in each instance beginning with a historical background and recent advancements, and proceeding to an evaluation focused on weaknesses that provide guidelines for future research. I conclude by reiterating that the literature on color and psychological functioning is at a nascent stage of development, and by recommending patience and prudence regarding conclusions about theory, findings, and real-world application.

The past decade has seen enhanced interest in research in the area of color and psychological functioning. Progress has been made on both theoretical and empirical fronts, but there are also weaknesses on both of these fronts that must be attended to for this research area to continue to make progress. In the following, I briefly review both advances and weaknesses in the literature on color and psychological functioning.

Theoretical Work

Background and recent developments.

Color has fascinated scholars for millennia ( Sloane, 1991 ; Gage, 1993 ). Theorizing on color and psychological functioning has been present since Goethe (1810) penned his Theory of Colors , in which he linked color categories (e.g., the “plus” colors of yellow, red–yellow, yellow–red) to emotional responding (e.g., warmth, excitement). Goldstein (1942) expanded on Goethe’s intuitions, positing that certain colors (e.g., red, yellow) produce systematic physiological reactions manifest in emotional experience (e.g., negative arousal), cognitive orientation (e.g., outward focus), and overt action (e.g., forceful behavior). Subsequent theorizing derived from Goldstein’s ideas has focused on wavelength, positing that longer wavelength colors feel arousing or warm, whereas shorter wavelength colors feel relaxing or cool ( Nakashian, 1964 ; Crowley, 1993 ). Other conceptual statements about color and psychological functioning have focused on general associations that people have to colors and their corresponding influence on downstream affect, cognition, and behavior (e.g., black is associated with aggression and elicits aggressive behavior; Frank and Gilovich, 1988 ; Soldat et al., 1997 ). Finally, much writing on color and psychological functioning has been completely atheoretical, focused exclusively on finding answers to applied questions (e.g., “What wall color facilitates worker alertness and productivity?”). The aforementioned theories and conceptual statements continue to motivate research on color and psychological functioning. However, several other promising theoretical frameworks have also emerged in the past decade, and I review these frameworks in the following.

Hill and Barton (2005) noted that in many non-human animals, including primate species, dominance in aggressive encounters (i.e., superior physical condition) is signaled by the bright red of oxygenated blood visible on highly vascularized bare skin. Artificial red (e.g., on leg bands) has likewise been shown to signal dominance in non-human animals, mimicking the natural physiological process ( Cuthill et al., 1997 ). In humans in aggressive encounters, a testosterone surge produces visible reddening on the face and fear leads to pallor ( Drummond and Quay, 2001 ; Levenson, 2003 ). Hill and Barton (2005) posited that the parallel between humans and non-humans present at the physiological level may extend to artificial stimuli, such that wearing red in sport contests may convey dominance and lead to a competitive advantage.

Other theorists have also utilized a comparative approach in positing links between skin coloration and the evaluation of conspecifics. Changizi et al. (2006) and Changizi (2009) contend that trichromatic vision evolved to enable primates, including humans, to detect subtle changes in blood flow beneath the skin that carry important information about the emotional state of the conspecific. Increased red can convey anger, embarrassment, or sexual arousal, whereas increased bluish or greenish tint can convey illness or poor physiological condition. Thus, visual sensitivity to these color modulations facilitates various forms of social interaction. In similar fashion, Stephen et al. (2009) and Stephen and McKeegan (2010) propose that perceivers use information about skin coloration (perhaps particularly from the face, Tan and Stephen, 2012 ) to make inferences about the attractiveness, health, and dominance of conspecifics. Redness (from blood oxygenization) and yellowness (from carotenoids) are both seen as facilitating positive judgments. Fink et al. (2006) and Fink and Matts (2007) posit that the homogeneity of skin coloration is an important factor in evaluating the age, attractiveness, and health of faces.

Elliot and Maier (2012) have proposed color-in-context theory, which draws on social learning, as well as biology. Some responses to color stimuli are presumed to be solely due to the repeated pairing of color and particular concepts, messages, and experiences. Others, however, are presumed to represent a biologically engrained predisposition that is reinforced and shaped by social learning. Through this social learning, color associations can be extended beyond natural bodily processes (e.g., blood flow modulations) to objects in close proximity to the body (e.g., clothes, accessories). Thus, for example, red may not only increase attractiveness evaluations when viewed on the face, but also when viewed on a shirt or dress. As implied by the name of the theory, the physical and psychological context in which color is perceived is thought to influence its meaning and, accordingly, responses to it. Thus, blue on a ribbon is positive (indicating first place), but blue on a piece of meat is negative (indicating rotten), and a red shirt may enhance the attractiveness of a potential mate (red = sex/romance), but not of a person evaluating one’s competence (red = failure/danger).

Meier and Robinson (2005) and Meier (in press ) have posited a conceptual metaphor theory of color. From this perspective, people talk and think about abstract concepts in concrete terms grounded in perceptual experience (i.e., they use metaphors) to help them understand and navigate their social world ( Lakoff and Johnson, 1999 ). Thus, anger entails reddening of the face, so anger is metaphorically described as “seeing red,” and positive emotions and experiences are often depicted in terms of lightness (rather than darkness), so lightness is metaphorically linked to good (“seeing the light”) rather than bad (“in the dark”). These metaphoric associations are presumed to have implications for important outcomes such as morality judgments (e.g., white things are viewed as pure) and stereotyping (e.g., dark faces are viewed more negatively).

For many years it has been known that light directly influences physiology and increases arousal (see Cajochen, 2007 , for a review), but recently theorists have posited that such effects are wavelength dependent. Blue light, in particular, is posited to activate the melanopsin photoreceptor system which, in turn, activates the brain structures involved in sub-cortical arousal and higher-order attentional processing ( Cajochen et al., 2005 ; Lockley et al., 2006 ). As such, exposure to blue light is expected to facilitate alertness and enhance performance on tasks requiring sustained attention.

Evaluation and Recommendations

Drawing on recent theorizing in evolutionary psychology, emotion science, retinal physiology, person perception, and social cognition, the aforementioned conceptualizations represent important advances to the literature on color and psychological functioning. Nevertheless, theory in this area remains at a nascent level of development, and the following weaknesses may be identified.

First, the focus of theoretical work in this area is either extremely specific or extremely general. A precise conceptual proposition such as red signals dominance and leads to competitive advantage in sports ( Hill and Barton, 2005 ) is valuable in that it can be directly translated into a clear, testable hypothesis; however, it is not clear how this specific hypothesis connects to a broader understanding of color–performance relations in achievement settings more generally. On the other end of the spectrum, a general conceptualization such as color-in-context theory ( Elliot and Maier, 2012 ) is valuable in that it offers several widely applicable premises; however, these premises are only vaguely suggestive of precise hypotheses in specific contexts. What is needed are mid-level theoretical frameworks that comprehensively, yet precisely explain and predict links between color and psychological functioning in specific contexts (for emerging developments, see Pazda and Greitemeyer, in press ; Spence, in press ; Stephen and Perrett, in press ).

Second, the extant theoretical work is limited in scope in terms of range of hues, range of color properties, and direction of influence. Most theorizing has focused on one hue, red, which is understandable given its prominence in nature, on the body, and in society ( Changizi, 2009 ; Elliot and Maier, 2014 ); however, other hues also carry important associations that undoubtedly have downstream effects (e.g., blue: Labrecque and Milne, 2012 ; green: Akers et al., 2012 ). Color has three basic properties: hue, lightness, and chroma ( Fairchild, 2013 ). Variation in any or all of these properties could influence downstream affect, cognition, or behavior, yet only hue is considered in most theorizing (most likely because experientially, it is the most salient color property). Lightness and chroma also undoubtedly have implications for psychological functioning (e.g., lightness: Kareklas et al., 2014 ; chroma: Lee et al., 2013 ); lightness has received some attention within conceptual metaphor theory ( Meier, in press ; see also Prado-León and Rosales-Cinco, 2011 ), but chroma has been almost entirely overlooked, as has the issue of combinations of hue, lightness, and chroma. Finally, most theorizing has focused on color as an independent variable rather than a dependent variable; however, it is also likely that many situational and intrapersonal factors influence color perception (e.g., situational: Bubl et al., 2009 ; intrapersonal: Fetterman et al., 2015 ).

Third, theorizing to date has focused primarily on main effects, with only a modicum of attention allocated to the important issue of moderation. As research literatures develop and mature, they progress from a sole focus on “is” questions (“Does X influence Y?”) to additionally considering “when” questions (“Under what conditions does X influence Y and under what conditions does X not influence Y?”). These “second generation” questions ( Zanna and Fazio, 1982 , p. 283) can seem less exciting and even deflating in that they posit boundary conditions that constrain the generalizability of an effect. Nevertheless, this step is invaluable in that it adds conceptual precision and clarity, and begins to address the issue of real-world applicability. All color effects undoubtedly depend on certain conditions – culture, gender, age, type of task, variant of color, etc. – and acquiring an understanding of these conditions will represent an important marker of maturity for this literature (for movement in this direction, see Schwarz and Singer, 2013 ; Tracy and Beall, 2014 ; Bertrams et al., 2015 ; Buechner et al., in press ; Young, in press ). Another, more succinct, way to state this third weakness is that theorizing in this area needs to take context, in all its forms, more seriously.

Empirical Work

Empirical work on color and psychological functioning dates back to the late 19th century ( Féré, 1887 ; see Pressey, 1921 , for a review). A consistent feature of this work, from its inception to the past decade, is that it has been fraught with major methodological problems that have precluded rigorous testing and clear interpretation ( O’Connor, 2011 ). One problem has been a failure to attend to rudimentary scientific procedures such as experimenter blindness to condition, identifying, and excluding color deficient participants, and standardizing the duration of color presentation or exposure. Another problem has been a failure to specify and control for color at the spectral level in manipulations. Without such specification, it is impossible to know what precise combination of color properties was investigated, and without such control, the confounding of focal and non-focal color properties is inevitable ( Whitfield and Wiltshire, 1990 ; Valdez and Mehrabian, 1994 ). Yet another problem has been the use of underpowered samples. This problem, shared across scientific disciplines ( Maxwell, 2004 ), can lead to Type I errors, Type II errors, and inflated effect sizes ( Fraley and Vazire, 2014 ; Murayama et al., 2014 ). Together, these methodological problems have greatly hampered progress in this area.

Although some of the aforementioned problems remain (see “Evaluation and Recommendations” below), others have been rectified in recent work. This, coupled with advances in theory development, has led to a surge in empirical activity. In the following, I review the diverse areas in which color work has been conducted in the past decade, and the findings that have emerged. Space considerations require me to constrain this review to a brief mention of central findings within each area. I focus on findings with humans (for reviews of research with non-human animals, see Higham and Winters, in press ; Setchell, in press ) that have been obtained in multiple (at least five) independent labs. Table 1 provides a summary, as well as representative examples and specific references.

TABLE 1. Research on color and psychological functioning.

In research on color and selective attention, red stimuli have been shown to receive an attentional advantage (see Folk, in press , for a review). Research on color and alertness has shown that blue light increases subjective alertness and performance on attention-based tasks (see Chellappa et al., 2011 , for a review). Studies on color and athletic performance have linked wearing red to better performance and perceived performance in sport competitions and tasks (see Maier et al., in press , for a review). In research on color and intellectual performance, viewing red prior to a challenging cognitive task has been shown to undermine performance (see Shi et al., 2015 , for a review). Research focused on color and aggressiveness/dominance evaluation has shown that viewing red on self or other increases appraisals of aggressiveness and dominance (see Krenn, 2014 , for a review). Empirical work on color and avoidance motivation has linked viewing red in achievement contexts to increased caution and avoidance (see Elliot and Maier, 2014 , for a review). In research on color and attraction, viewing red on or near a female has been shown to enhance attraction in heterosexual males (see Pazda and Greitemeyer, in press , for a review). Research on color and store/company evaluation has shown that blue on stores/logos increases quality and trustworthiness appraisals (see Labrecque and Milne, 2012 , for a review). Finally, empirical work on color and eating/drinking has shown that red influences food and beverage perception and consumption (see Spence, in press , for a review).

The aforementioned findings represent important contributions to the literature on color and psychological functioning, and highlight the multidisciplinary nature of research in this area. Nevertheless, much like the extant theoretical work, the extant empirical work remains at a nascent level of development, due, in part, to the following weaknesses.

First, although in some research in this area color properties are controlled for at the spectral level, in most research it (still) is not. Color control is typically done improperly at the device (rather than the spectral) level, is impossible to implement (e.g., in web-based platform studies), or is ignored altogether. Color control is admittedly difficult, as it requires technical equipment for color assessment and presentation, as well as the expertise to use it. Nevertheless, careful color control is essential if systematic scientific work is to be conducted in this area. Findings from uncontrolled research can be informative in initial explorations of color hypotheses, but such work is inherently fraught with interpretational ambiguity ( Whitfield and Wiltshire, 1990 ; Elliot and Maier, 2014 ) that must be subsequently addressed.

Second, color perception is not only a function of lightness, chroma, and hue, but also of factors such as viewing distance and angle, amount and type of ambient light, and presence of other colors in the immediate background and general environmental surround ( Hunt and Pointer, 2011 ; Brainard and Radonjić, 2014 ; Fairchild, 2015 ). In basic color science research (e.g., on color physics, color physiology, color appearance modeling, etcetera; see Gegenfurtner and Ennis, in press ; Johnson, in press ; Stockman and Brainard, in press ), these factors are carefully specified and controlled for in order to establish standardized participant viewing conditions. These factors have been largely ignored and allowed to vary in research on color and psychological functioning, with unknown consequences. An important next step for research in this area is to move to incorporate these more rigorous standardization procedures widely utilized by basic color scientists. With regard to both this and the aforementioned weakness, it should be acknowledged that exact and complete control is not actually possible in color research, given the multitude of factors that influence color perception ( Committee on Colorimetry of the Optical Society of America, 1953 ) and our current level of knowledge about and ability to control them ( Fairchild, 2015 ). As such, the standard that must be embraced and used as a guideline in this work is to control color properties and viewing conditions to the extent possible given current technology, and to keep up with advances in the field that will increasingly afford more precise and efficient color management.

Third, although in some research in this area, large, fully powered samples are used, much of the research remains underpowered. This is a problem in general, but it is particularly a problem when the initial demonstration of an effect is underpowered (e.g., Elliot and Niesta, 2008 ), because initial work is often used as a guide for determining sample size in subsequent work (both heuristically and via power analysis). Underpowered samples commonly produce overestimated effect size estimates ( Ioannidis, 2008 ), and basing subsequent sample sizes on such estimates simply perpetuates the problem. Small sample sizes can also lead researchers to prematurely conclude that a hypothesis is disconfirmed, overlooking a potentially important advance ( Murayama et al., 2014 ). Findings from small sampled studies should be considered preliminary; running large sampled studies with carefully controlled color stimuli is essential if a robust scientific literature is to be developed. Furthermore, as the “evidentiary value movement” ( Finkel et al., 2015 ) makes inroads in the empirical sciences, color scientists would do well to be at the leading edge of implementing such rigorous practices as publically archiving research materials and data, designating exploratory from confirmatory analyses, supplementing or even replacing significant testing with “new statistics” ( Cumming, 2014 ), and even preregistering research protocols and analyses (see Finkel et al., 2015 , for an overview).

In both reviewing advances in and identifying weaknesses of the literature on color and psychological functioning, it is important to bear in mind that the existing theoretical and empirical work is at an early stage of development. It is premature to offer any bold theoretical statements, definitive empirical pronouncements, or impassioned calls for application; rather, it is best to be patient and to humbly acknowledge that color psychology is a uniquely complex area of inquiry ( Kuehni, 2012 ; Fairchild, 2013 ) that is only beginning to come into its own. Findings from color research can be provocative and media friendly, and the public (and the field as well) can be tempted to reach conclusions before the science is fully in place. There is considerable promise in research on color and psychological functioning, but considerably more theoretical and empirical work needs to be done before the full extent of this promise can be discerned and, hopefully, fulfilled.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Keywords : color, psychological functioning, hue, lightness, chroma

Citation: Elliot AJ (2015) Color and psychological functioning: a review of theoretical and empirical work. Front. Psychol. 6:368. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00368

Received: 25 November 2014; Accepted: 16 March 2015; Published online: 02 April 2015.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2015 Elliot. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Andrew J. Elliot, Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology, University of Rochester, Intercampus Drive, Rochester, NY 14627, USA [email protected]

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• v.8(11); 2022 Nov

Color education: A study on methods of influence on memory

Inna diachenko.

a Department of Natural and Social and Humanities Disciplines, “Zhytomyr Medical Institute” of Zhytomyr Regional Council, Zhytomyr, Ukraine

Svitlana Kalishchuk

b Psychology of Personality and Social Practices Department, Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University, Kyiv, Ukraine

Mykhailo Zhylin

c Department of Practical Psychology, Odesa National Maritime University, Odesa, Ukraine

Andriy Kyyko

d Department of Olympic and Professional Sports, Kharkiv State Academy of Physical Culture, Kharkiv, Ukraine

Yuliya Volkova

e Department of Emergency Medicine, Anaesthesiology and Intensive Therapy, Kharkiv National Medical University, Kharkiv, Ukraine

Associated Data

Data included in article/supp. material/referenced in article.

This study examines the mechanisms and expertise of color-based method implementation in a present-day academic process and different forms of learning. This study aimed to identify the effectiveness of color education in the study of the humanities (history of Ukraine) for medical students. The research methodology included structural and logical methods, questionnaire methods, observations, and descriptive and statistical methods. The research results include an identified system of effective parameters, forms, and techniques of color education used in the academic process as well as its impact on the quality of education services provided under blended learning conditions. The color-coding culture parameter color-coding culture of important text segments ranked first among the seven techniques to activate mental activity and memory retention intensification. Color coding has become medical students' most effective method of remembering information. Color-based methods in the teaching of humanities are an effective method for improving the quality of students' learning and allow for better memorization of learning materials, especially in distance learning environments. Prospects for introducing pedagogical innovations in higher education include improving and developing educational materials using color effects to improve student perceptions. The research can be applied to the educational process for students of various specialties and the study of different disciplines.

Color identification; Color memory; Online education; Blended learning; Color-coding.

1. Introduction

Identification and inclusion of the psycho-physiological peculiarities of medical students’ perception of learning material through colors remain a live issue today. The paper investigates the impact of the system of color methods, color association methods, and other innovative technologies on the intensification of the cognitive learning process components and responses to the out world ( Chaturvedi et al., 2022 ; Roy et al., 2021 ).

Cognition implies involvement in several intertwined psychic processes. Memory, attention, mode of thought and perception are closely interrelated, which sets out the success level both of learning processes and innovative advancements in education ( Fuchs et al., 2019 ).

The transition from traditional to distance education forms, including online learning, remains a research issue ( Jammula et al., 2021 ; Arnicane and Souza, 2022 ). Online learning implies a certain adaptation and transformation process of educational systems, tools, forms, and learning technologies. That is a shift in standards and traditions of the teaching activity, a change of the current thinking paradigm existing at the levels of academic-and-administrative staff, and education seekers. The offered approaches imply various forms of adaptation for education seekers, psychologists, and psychotherapists’ advice, the development of special learning technologies, the development of the system of counseling services, and other measures ( Roy et al., 2021 ).

Seeking to improve distance learning efficiency, the researchers explore the techniques for enhancing various types of memory ( Riva et al., 2021 ; Justus et al., 2021 ). The levels of attention to specific stimuli increasing the probability of memory retention are being investigated from the viewpoint of the repeated response rate. The information, which is given more attention, increases the probability of memory retention and decreases if the learning material goes beyond a priority area or has been fully ignored ( Smilek et al., 2002 ; Zavaruieva et al., 2022 ).

Smilek et al. (2002) discussed the potential of vigorous activity to improve short-term and long-term memory, the peculiarities of human memory performance being improved under the conditions of harmonious color against other colors. Zavaruieva et al. (2022) wrote about the influence of colored images and illustrations. Wichmann et al. (2002) stated that the perception of colored pictures and subsequent memory retention was better than with black and white pictures, although the difference was not significant. In addition, attention tasks are better given to students in brighter light, and tasks that need to remember - in less bright light ( Castro-Alonso et al., 2018 ; Mogas-Recalde and Palau, 2021 ). It is possible to improve the perception of students with lighting ( Lekan-Kehinde and Asojo, 2021 ; Liu et al., 2022 ), and experts Suh et al. (2020) have researched that color and light have a significant influence on the quality of learning. Considering this, we believe that the color of the materials also has a strong impact on students' productivity.

In a sense, this explains students’ preference for colored images and spending less time recognizing colored objects than colorless images. A colored object against colorless background contributes to better memory retention and ensures a shorter response time as compared to a colored object placed against a colored background ( Wichmann et al., 2002 ; Zavaruieva et al., 2022 ). The color of educational materials is one of the elements of the learning environment that has an impact on learning outcomes ( Luis et al., 2019 ).

1.1. Literature review

Distance learning, its content, essence, and structure have been studied from various perspectives ( Riva et al., 2021 ; Glaser et al., 2022 ; Falk et al., 2022 ). Some researchers merge the notion of distance learning with the concept of online education ( Fuchs et al., 2019 ). Several studies also raise concerns about the introduction and implementation of distance education ( Riva et al., 2021 ; Jung et al., 2022 ; Wagner et al., 2022 ). The main challenges refer to emotional tension, lack of social interaction, communication problems, low level of digital education, lack of command of time-management basic skills, and weak or wrongful motivation ( Saryazdi et al., 2022 ). This is what makes us undertake a deep analysis of the distance learning system as an indispensable didactic-and-curricular format under pandemic conditions. The studies on modern education problems prioritize the search for ways to improve learning processes and educational innovations which are meant to increase the quality of present-day medical education under pandemic conditions ( Dincer and Inangil, 2021 ). The increase in the education level is also connected to the performance of blended learning and the activation of various types of memory, attention, and emotions ( Ghaye, 2010 ; Riva et al., 2021 ) and using effective conditions for learning with different devices ( Liu and Wang, 2021 ).

The latest works on psychology, pedagogy, and methods of teaching outline the problems and prospects of the implementation of color education in the academic process. Excitement, in particular, when augmented emotionally, may be instrumental in learning and retaining information within the memory system. The first theories ( Farley and Grant, 1976 ) stated the effect of colors on attention. This conclusion relied on the studies of the processes of cognition and attention and pointed out a better perception of colored presentations. Nolé et al. (2021) explored the positive impact of the color of classrooms (real and virtual) on the quality of learning and the perception of students.

The studies in the field of memory performance ( Namaziandost et al., 2018 ), the ways of its improvement ( Fuchs et al., 2019 ), the perception and fixation of information ( Takimoto, 2020 ), turned out to be valuable for the academic process. It has been considered the role and significance of color, which activate at various levels under various academic conditions, for optimizing the learning process ( West and Silberman, 2020 ). The range of the above-mentioned studies dedicated to the issues of colors and memory explain the empirical results obtained in this field and offer solutions to the difficulties and problems arising in the application of such methods ( West and Silberman, 2020 ).

It has been also established to what degree colors can strengthen the links between memory and emotional excitement ( Eysenck and Keane, 2020 ). The researchers surveyed students and asked them to give their answers about colors they associate with a range of emotions. It found that the majority of participants associated green color with such feelings as calmness, happiness, comfort, hope, and peace. Black was associated with sadness and depression. Therefore, it may be assumed that colors produce the effect of emotional excitement. The pending issues concern the type of emotion and intensity of excitement evoked by a certain color. Llinares et al. (2021) have explored that cold wall colors in training classes have a better effect on concentration and memorization processes than warm colors. Morita & Kambara (2021) investigated that typical colors had better help memorize than blurred. Specialists investigated the presence of relationships between visibility and perceptually homogeneous color space, which can also significantly affect the processes of concentration and memorization ( Bruno et al., 2020 ).

The problems of using color for retaining the learning content and for increasing the level of attention have been studied as well ( Pan, 2010 ). Various factors of positive influence on human memory enhancement and increased in-memory storage and recognition levels were analyzed ( Dzulkifli and Mustafar, 2013 ; Elliot, 2015 ; Lu et al., 2016 ).

Attention, from a psycholinguistic perspective, is an important field of research on color association, concentration, and memory performance for the achievement of effective pedagogical results. Numerous studies proved the importance of colors which may bring working memory into operation in the learning process ( Cui et al., 2016 ; Chang et al., 2018 ). The above-stated studies established that colors play an important role in reducing the cognitive load on education seekers in the academic process. Thus, the recommendations were developed on the use of colorful backgrounds and colored illustrations for the avoidance of cognitive overload and optimization of learning aims. Besides, the methods of color-coding and color signals are also helpful in stressful situations, caused by present-day learning-and-work conditions for medical specialists ( Dincer and Inangil, 2021 ).

1.2. Problem statement

Memory improvement depends on the environment predetermined by colors, objects, and shapes. No color would be the most powerful one in terms of its influence on memory because all colors are at work in the perception of distinctive meaningful elements.

The study aims to identify the effectiveness of color education in the study of the humanities (History of Ukraine) for medical students. The hypothesis presupposes that the color methods in the teaching of humanities allow better memorization of educational material, and is an effective method of improving the quality of student learning, especially in the conditions of distance learning.

Given the objective, it is necessary to fulfill the following research tasks:

• - to pilot the “History of Ukraine” learning pack (textbook, online courses, materials for self-study, and project work), with the color methods being used;
• - to rank the techniques of mental activity intensification due to color coding in the framework of the “History of Ukraine” academic subject;
• - to identify the impact of color methods on respondents' qualitative performance among medical students during the application of the color-coded learning pack.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. research design.

There are three stages to the research's experimentation. The respondents ranked the methods of mental activity intensification in the context of the academic topic "History of Ukraine" in the first and last stages. The first stage clearly defined the criteria to be considered when using color to teach the "History of Ukraine. The criteria were divided into the following sections:

• − the reason for using;
• − main purposes of color methods;
• − principles of digital methods;
• − didactic characteristics of visual perception of colors.

In the first stage of the study, the assessment of the increase in mental activity was made using seven methodologies. A color-operated answer, self-instruction, a system of color-coding the text's key passages, self-control of how learning material feed, mind mapping as a tool for optimization, color serving as a point of reference in learning material, and the ability to effectively present learning content were all present.

The respondents gave answers because the sociological survey aimed at obtaining the necessary percentage data ( Mallaeva and Turkovskaya, 2017 ). The respondents' answers were received during 12 h at the instructors’ e-mail addresses.

In the second stage, the assessment of respondents' performance was made (the total average rating of students’ academic results) concerning “History of Ukraine”. The respondents gave their answers voluntarily, and the research group guaranteed the research group would not make the privacy of the survey, or the personal information received public.

The methods of observation and survey were also used in the second stage. The data were collected and analyzed during the research. Later it was used as answers to research questions put forward in the paper. The process of obtaining sociological survey data was similar to the first stage of the study.

Formally, the learning material contained the texts of lectures, instructional and methodological guidelines for self-study activity, illustration material, project proposals, etc. The course was delivered with a focus on the stages in history, highlighted through the lens of prerequisites for the fulfillment of the unique and vital potential of the Ukrainian people. A color palette was used to illustrate the relationship between the historical development of Ukrainian society and the state of medical advancement. The attention was drawn to the value of human life in the hierarchy of social values and the intensity of medical sector development.

The pedagogical guidelines used by the author of the “History of Ukraine” academic subject were as follows:

• − the use of the structural and logical methods (focus on the structure as a totality of relations which are invariant under the condition of transformations made to the main body of the course);
• − attention to key notional components of the course is concentrated on the “object-property-relation” trichotomy;
• − the guiding principles of clustering the material based on the established interrelation, consistency, declaration of continuous development, and rationality.

In the third stage, the questionnaires were distributed, the data were collected, and the respondents’ attitudes to the proposed learning pack, its main components and characteristics and color-coding were measured. The received data were processed and used as a possible framework for establishing the efficiency of the conducted experiment and piloting and as answers to the questions raised in the research.

In the framework of this stage, Cohen's coefficient was also calculated, which enables us to establish the interrelation between values. The calculation was made according to Eq. (1) ( McGrath and Meyer, 2006 ):

Where, M 1 , M 2 – means of the first and second parameters; S 1 , S 2 – the mean-square value of the first and second parameters.

When interpreting Cohen's coefficient, it is necessary to consider the strong interrelation between values if they are close to zero; and the absence of the interrelation, when they are close to -1.

To get a whole picture, the research group addressed a range of methodological developments and theoretical studies to resolve the questions raised in the research. The particular interest lies in the use of color methods in education where color is a prime engine for memory improvement and activation of all types of mental activity. The results of the experiment are given as descriptive statistics outputs based on the questionnaire data.

Specific features of the pilot learning pack on History of Ukraine are:

• − a well-structured plan based on colored thematic units;
• − lecture’s notes styled with diagrams, tables, and cards (in color);
• − personalized sections on the establishment and development of the history of Ukraine and the history of Medicine in Ukraine (online presentations, testing, classroom tests in colors);
• − the sections of illustration materials (audio-and-video materials, animation).

It enables students to feel the spirit of the age and enhance their knowledge, etc. The options of color-coding are used as learning techniques, particularly, for the notions requiring cognitive efforts, the realization of communicative ideas, and emotional perception.

2.2. Sample

Eighty-two first-year bachelor's degree level students specializing in “Medical care” and “Dentistry” (dental hygienist) (Municipal Higher Education Institution “Zhytomyr Medical Institute”, Ukraine) were engaged in the experiment. The main data collection was made from September 2020 to April 2021.

All the subjects gave their voluntary consent to participate in the experiment.

The students were clustered into 4 groups (EG1 – 20; EG2 – 21; CG1 – 20; CG2 – 21). Two groups were selected as experimental ones (EG1, EG2), who were using the author's learning pack “History of Ukraine” in the context of the academic program "History of Ukraine", for its piloting. This subject was chosen to test the effects of color education since it has a humanitarian focus and has no direct bearing on students' future professional abilities. Before the experiment, students engaged in study groups that were organized by the administration for the educational process.

The students specializing in studied in “Medical care” EG 1 – n = 20 (male 11, female 9), and CG1– n = 20, (male 12, female 8), and students specializing in “Dentistry” studied in EG 2 – n = 21 (male 8, female 13), and CG2 – n = 21, (male 10, female 11). Total male n = 41, female n = 41. The age of the students who participated in the study was 17+-1.1 years.

For memory retention and information acquisition during class and self-study, experimental groups employed the color method, interactive learning tools, audio-, and video materials, presentations, and schemes centered upon the color display of materials. The learning process took place under the conditions of blended learning, mainly caused by lockdown restrictions imposed by the pandemic situation in the country.

Other groups were control ones who were studying under the same curriculum but without the author's learning packs on History of Ukraine being used, there was no active color method applied for memory enhancement in the learning process.

The lessons were given to all groups in the first and second semesters in the form of blended learning (partially – classroom activities (37 h), and partially – online activities (44 h)).

2.3. Statistical processing

The numeric data obtained from the respondents required additional grouping and processing. Power Microsoft Excel was used for this, which involved the collecting, processing as well as visualization of data in the form of tables and graphics. Excel's functionality was well-suited to our study ( Grech, 2018 ).

2.4. Ethical issues

In the framework of the given research, the students specializing in “Medical care” and “Dentistry” took part; therefore, concerning their rights and obligations, the ethical norms in compliance with the rules of the World Medical Association (2020) were observed.

2.5. Research limitations

The suggested research has a range of limitations. It is necessary to draw attention to the project's lengthy duration (one academic hour over an academic year), lack of resources, and, in particular, the impossibility of conducting a lengthy and in-depth analysis with focus groups and in-depth interviews. The research limitation is the study of only one subject (History of Ukraine) using color, and experimenting with first-year medical students. To study the effectiveness of the color teaching methods, the subject for experimentation is defined by a humanitarian focus. Color-learning techniques can be used to study many curricular subjects after studying these qualities.

“History of Ukraine '' was one of the integrated learning courses implemented under lockdown conditions. In the framework of this course, the textbook based on the color education method was supplemented with online course materials comprising audio content, videos, animation, illustrations, colored and monochromatic schemes and tables, tests, social media facilities, etc. Due to this, it is necessary to determine how important these facilities are to the respondents (see Figure 1 ).

The parameters of using color method fundamentals in teaching the “History of Ukraine”.

The main parameters for introducing the color method's foundational concepts in the "History of Ukraine" course were also taken into consideration in the first stage.

In addition, at the first stage, the students evaluated seven techniques of mental activity and memory retention intensification. The researcher offered to rank the parameters set by all the respondents. The results of the ranking were expressed in percentage terms ( Table 1 ).

Table 1

Ranking of mental activity-intensification methods within the context of “History of Ukraine” (author's study aid).

Color coding system for the important part of the text:

• ● this technique determines what is important and what is secondary in each topic of study;
• ● there are the key insights when it is important to see and distinguish keynotes;
• ● the ability to deliver a text in a consistent and structured way results from the ability to establish the level of importance of information with the help of colors, which is an effective method of learning content management.

The self-control of instructional methods feeds . It's important to pick the right communication channel and method for distributing learning materials while using blended educational models. That was the goal of the pilot learning course in the experiment's framework. The respondents could watch videos, colored presentations, schemes, and illustrations, and read topic-specific texts.

Using mind mapping for optimization : the perception of problems within an academic course is an opportunity to combine multiple perspectives to systematize and present academic material. A person's cognitive abilities are active when they create schemes, presentations, and projects independently (including color schemes).

Self-instruction, a color-operated answer : self-instruction aimed at problem-solving within a certain topic, the question based on a large scope of learning material, highlighting important information with color. The algorithm of actions for effective course content mastering is set in a self-instruction manner.

Color serves as a point of reference in educational materials . History implies a large amount of information to learn. Assistance in the form of color-coding of various topics, issues, and questions is an effective method of teaching.

Skills for effective presentation of educational material . Successful problem-solving techniques for conveying complex information encompassing a large number of facts. The ability to correctly deliver it, activate emotions and attention and make one's work memorable. Based on the obtained results of the survey, it may be stated that the difference in the ranking results for EG and CG at the initial stage is insignificant ( Table 1 ). All the respondents top-ranked the parameter which referred to the culture of color-coding of important segments of a text (30% on average) and the free choice of the learning modes and course content feed (23% on average).

In the second stage, students of all the groups have taught the academic subject “History of Ukraine”. Multidimensionality, structure, and logic in the design of the learning pack based on the color-coding method were the guiding principles for the arrangement of the course content in the experimental group.

The main functions in arrangement and practical use of the learning material within the framework of the course were as follows:

• − singling out an element (elements) from the totality of relations;
• − seeking particular mechanisms of structural integrity;
• − restoring subordinate and coordinate relations between elements, topical units, and clusters;
• − consistent analysis of typological properties of structures, and hierarchy;
• − revealing fundamental relations within the topic and its immediate scientific value.

The second stage also implied the use of dedicated maps, schemes, and tables. The maps were selected in such a way that the laws of color perception by a visual analyzer were enabled:

• − light shades of various colors were used, and each component had its color; the main details, which referred to an object or its parts, were highlighted with color (key parameters) or specific shades of color;
• − to assign a separate color to a large scope of a learning object, the active colors of the blue-green field were used; the minor or less important elements were assigned with active colors of the yellowish-red field;
• − the profiles were made up of the same color as the surface of a dissected detail.

The tables and schemes are informational media as well, where a certain color-coding regularity is used:

• − the contrast between frame line and background; the objects of schemes and tables are placed horizontally; boldface font is used; the correlation between the width of a height letter was 2:3, whereas the correlation of frame to height was 1:6 for creating the effect of direct contrast;
• − the most important information was placed in the top left corner and the center of the tables and schemes; the secondary information according to its significance and information was placed in the bottom part and the right bottom corner of the tables and schemes.

The parts of schemes and tables important for memory retention were highlighted with the colors of a yellowish-red field. At the end of the second stage, we made a comprehensive evaluation of the performance indicators of EG and CG, who took part in the experiment. As the results show, the student's performance in EG was higher on average by 11.5% (p < 0.05) ( Table 2 ).

Table 2

The qualitative measures of respondents' performance during the implementation of the learning pack with and without color-coding among medical students (author's study aid).

At the final stage, all the respondents answered the questionnaire containing the following question: “Which color used in the academic course helps you memorize difficult material better?” The answers required choosing and evaluating colors used in the design of the learning pack materials under the conditions of blended learning. The results are expressed in percentage terms.

As follows from the results shown on the bars, the students of the experimental groups noticed the correlation between their perception and a certain color used. The most effective color for memory retention turned out to be red color (EG 1–56%; EG 2–57%), and black color was the least suitable one (EG 1–20%; EG 2–22%) ( Figure 2 ).

Survey. The color stimulates memory retention (author's study aid).

In the final stage, a survey on the methods of retaining the content was also conducted. The following task was given to the respondents: “Choose the method you prefer and use for retaining the learning material from the range of offered methods”.

As the results of the survey show (see Figure 3 ), the method of color-coding the information for memory retention is widespread among students (EG1 – 66%; EG2 – 47%). The method of revision also proved to be effective (EG1- 56%; EG2 – 60%), whereas learning by heart was the least effective method for the students who studied History of Ukraine (EG1- 18%; EG2 – 23%).

Survey. The methods preferred for retaining the learning material (author's study aid).

The research's final stage also included the survey conducted among students concerning the formats for retaining learning material, which was also coded with color in the framework of the pilot academic course. The question was “Which techniques help you retain the learning material?”

As we can see, among the techniques for better retaining learning material, the students prefer video materials (on average 72%), animation (on average 68%), and colored images (on average 55%). These strong indicators demonstrate the value of supplementing academic subjects with the facilities of using color in education, new technologies, and social media (see Figure 4 ). The opportunities of contemporary education shall not be limited to featureless monochrome texts lacking illustration material, appendices, schemes, and abstractions.

Techniques for better retaining learning material (author's study aid).

At the final stage, the respondents had to rank the formats for activation of learning activity and memory retention out of seven parameters again. All the respondents ranked the parameters set by the researcher in the survey. The comparison of indicators was made by using Cohen's coefficient according to Eq. (1) .

As we can see, the system of color-coding essential information in the text remained to be the main problem. However, in EG, this type of material organization was viewed positively, and its use has increased by an average of 33% ( Table 3 ). The comparison of the data made by using Cohen's coefficient confirms the interrelation between the obtained data within EG1 and EG2 and results within control groups CG1 and CG2, which confirms the effectiveness of this research in the framework of experimental groups.

Table 3

The survey on respondents' evaluations of memory activation techniques (author's study aid).

4. Discussion

The methods of intensification of color-based teaching are being actively developed in contemporary pedagogy ( Zavaruieva et al., 2022 ; Nolé et al., 2021 ). The classification of emotions based on the criteria of their intensity and corresponding colors was made according to the results of several studies ( Jackson et al., 2009 ). For instance, the researchers revealed that red color is connected to strong emotions, whereas white and gray colors are associated with less intense manifestations and neutral emotions. Such studies prove that color affects emotions and their intensity, and can regulate the degrees of excitement. The degrees of excitement can be modified depending on the emotional component associated with a certain type of color. There are studies on the typology of colors and their influence on attention ( Greene et al., 1983 ). It was established that the colors of the warm scheme (yellow, red, and orange) have a higher impact on attention as compared to cold colors, for instance, brown and gray. In the framework of our research, a range of colors (black, yellow, green, blue, and red) were used in the pilot learning pack for coding and highlighting the content and making illustrations distinct. Respondents noted the existence of a relation between the perception of a certain color ( Figure 2 ): red color was the most helpful for memory retention (EG1 – 56%, EG2 – 57%), whereas black color was the least suitable one (EG1 – 20%, EG2 – 22%). As follows from the results shown on the bars ( Figure 2 ), the students of the experimental groups noticed the correlation between their perception and a certain color used.

The pedagogical studies in the field of development of color methods ( Greene et al., 1983 ) established that warm colors (yellow, orange, red) influence an increase in attentiveness to learning material as compared to cold colors (gray, brown). Instead, studies by Llinares et al. (2021) , show that cool colors in classrooms contribute to better concentration and memorization in students. The color of the classrooms and the color of the text are different factors influencing the same qualities (concentration, memorization, reproduction in memory). The colors may also have an emotional effect, which also influences memory retention ( Suh et al., 2020 ). The level and the range of excitement vary according to the emotional component correlating with a certain type of color. It is established that the degree and range of color perception may also depend on the emotional component and the intensity of arousal associated with color perception. Although some studies refute this version ( McConnohie, 1999 ). If anger has an increased capacity for emotional excitement, then the anger-associated color may also have the same influence. For instance, red color refers to strong emotions or other emotions related to other types of colors. As results of the survey show, the method of color-coding the information for memory retention is widespread among medical students (EG1 – 66%; EG2 – 47%), and the method of revision proved to be effective (EG1- 56%; EG2 – 60%), whereas the method of learning by heart was the least effective method ( Figure 3 ).

The exploratory paradigm focuses on the study of the cognitive abilities of students ( Dzulkifli and Mustafar, 2013 ) and the processes of memory retention, the concentration of attention, thinking, etc. Just as Castro-Alonso et al. (2018) , Mogas-Recalde and Palau (2021) show the effects of lighting on concentration and memory processes, the use of colors must be justified. However, sometimes important information must be presented in a less bright color in order to activate attention, as this encourages students to look closely at what is written and concentrate. Therefore, the learning process assisting strategies, including color methods, are being actively developed and techniques of using color in teaching students are very wide. They can be used in the academic process in a certain way for enhancing and transforming motivation to study, learn and gain experience. As our study showed, the strategy of the more active use of color methods and making deeper insights into a topic predetermines the prolonged memory capacity. Video materials (on average 72%), animation (on average 68%), and colored images (on average 55%) were named as the most effective techniques of memory retention ( Figure 4 ). This speaks for the importance of color-based methodology in a modern academic process, which shall promote the use of all possible means for easier and more effective learning free from stressors conditions. Methods of activating and improving memory based on the color system, incorporated into the educational process and focused on the development of cognitive and communication skills of the individual, have been proposed for consideration and analyzed in the study of Dzulkifli and Mustafar (2013) . Using color for memory stimulation could increase the capacity of coding, storage, and recognition of environmental stimuli, whereas colors and respective manipulations may influence human memory performance ( Zavaruieva et al., 2022 ).

A study of participants' response rates to information presented in color ( Hall and Hanna, 2004 ) concluded that colored objects are perceived, felt, and remembered better compared to the perception of individual shapes of objects of the same color. This result enables us to state that color draws attention during the academic process better than other visual characteristics do. This confirms the research results by Mogas-Recalde and Palau (2021) , Liu and Wang (2021) and Bruno et al. (2020) . The study of productivity when using the color method in the learning process revealed the results presented in Table 2 . In the groups where color was used as a learning method, the performance increased by 11 %, whereas it remained within 2% of probability error in the control groups. Among the memory retention techniques, 55 % of respondents preferred color-coding of important information.

As part of the "History of Ukraine" course, medical students could navigate through the entire course and trace how their priorities in choosing memory techniques changed during the implementation of color-enhancing opportunities ( Table 1 , Table 3 ), and evaluate how important such opportunities were to the respondents. The parameter of using color as a reference point in the learning material rose from 5th to 4th place for the experimental groups; scores rose to 36%. The system of color coding of essential information in the text takes first place, in the EG such means of systematizing the material were perceived positively, and the number of those who used such methods increased by an average of 33%.

Based on the results, we can argue that the increase in the volume and methods of respondents' use of color in the learning process indicates a positive assessment of the integrated pilot training package on the history of Ukraine by students. The previously mentioned points out the necessity of using innovative methods and pedagogical technologies in the teaching process. Thus, the hypothesis of the study is confirmed - the use of color in the teaching materials allows for better memorization of the material and contributes to the effectiveness of student learning in general. This is especially important in a distance learning environment given the peculiarities of material perception from digital devices.

5. Conclusion

The active use of color in educational activity is a form that enables teachers to encourage their students to express themselves, which, in itself, is a key to their being satisfied with the learning process and its success, as well as with their further career growth. Our study showed that the color-coding system of the important text part proved to be the most significant for students in the experimental groups (24% for EG1 and 39% for EG2). For the students of CG1, the most important is the color-coding system of the important text part, CG2 – color-coding system of the important text part and self-control of the ways of learning material feed, because this contributes to their self-study process.

The student's readiness to use the color method, the availability of specific learning materials and the diversity of communication means in education activate mental activity and improve memory retention. The performance in experimental groups has increased by 11.5% on average, 55% of participants in experimental groups have used the color method in learning, which is 33% higher than it was at the initial stage of the research. This speaks for the appropriateness of using a learning pack supplemented with the methods of color education.

Repeated ranking of the formats of learning activity and memory retention intensification according to seven parameters showed that for the students of experimental and control groups the highest results were obtained for the color-coding system of the important text part: 52% for EG1 and 58% for EG2, 33% for CG1 and 28% for CG2. The comparison of the results by using Cohen's coefficient showed the interrelation of the data between the students of the experimental groups as well as between the students of the control groups.

Color methods applied in the process of teaching the “History of Ukraine” academic subject can be used in pedagogical practice, and are not only implemented in the medical and natural science departments of higher educational institutions but also adapted for humanities and technical specialties.

Further research will include a pedagogical experiment to determine the most effective methods to consolidate and improve students' memory in a distance and blended learning environment. Activating memory based on the emotional perception of colors will unlock the potential to develop independent learning skills and the ability to cope with large amounts of learning material, encouraging students to be purposeful, motivated, and creative in their learning activities.

Declarations

Author contribution statement.

Inna Diachenko: Conceived and designed the experiments; Performed the experiments; Analyzed and interpreted the data; Wrote the paper.

Svitlana Kalishchuk: Conceived and designed the experiments; Performed the experiments; Wrote the paper.

Mykhailo Zhylin: Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data.

Andriy Kyyko: Performed the experiments; Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data.

Yuliya Volkova: Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data; Wrote the paper.

Funding statement

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

Declaration of interests statement.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

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From theory to practice: Applying complementary colors in the landscape

Although we have been taught colors since before we began attending school, colors can be challenging. Colors are complicated and there is so much variety it may seem overwhelming. Think of the wall of paint color swatches at the hardware store, and you may recall entire sections are devoted to shades of blue or green or any of the other colors.

Color theory is complex. Books have been authored on the subject; professionals devote their lives to mastering the art of it; courses have been developed to teach people principles. One of the first systems developed to organize color was created by Professor Albert Munsell and published in A Color Notation in 1905. The system organizes colors as they relate to each other in a three-dimensional representation. The system assigns each color a hue, value, and chroma in order to communicate more efficiently and effectively.

• Color hues are the basic colors of the color wheel (ie. red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, etc.) and most systems include ten or twelve hues. Hue is familiar to us.
• Value is the lightness or darkness of the hue. I find it helpful to think of mixing paint when trying to understand value. Colors that have more white in them are lighter and are described as having a high value. Colors that are darker with more black added to them have a lower value and are described as shades.
• Chroma describes the concentration of the hue. Colors with the most chroma are pure- think bluest blue or reddest red. High chroma colors are vibrant while colors with the least amount of chroma will appear more grayish.

This is all fascinating and nerdy but how does it help you create a garden space that you love and looks great? Beginning with this article, over the next few months, I’m going to use the color wheel to demonstrate ways that colors relate to each other which. These color families can be applied to the landscape to create interest, inspire emotion, and personalize a space.

Everyone loves a complement

We begin with complementary colors. On the color wheel, complementary colors are opposite of each other. Complementary colors are in high contrast with each other. When positioned next to each other, they stand out and appear brighter in a design. When used in a landscape, contrasting colors can add energy and excitement to a space.

A pair of contrasting colors includes a warm color (reds, oranges, and yellows) with a cool color (greens, blues, and violets). Common complementary color sets include red and green, purple, and yellow, and blue and orange (Go Illini).

How to get started in complementary colors

• Choose a dominant color - this color will be the primary color in the landscape. This could be your favorite color, a color that complements an existing element such as a house or structure, or the color of your favorite flower. You may also find inspiration in photos or other’s gardens.
• Identify the complementary color – this color will be opposite of the dominant color on the color wheel and will serve as the accent.
• Select plants and garden elements that feature these colors first. Consider flowers and foliage as ways to incorporate color in the landscape. Use the two primary colors as a guide but incorporate a diversity of color shades for interest and dimension.
• Other colors can be incorporated into a design strategically. Neutrals are a great way to add additional color without compromising your binary contrasting color palette.

Combination ideas

Purple and yellow:.

• Purple coneflower ( Echinacea purpurea ) and Lance-leaf coreopsis ( Coreopsis lanceolata )
• Monarda ( Monarda fistulosa), Blazing star ( Liatris spicata ) and Grey-headed Coneflower (Ratibida pinnata )
• New England Aster ( Symphyotrichum novae-angliae ), Purple Prairie Clover ( Dalea purpurea ) and Showy Goldenrod ( Solidago speciosa ) 

Red and Green

• Cardinal Flower ( Lobelia cardinalis ) and Prairie Dropseed ( Sporobolus heterolepis )
• Wild columbine ( Aquilegia canadensis ) and Lady Fern ( Athyrium filix-femina )

Orange and Blue

• Orange Butterfly weed ( Asclepias tuberosa ) and Cransebill ( Geranium ‘Gerwat’ Rozanne )

Good Growing Fact of the Week: Don’t forget about foliage. Plants like coleus and caladium can have complementary colors in their leaves. The green foliage of plants can complement red flowers. Consider all aspects of the garden when using complementary colors.

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International Conference on HCI in Business, Government, and Organizations

HCIBGO 2018: HCI in Business, Government, and Organizations pp 413–421 Cite as

Influence of Color Perception on Consumer Behavior

• Long Ren 22 &
• Yun Chen 22  
• Conference paper
• First Online: 05 June 2018

6682 Accesses

1 Citations

Part of the book series: Lecture Notes in Computer Science ((LNISA,volume 10923))

With the intensified competition, attracting and retaining the customers has become a top concern for businesses. Color has been identified as one of most significant factors influencing consumers’ purchasing behavior. The purpose of the research is to explore the ways color perceptions influence consumer behavior. A better understanding of influence of color perceptions enables them to direct marketing strategies design and implementation. In the research, the researcher makes an attempt to review relevant research papers and account for why color is important in capturing the interest of consumers. In the paper, consumer behaviors, influential factors and influence of colors on consumer behavior, color meanings and roles are reviewed and critically discussed. It is expected that the study can help better understand consumers’ color perceptions and their potential influence on consumer behavior. The color psychology has become growingly significant in producing and packaging products. Colors, thus, accomplished prominence in marketing activities. The findings in the established literature can offer some great implications for businesses in terms of how to leverage color for creating distinct customer experience. The established literature also highlights colors have different meanings in different culture. That indicates the importance of considering cultural difference when exploring influence of color perceptions on consumer behaviors. The paper simply reviews the established literature, and these established findings remain to be empirically tested.

• Color perceptions
• Consumer behavior

You have full access to this open access chapter,  Download conference paper PDF

1 Introduction

In the modern society, consumers dominate. The intensified globalization and competition prompts businesses to seek for alternative approaches to influencing consumers. Immaterial and intangible features of products influence consumers’ purchasing decisions. Sensory marketing, under such circumstance, has become an innovative solution to generate emotional features of brand/product and capture strong relationship with consumers (Hultén 2011 ). The sensory marketing offers an excellent opportunity for using color as an approach to differentiate one product from another. Color may generate emotional link leading to product differentiation, competitiveness, strengthened customer loyalty, increased sales, reduced perception time for the brand, enhanced positive emotions and customer relationship (Aghdaie and Honari 2014 ). The researchers such as Cian and Cervai ( 2011 ); Kauppinen-Räisänen and Luomala ( 2010 ) argued that color is a cost-saving and effective approach to generate consumers’ positive opinions. Color psychology is found to significantly influence human beings’ lives in a variety of approaches. Many organizations worldwide have recruited color consultants to help figure out the best color for products so as to best capture consumers. It was found that 62–90% of purchasing decision was based on product color (Singh 2006 ). However, the established researches into color and its influence (Kareklas et al. 2014 ; Labrecque et al. 2013 ) are few. Little has been understood about the influence of color perception on consumer behavior. There is death of generalized material, in which information about color use in marketing would be explained in a systematic way. That allows the formulation of the research problem, “how does color perception influence consumer behavior?”

2 Consumer Behavior

According to Blackwell et al. ( 2006 ), consumer behavior refers to activities including obtaining products or service, consumption and product disposal. In marketing field, consumer behavior has captured interest of market-oriented marketers as it investigates into the ways consumers purchase and why they purchase. With insights into consumption behavior, marketers are capable of developing strategies for influencing consumers’ purchasing behavior. Marketing activities no more flow from marketers to consumers. Instead, it is important for marketers to truly learn the ways consumers react to marketing efforts. Evans et al. ( 2006 ) develop model known as hierarchy of communication effects model, including seven stages, “exposure, attention, perception, learning, attitude, action, and post-purchase”. Nevertheless, as other business model, it is unnecessary consumers observe sequence in the process of purchasing. However, the model offers marketers logical model for integrating psychological concepts into interpretation of why and how consumers react to marketing activities (Evans et al. 2006 ) (Fig.  1 ).

Sequential effects of response to marketing (Evans et al. 2006 )

Color is differentiated in hue, brightness and saturation (Ogden et al. 2010 ). In terms of hue, colors can be categorized into cool color (e.g. orange and red) and warm color (e.g. violet, blue). Brightness and saturation are significant in color perception. Brightness plays an important role in determining lightness or darkness of color; saturation suggests purity of color. It was found that color is much more pleasant with enhanced attributes (Camgöz et al. 2002 ). According to Hemphill ( 1996 ), bright colors are linked with positive emotions like happiness, joy and hope. Likewise, Elliot and Maier ( 2007 ) considers brighter colors as friendly, cultured, pleasant and beautiful. Conversely, dark color is associated with negative emotions like boredom and sadness (Camgöz et al. 2002 ). According to Elliot and Maier ( 2007 ), color may generate associations and responses, and they take meaning of color as bipartite. Meanings of colors are triggered by learned associations or shaped by the nature. Likewise, Tofle et al. ( 2004 ) also claimed emotional responses evoked by color as an outcome of learned associations on basis of culture and individual-related features. Cherry ( 2015 ) explores link between color and mood. Cool colors are linked with the moods as calm, serene and comfort. Conversely, arm colors are relevant to stressful and exciting moods. Furthermore, Valdez and Mehrabian ( 1994 ) confirms long-wave length color as much more arousing the short-wave length ones. Colors are capable of attracting attention. That indicates retailers are capable of leveraging color to elicit appropriate behaviors. Bellizzi and Hite ( 1992 ) identified people had higher willingness to stay and purchase products in environment with blue than environment with red.

In some case, “meaning” may represent a kind of mental stimulation (Osgood et al. 1957). Seahwa (2014) definitions colour meaning in her research: “Colour meaning is not about combinations that create pleasing responses (colour harmony), not about the processes with which people understand and react to colour (colour perception), and not about liking a particular colour among alternatives (colour preference). Instead, it is concerned with the meanings that are associated with certain colours.”

The meanings linked with colors are different in different cultures. No absolute universal meanings are given to specific color. The most widely known studies on the feelings that different colors represent are mainly located in the context of North America. With expansion of North American culture, interpreting color meanings worldwide have been alternated and shown tendency of convergence. The color meanings identified in North America are presented in Table  1 .

In addition to influence of culture, colors are different because of dependence on lighting conditions, observation position and surrounding especially the adjacent color. All these factors can shape the ways of perceiving a specific color. Moreover, even when people are exposed to the same color, the ways they perceive color, meanings and emotions incurred by the same color are different among people due to gender, age, educational and culture, childhood association and others (Scott-Kemmis 2013 ). A research by Choungourian ( 1969 ) into people from four countries identified variance in color preferences represents individual variation. It was found that the US consumers prefer red and blue, but least like blue-green. However, respondents from Iran and Kuwait preferred blue and green. As for gender, women tended to have different color preferences from men. Besides, many men in the western countries are red/green color blind, but marketers can use unisex colors like blue, red, black and white. There is a trend of shifting from bright and primary colors toward sophisticated color in form of patterns. Adults were found to be less open to experiment of new colors, but they adhered to the favorite color for lowing the risks. Regarding education, well-educated people are found to be much more complicated in color choice.

4 Roles of Color in Consumer Behavior

The established literature has been dedicated to exploring the relationship between colors and purchasing behaviors. It is found that packaging and color significantly and directly influence consumers’ psyche (Raheem et al. 2014 ). Thus, it is significant to carry out the studies on relationship between colors and consumer behavior so as to distinguish color that mostly influence positively or negatively influence consumers’ choice and thereby purchasing behavior. Brody et al. ( 1981 ), television advertising significantly influenced children consumerism. Thus, children without knowledge of substantial components may be fascinated by colors. That indicates advertising with good color was likely to attract children and purchasers. Color is taken as an important non-verbal sign in understanding consumer behavior (Kotler and Keller 2006 ). Consumers generally link specific color with specific product categories by understanding dependencies among different colors. Especially, colors play important in marketing and packing. Harmony, proper arrangement of colors can help to capture consumers’ interest. A major factor influencing consumer perception is the type of color adopted in packaging. It is the color that captures consumers’ attention (Hagtvedt 2016 ). Consumers get color of specific products on basis of relations they build up. on some occasions, having pleasant experience may result in favor of a specific color, and on other occasions consumers may acquire color on basis of relations (Luscher and Scott 2003 ).

Color is expected to be helpful for capturing consumers’ attention as human beings are capable of quickly identifying colorful items. That is because the pre-attentive system of brain is designed and developed to easily spot color in the external environment, and what is more important sis that the system can immediately help select the items for following attentional processing. Nevertheless, color is not alone. In other words, it is hardly possible to perceive a specific color on its own, but a specific color is used with other adjacent colors. Therefore, adopting color for capturing consumers’ interest may be inhibited by the surroundings where items with target colors are placed, and different colors have different values for capturing attention (Jansson-Boyd 2010 ). In addition, a recent research (Huang and Lu 2013 ) suggests that blue and red mediated the perception of healthiness perception of the food product.

Furthermore, relying on setting, a single color or combined color communicates symbolic meanings that can generate affective reactions and are adopted in marketing practices to figure out brands, categorize products, make assumptions and direct consumers’ choices (Hanss et al. 2012 ). Ones’ perception of color is based upon link between color and associated meanings. Consumer researches claim successful adoption of color significantly relies upon congruency between symbolic meanings of color and product attributes. Bottomley and Doyle ( 2006 ) conduct a research into brand logo and they found that cool colors such as blue and green are proper for utilitarian products, and warm colors such as red and orange are proper for products or services generating hedonic experience.

5 Practical Implications

The established literature has highlighted two important themes. First, it is highlighted that human beings have continued to be influenced by color psychically or mentally. How human beings are influenced by colors has remarkably psychological essence that indirectly affects norms, responses and individual consumer’s behavior (Elm 2012 ). Second, it is highlighted that in different countries or cultures, colors are possessed with different meanings. That offers implications that mistakes in selecting color may discourage people from purchasing specific products. Colors, thus, accomplished prominence in marketing activities. The findings in the established literature can offer some great implications for businesses in terms of how to leverage color for creating distinct customer experience.

First, the established literature implies that marketers need to learn emotions and needs generated by each color for leveraging color in marketing activities. A good understanding of meanings of different colors is the prerequisite to successful use of color. For instance, cool colors such as blue and green are associated with attribute “pacifying”, and warm colors such as red and orange can stimulate interest. Thus, if a business intends to stimulate consumers’ interest, it is desirable to use warm colors.

Second, it is implied that businesses should capitalize on color for creating the customer experience that they intend to deliver to the customers. For attracting consumers, color has been taken as critical element. Learning well psychological influence of colors and its variance combination can help marketers a lot. However, color selection should be congruent with the business. For instance, brown, a color with the impression of being dull, can generate great effect in coffee shops or bakeries to enhance customer experience. Likewise, UPS, the leading shipping company worldwide, is renowned for its brown trucks. That indicates there is no formula for how to use different colors in creating customer experience.

6 Conclusion

Overall, the established literature has identified the great impact of color perceptions on consumer behaviors. The color psychology has become growingly significant in producing and packaging products. Colors, thus, accomplished prominence in marketing activities. Color can stimulate interest and enhance desire for purchasing a specific product or service. With the intensified competition, attracting and retaining the customers has become a top concern for businesses. Color has been identified as one of most significant factors influencing consumers’ purchasing behavior. Color in marketing directly influences consumer behavior, which has been confirmed by lots of researches. Considers link color with different products, which increases difficulties of learning the ways people respond to colors. Each color must be deployed for suitable product in line with psychological features. The color psychology has become growingly significant in producing and packaging products. The established literature also highlights colors have different meanings in different culture. That indicates the importance of considering cultural difference when exploring influence of color perceptions on consumer behaviors. The paper simply reviews the established literature, and these established findings remain to be empirically tested.

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Ren, L., Chen, Y. (2018). Influence of Color Perception on Consumer Behavior. In: Nah, FH., Xiao, B. (eds) HCI in Business, Government, and Organizations. HCIBGO 2018. Lecture Notes in Computer Science(), vol 10923. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91716-0_32

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