Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.
To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to upgrade your browser .
Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.
- We're Hiring!
- Help Center
Research Methodology: An Introduction
Related Papers
Egesa Romans
According to Mugenda & Mugenda (2010), research is process of carrying out a diligent inquiry or a critical examination of a given phenomenonexhaustive study that follows some logical sequence. Mouly defines research as a process of arriving at effective solutions to problems through systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data. Research also involves a critical analysis of existing conclusions or theories with regard to newly discovered facts Research is the continued search for knowledge and understanding of the world around us. Clifford Woody argues that research is the process of designing and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions, collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching conclusions and carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulated hypothesis.
Bakhtawer Zain
Research is any original and systematic investigation undertaken to increase knowledge and understanding and to establish facts and principles. It comprises the creation of ideas and generation of new knowledge that lead to new and improved insights and the development of new material, devices, products and processes. The word " research " perhaps originates from the old French word recerchier that meant to 'search again'. It implicitly assumes that the earlier search was not exhaustive and complete and hence a repeated search is called for.
Educational Journal
Ganizani Nkhambule
In the simplest of terms, the research definition is a process of seeking out knowledge. This knowledge can be new, or it can support an already known fact. The purpose of research is to inform and is based on collected and analyzed data. This exploration occurs systematically, where it is either tested or investigated to add to a body of knowledge. Research is a systematic and scientific approach to understanding the world around us. It is a process of inquiry that involves the collection and analysis of data to answer questions or solve problems.
Oscar Masaka
lulu farhan
Akshay Jain
Research may be very broadly defined as systematic gathering of data and information and its analysis for advancement of knowledge in any subject. research attempts to find answer intellectual and practical questions through application of systematic methods. Types of research can be classified in many different ways.
Melkammesrat Netsanet
RELATED PAPERS
5th International Conference on Organic and Inorganic Chemistry, "Strategic Approach and Future Generation Advancements in Organic and Inorganic Chemistry"
Marina Avaliani
Giovanni Deplano
Animal Learning & Behavior
Masako Jitsumori
Proceedings of the 6th Asia Pacific Conference on Unsaturated Soils (Guilin, China, 23-26 October 2015)
Muawia Dafalla
wafi muhaimin
Geophysical Research Letters
Yanick Ricard
Muhammad Zain
Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications
Omar Alqawi
Phytochemistry
ahmed mahmoud
La Regle d' Abraham
Yehuda Moraly
Psicologia em Estudo
Alba Guerra
mohammad reza dalvand
2016 11th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI)
Sofia Serholt
Journal of Alloys and Compounds
Miguel Quintero
Revista Estudios
Gabriela Alexandra Argueta Alfaro
Ciência e Natura
Angela Dullius
FLYWHEEL : Jurnal Teknik Mesin Untirta
Apri Wiyono
Tobacco Induced Diseases
Nilufer Emre
Revista Brasileira de Ciência Veterinária
Maria Eduarda
aju krisnaningsih
Contemporary Aesthetics
JAMA Pediatrics
Benjamin Levi
Romanian journal of morphology and embryology = Revue roumaine de morphologie et embryologie
Claudiu Margaritescu
Milton Moura
AIP Conference Proceedings
Eny Riyanti
See More Documents Like This
RELATED TOPICS
- We're Hiring!
- Help Center
- Find new research papers in:
- Health Sciences
- Earth Sciences
- Cognitive Science
- Mathematics
- Computer Science
- Academia ©2024
We will keep fighting for all libraries - stand with us!
Internet Archive Audio
- This Just In
- Grateful Dead
- Old Time Radio
- 78 RPMs and Cylinder Recordings
- Audio Books & Poetry
- Computers, Technology and Science
- Music, Arts & Culture
- News & Public Affairs
- Spirituality & Religion
- Radio News Archive
- Flickr Commons
- Occupy Wall Street Flickr
- NASA Images
- Solar System Collection
- Ames Research Center
- All Software
- Old School Emulation
- MS-DOS Games
- Historical Software
- Classic PC Games
- Software Library
- Kodi Archive and Support File
- Vintage Software
- CD-ROM Software
- CD-ROM Software Library
- Software Sites
- Tucows Software Library
- Shareware CD-ROMs
- Software Capsules Compilation
- CD-ROM Images
- ZX Spectrum
- DOOM Level CD
- Smithsonian Libraries
- FEDLINK (US)
- Lincoln Collection
- American Libraries
- Canadian Libraries
- Universal Library
- Project Gutenberg
- Children's Library
- Biodiversity Heritage Library
- Books by Language
- Additional Collections
- Prelinger Archives
- Democracy Now!
- Occupy Wall Street
- TV NSA Clip Library
- Animation & Cartoons
- Arts & Music
- Computers & Technology
- Cultural & Academic Films
- Ephemeral Films
- Sports Videos
- Videogame Videos
- Youth Media
Search the history of over 866 billion web pages on the Internet.
Mobile Apps
- Wayback Machine (iOS)
- Wayback Machine (Android)
Browser Extensions
Archive-it subscription.
- Explore the Collections
- Build Collections
Save Page Now
Capture a web page as it appears now for use as a trusted citation in the future.
Please enter a valid web address
- Donate Donate icon An illustration of a heart shape
Research methodology : a step-by-step guide for beginners
Bookreader item preview, share or embed this item, flag this item for.
- Graphic Violence
- Explicit Sexual Content
- Hate Speech
- Misinformation/Disinformation
- Marketing/Phishing/Advertising
- Misleading/Inaccurate/Missing Metadata
obscured text leaf 3
plus-circle Add Review comment Reviews
4 Favorites
DOWNLOAD OPTIONS
No suitable files to display here.
IN COLLECTIONS
Uploaded by station03.cebu on April 20, 2023
SIMILAR ITEMS (based on metadata)
Have a language expert improve your writing
Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.
- Knowledge Base
- Dissertation
- What Is a Research Methodology? | Steps & Tips
What Is a Research Methodology? | Steps & Tips
Published on August 25, 2022 by Shona McCombes and Tegan George. Revised on November 20, 2023.
Your research methodology discusses and explains the data collection and analysis methods you used in your research. A key part of your thesis, dissertation , or research paper , the methodology chapter explains what you did and how you did it, allowing readers to evaluate the reliability and validity of your research and your dissertation topic .
It should include:
- The type of research you conducted
- How you collected and analyzed your data
- Any tools or materials you used in the research
- How you mitigated or avoided research biases
- Why you chose these methods
- Your methodology section should generally be written in the past tense .
- Academic style guides in your field may provide detailed guidelines on what to include for different types of studies.
- Your citation style might provide guidelines for your methodology section (e.g., an APA Style methods section ).
Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text
Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes
Table of contents
How to write a research methodology, why is a methods section important, step 1: explain your methodological approach, step 2: describe your data collection methods, step 3: describe your analysis method, step 4: evaluate and justify the methodological choices you made, tips for writing a strong methodology chapter, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about methodology.
Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting
Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:
- Academic style
- Vague sentences
- Style consistency
See an example
Your methods section is your opportunity to share how you conducted your research and why you chose the methods you chose. It’s also the place to show that your research was rigorously conducted and can be replicated .
It gives your research legitimacy and situates it within your field, and also gives your readers a place to refer to if they have any questions or critiques in other sections.
You can start by introducing your overall approach to your research. You have two options here.
Option 1: Start with your “what”
What research problem or question did you investigate?
- Aim to describe the characteristics of something?
- Explore an under-researched topic?
- Establish a causal relationship?
And what type of data did you need to achieve this aim?
- Quantitative data , qualitative data , or a mix of both?
- Primary data collected yourself, or secondary data collected by someone else?
- Experimental data gathered by controlling and manipulating variables, or descriptive data gathered via observations?
Option 2: Start with your “why”
Depending on your discipline, you can also start with a discussion of the rationale and assumptions underpinning your methodology. In other words, why did you choose these methods for your study?
- Why is this the best way to answer your research question?
- Is this a standard methodology in your field, or does it require justification?
- Were there any ethical considerations involved in your choices?
- What are the criteria for validity and reliability in this type of research ? How did you prevent bias from affecting your data?
Once you have introduced your reader to your methodological approach, you should share full details about your data collection methods .
Quantitative methods
In order to be considered generalizable, you should describe quantitative research methods in enough detail for another researcher to replicate your study.
Here, explain how you operationalized your concepts and measured your variables. Discuss your sampling method or inclusion and exclusion criteria , as well as any tools, procedures, and materials you used to gather your data.
Surveys Describe where, when, and how the survey was conducted.
- How did you design the questionnaire?
- What form did your questions take (e.g., multiple choice, Likert scale )?
- Were your surveys conducted in-person or virtually?
- What sampling method did you use to select participants?
- What was your sample size and response rate?
Experiments Share full details of the tools, techniques, and procedures you used to conduct your experiment.
- How did you design the experiment ?
- How did you recruit participants?
- How did you manipulate and measure the variables ?
- What tools did you use?
Existing data Explain how you gathered and selected the material (such as datasets or archival data) that you used in your analysis.
- Where did you source the material?
- How was the data originally produced?
- What criteria did you use to select material (e.g., date range)?
The survey consisted of 5 multiple-choice questions and 10 questions measured on a 7-point Likert scale.
The goal was to collect survey responses from 350 customers visiting the fitness apparel company’s brick-and-mortar location in Boston on July 4–8, 2022, between 11:00 and 15:00.
Here, a customer was defined as a person who had purchased a product from the company on the day they took the survey. Participants were given 5 minutes to fill in the survey anonymously. In total, 408 customers responded, but not all surveys were fully completed. Due to this, 371 survey results were included in the analysis.
- Information bias
- Omitted variable bias
- Regression to the mean
- Survivorship bias
- Undercoverage bias
- Sampling bias
Qualitative methods
In qualitative research , methods are often more flexible and subjective. For this reason, it’s crucial to robustly explain the methodology choices you made.
Be sure to discuss the criteria you used to select your data, the context in which your research was conducted, and the role you played in collecting your data (e.g., were you an active participant, or a passive observer?)
Interviews or focus groups Describe where, when, and how the interviews were conducted.
- How did you find and select participants?
- How many participants took part?
- What form did the interviews take ( structured , semi-structured , or unstructured )?
- How long were the interviews?
- How were they recorded?
Participant observation Describe where, when, and how you conducted the observation or ethnography .
- What group or community did you observe? How long did you spend there?
- How did you gain access to this group? What role did you play in the community?
- How long did you spend conducting the research? Where was it located?
- How did you record your data (e.g., audiovisual recordings, note-taking)?
Existing data Explain how you selected case study materials for your analysis.
- What type of materials did you analyze?
- How did you select them?
In order to gain better insight into possibilities for future improvement of the fitness store’s product range, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 8 returning customers.
Here, a returning customer was defined as someone who usually bought products at least twice a week from the store.
Surveys were used to select participants. Interviews were conducted in a small office next to the cash register and lasted approximately 20 minutes each. Answers were recorded by note-taking, and seven interviews were also filmed with consent. One interviewee preferred not to be filmed.
- The Hawthorne effect
- Observer bias
- The placebo effect
- Response bias and Nonresponse bias
- The Pygmalion effect
- Recall bias
- Social desirability bias
- Self-selection bias
Mixed methods
Mixed methods research combines quantitative and qualitative approaches. If a standalone quantitative or qualitative study is insufficient to answer your research question, mixed methods may be a good fit for you.
Mixed methods are less common than standalone analyses, largely because they require a great deal of effort to pull off successfully. If you choose to pursue mixed methods, it’s especially important to robustly justify your methods.
The only proofreading tool specialized in correcting academic writing - try for free!
The academic proofreading tool has been trained on 1000s of academic texts and by native English editors. Making it the most accurate and reliable proofreading tool for students.
Try for free
Next, you should indicate how you processed and analyzed your data. Avoid going into too much detail: you should not start introducing or discussing any of your results at this stage.
In quantitative research , your analysis will be based on numbers. In your methods section, you can include:
- How you prepared the data before analyzing it (e.g., checking for missing data , removing outliers , transforming variables)
- Which software you used (e.g., SPSS, Stata or R)
- Which statistical tests you used (e.g., two-tailed t test , simple linear regression )
In qualitative research, your analysis will be based on language, images, and observations (often involving some form of textual analysis ).
Specific methods might include:
- Content analysis : Categorizing and discussing the meaning of words, phrases and sentences
- Thematic analysis : Coding and closely examining the data to identify broad themes and patterns
- Discourse analysis : Studying communication and meaning in relation to their social context
Mixed methods combine the above two research methods, integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches into one coherent analytical process.
Above all, your methodology section should clearly make the case for why you chose the methods you did. This is especially true if you did not take the most standard approach to your topic. In this case, discuss why other methods were not suitable for your objectives, and show how this approach contributes new knowledge or understanding.
In any case, it should be overwhelmingly clear to your reader that you set yourself up for success in terms of your methodology’s design. Show how your methods should lead to results that are valid and reliable, while leaving the analysis of the meaning, importance, and relevance of your results for your discussion section .
- Quantitative: Lab-based experiments cannot always accurately simulate real-life situations and behaviors, but they are effective for testing causal relationships between variables .
- Qualitative: Unstructured interviews usually produce results that cannot be generalized beyond the sample group , but they provide a more in-depth understanding of participants’ perceptions, motivations, and emotions.
- Mixed methods: Despite issues systematically comparing differing types of data, a solely quantitative study would not sufficiently incorporate the lived experience of each participant, while a solely qualitative study would be insufficiently generalizable.
Remember that your aim is not just to describe your methods, but to show how and why you applied them. Again, it’s critical to demonstrate that your research was rigorously conducted and can be replicated.
1. Focus on your objectives and research questions
The methodology section should clearly show why your methods suit your objectives and convince the reader that you chose the best possible approach to answering your problem statement and research questions .
2. Cite relevant sources
Your methodology can be strengthened by referencing existing research in your field. This can help you to:
- Show that you followed established practice for your type of research
- Discuss how you decided on your approach by evaluating existing research
- Present a novel methodological approach to address a gap in the literature
3. Write for your audience
Consider how much information you need to give, and avoid getting too lengthy. If you are using methods that are standard for your discipline, you probably don’t need to give a lot of background or justification.
Regardless, your methodology should be a clear, well-structured text that makes an argument for your approach, not just a list of technical details and procedures.
If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
- Normal distribution
- Measures of central tendency
- Chi square tests
- Confidence interval
- Quartiles & Quantiles
Methodology
- Cluster sampling
- Stratified sampling
- Thematic analysis
- Cohort study
- Peer review
- Ethnography
Research bias
- Implicit bias
- Cognitive bias
- Conformity bias
- Hawthorne effect
- Availability heuristic
- Attrition bias
Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.
Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).
In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .
In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.
In a scientific paper, the methodology always comes after the introduction and before the results , discussion and conclusion . The same basic structure also applies to a thesis, dissertation , or research proposal .
Depending on the length and type of document, you might also include a literature review or theoretical framework before the methodology.
Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.
Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.
Reliability and validity are both about how well a method measures something:
- Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure (whether the results can be reproduced under the same conditions).
- Validity refers to the accuracy of a measure (whether the results really do represent what they are supposed to measure).
If you are doing experimental research, you also have to consider the internal and external validity of your experiment.
A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.
In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.
Cite this Scribbr article
If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.
McCombes, S. & George, T. (2023, November 20). What Is a Research Methodology? | Steps & Tips. Scribbr. Retrieved April 2, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/methodology/
Is this article helpful?
Shona McCombes
Other students also liked, what is a theoretical framework | guide to organizing, what is a research design | types, guide & examples, qualitative vs. quantitative research | differences, examples & methods, unlimited academic ai-proofreading.
✔ Document error-free in 5minutes ✔ Unlimited document corrections ✔ Specialized in correcting academic texts
Help | Advanced Search
Computer Science > Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition
Title: deepfake generation and detection: a benchmark and survey.
Abstract: In addition to the advancements in deepfake generation, corresponding detection technologies need to continuously evolve to regulate the potential misuse of deepfakes, such as for privacy invasion and phishing attacks. This survey comprehensively reviews the latest developments in deepfake generation and detection, summarizing and analyzing the current state of the art in this rapidly evolving field. We first unify task definitions, comprehensively introduce datasets and metrics, and discuss the development of generation and detection technology frameworks. Then, we discuss the development of several related sub-fields and focus on researching four mainstream deepfake fields: popular face swap, face reenactment, talking face generation, and facial attribute editing, as well as foreign detection. Subsequently, we comprehensively benchmark representative methods on popular datasets for each field, fully evaluating the latest and influential works published in top conferences/journals. Finally, we analyze the challenges and future research directions of the discussed fields. We closely follow the latest developments in this https URL .
Submission history
Access paper:.
- Other Formats
References & Citations
- Google Scholar
- Semantic Scholar
BibTeX formatted citation
Bibliographic and Citation Tools
Code, data and media associated with this article, recommenders and search tools.
- Institution
arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators
arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website.
Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them.
Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs .
Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.
- View all journals
- Explore content
- About the journal
- Publish with us
- Sign up for alerts
- Published: 01 April 2024
Complexity of avian evolution revealed by family-level genomes
- Josefin Stiller ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6009-9581 1 ,
- Shaohong Feng ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2462-7348 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ,
- Al-Aabid Chowdhury 6 ,
- Iker Rivas-González ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0515-0628 7 ,
- David A. Duchêne ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5479-1974 8 ,
- Qi Fang ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9181-8689 9 ,
- Yuan Deng 9 ,
- Alexey Kozlov ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7394-2718 10 ,
- Alexandros Stamatakis ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0353-0691 10 , 11 , 12 ,
- Santiago Claramunt ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8926-5974 13 , 14 ,
- Jacqueline M. T. Nguyen ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3076-0006 15 , 16 ,
- Simon Y. W. Ho ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0361-2307 6 ,
- Brant C. Faircloth ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1943-0217 17 ,
- Julia Haag ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7493-3917 10 ,
- Peter Houde ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4541-5974 18 ,
- Joel Cracraft ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7587-8342 19 ,
- Metin Balaban 20 ,
- Uyen Mai 21 ,
- Guangji Chen ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9441-1155 9 , 22 ,
- Rongsheng Gao 9 , 22 ,
- Chengran Zhou ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9468-5973 9 ,
- Yulong Xie 2 ,
- Zijian Huang 2 ,
- Zhen Cao 23 ,
- Zhi Yan ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2433-5553 23 ,
- Huw A. Ogilvie ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1589-6885 23 ,
- Luay Nakhleh ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3288-6769 23 ,
- Bent Lindow ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1864-4221 24 ,
- Benoit Morel 10 , 11 ,
- Jon Fjeldså ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0790-3600 24 ,
- Peter A. Hosner ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7499-6224 24 , 25 ,
- Rute R. da Fonseca ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2805-4698 25 ,
- Bent Petersen ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2472-8317 8 , 26 ,
- Joseph A. Tobias ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2429-6179 27 ,
- Tamás Székely ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2093-0056 28 , 29 ,
- Jonathan David Kennedy 30 ,
- Andrew Hart Reeve ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5233-6030 24 ,
- Andras Liker 31 , 32 ,
- Martin Stervander ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6139-7828 33 ,
- Agostinho Antunes ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1328-1732 34 , 35 ,
- Dieter Thomas Tietze ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6868-227X 36 ,
- Mads Bertelsen 37 ,
- Fumin Lei ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9920-8167 38 , 39 ,
- Carsten Rahbek ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4585-0300 25 , 30 , 40 , 41 ,
- Gary R. Graves ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1406-5246 30 , 42 ,
- Mikkel H. Schierup ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5028-1790 7 ,
- Tandy Warnow 43 ,
- Edward L. Braun ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1643-5212 44 ,
- M. Thomas P. Gilbert ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5805-7195 8 , 45 ,
- Erich D. Jarvis 46 , 47 ,
- Siavash Mirarab ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5410-1518 48 &
- Guojie Zhang ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6860-1521 2 , 3 , 5 , 49
Nature ( 2024 ) Cite this article
Metrics details
We are providing an unedited version of this manuscript to give early access to its findings. Before final publication, the manuscript will undergo further editing. Please note there may be errors present which affect the content, and all legal disclaimers apply.
- Evolutionary biology
- Genome evolution
- Molecular evolution
- Phylogenetics
Despite tremendous efforts in the past decades, relationships among main avian lineages remain heavily debated without a clear resolution. Discrepancies have been attributed to diversity of species sampled, phylogenetic method, and the choice of genomic regions 1–3 . Here, we address these issues by analyzing genomes of 363 bird species 4 (218 taxonomic families, 92% of total). Using intergenic regions and coalescent methods, we present a well-supported tree but also a remarkable degree of discordance. The tree confirms that Neoaves experienced rapid radiation at or near the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) boundary. Sufficient loci rather than extensive taxon sampling were more effective in resolving difficult nodes. Remaining recalcitrant nodes involve species that challenge modeling due to extreme GC content, variable substitution rates, incomplete lineage sorting, or complex evolutionary events such as ancient hybridization. Assessment of the impacts of different genomic partitions showed high heterogeneity across the genome. We discovered sharp increases in effective population size, substitution rates, and relative brain size following the K–Pg extinction event, supporting the hypothesis that emerging ecological opportunities catalyzed the diversification of modern birds. The resulting phylogenetic estimate offers novel insights into the rapid radiation of modern birds and provides a taxon-rich backbone tree for future comparative studies.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Access options
Access Nature and 54 other Nature Portfolio journals
Get Nature+, our best-value online-access subscription
24,99 € / 30 days
cancel any time
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 51 print issues and online access
185,98 € per year
only 3,65 € per issue
Rent or buy this article
Prices vary by article type
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
Author information
Authors and affiliations.
Section for Ecology and Evolution, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Josefin Stiller
Center for Evolutionary & Organismal Biology, & Women’s Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
Shaohong Feng, Yulong Xie, Zijian Huang & Guojie Zhang
Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou, China
Shaohong Feng & Guojie Zhang
Department of General Surgery, Sir Run-Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
Shaohong Feng
Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta, Zhejiang University, Jiashan, China
School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Al-Aabid Chowdhury & Simon Y. W. Ho
Bioinformatics Research Centre, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
Iker Rivas-González & Mikkel H. Schierup
Center for Evolutionary Hologenomics, The Globe Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
David A. Duchêne, Bent Petersen & M. Thomas P. Gilbert
BGI-Shenzhen, Beishan Industrial Zone, Shenzhen, China
Qi Fang, Yuan Deng, Guangji Chen, Rongsheng Gao & Chengran Zhou
Computational Molecular Evolution Group, Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical Studies, Heidelberg, Germany
Alexey Kozlov, Alexandros Stamatakis, Julia Haag & Benoit Morel
Institute of Computer Science, Foundation for Research and Technology Hellas, Heraklion, Greece
Alexandros Stamatakis & Benoit Morel
Institute for Theoretical Informatics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
Alexandros Stamatakis
Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Santiago Claramunt
Department of Natural History, Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
Jacqueline M. T. Nguyen
Research Institute, Australian Museum, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Department of Biological Sciences and Museum of Natural Science, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
Brant C. Faircloth
Department of Biology, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM, USA
Peter Houde
Department of Ornithology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY, USA
Joel Cracraft
Bioinformatics and Systems Biology Graduate Program, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
Metin Balaban
Computer Science and Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
Guangji Chen & Rongsheng Gao
Department of Computer Science, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
Zhen Cao, Zhi Yan, Huw A. Ogilvie & Luay Nakhleh
Natural History Museum Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Bent Lindow, Jon Fjeldså, Peter A. Hosner & Andrew Hart Reeve
Center for Global Mountain Biodiversity, Globe Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Peter A. Hosner, Rute R. da Fonseca & Carsten Rahbek
Centre of Excellence for Omics-Driven Computational Biodiscovery (COMBio), Faculty of Applied Sciences, AIMST University, Bedong, Kedah, Malaysia
Bent Petersen
Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Silwood Park, Ascot, UK
Joseph A. Tobias
Milner Centre for Evolution, University of Bath, Bath, UK
Tamás Székely
ELKH-DE Reproductive Strategies Research Group, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
Center for Macroecology, Evolution, and Climate, The Globe Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Jonathan David Kennedy, Carsten Rahbek & Gary R. Graves
HUN-REN-PE Evolutionary Ecology Research Group, University of Pannonia, Veszprém, Hungary
Andras Liker
Behavioural Ecology Research Group, Center for Natural Sciences, University of Pannonia, Veszprém, Hungary
Bird Group, Natural History Museum, Akeman St, Tring, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
Martin Stervander
CIIMAR/CIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
Agostinho Antunes
Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
NABU, Berlin, Germany
Dieter Thomas Tietze
Centre for Zoo and Wild Animal Health, Copenhagen Zoo, Frederiksberg, Denmark
Mads Bertelsen
Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
Institute of Ecology, Peking University, Beijing, China
Carsten Rahbek
Danish Institute for Advanced Study, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
Department of Vertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA
Gary R. Graves
University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
Tandy Warnow
Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
Edward L. Braun
University Museum, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway
M. Thomas P. Gilbert
Vertebrate Genome Lab, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
Erich D. Jarvis
Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Durham, NC, USA
University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA
Siavash Mirarab
Villum Center for Biodiversity Genomics, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Guojie Zhang
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Corresponding authors
Correspondence to Josefin Stiller , Siavash Mirarab or Guojie Zhang .
Supplementary information
Supplementary information.
This file contains Supplementary Methods and Supplementary Results.
Reporting Summary
Peer review file, supplementary data.
Table of all sequenced species with taxonomic grouping according to Howard & Moore. 4th Edition and accession numbers of the used genome assemblies. Given as a separate tab-delimited text file.
Rights and permissions
Reprints and permissions
About this article
Cite this article.
Stiller, J., Feng, S., Chowdhury, AA. et al. Complexity of avian evolution revealed by family-level genomes. Nature (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07323-1
Download citation
Received : 25 April 2023
Accepted : 15 March 2024
Published : 01 April 2024
DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07323-1
Share this article
Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:
Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.
Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative
By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines . If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate.
Quick links
- Explore articles by subject
- Guide to authors
- Editorial policies
Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.
We've detected unusual activity from your computer network
To continue, please click the box below to let us know you're not a robot.
Why did this happen?
Please make sure your browser supports JavaScript and cookies and that you are not blocking them from loading. For more information you can review our Terms of Service and Cookie Policy .
For inquiries related to this message please contact our support team and provide the reference ID below.
IMAGES
VIDEO
COMMENTS
research methods are four key terms representing a perspective about research flow from broad constructions of research to the narrow procedures of methods. Table 1.1 explains these key terms in more detail. Table 1.1 Key Terms and Their Definitions as Used in This Chapter Key Terms
PDF | Research methodology is taught as a supporting subject in several ways in many academic disciplines such as health, education, psychology, social... | Find, read and cite all the research ...
SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY AND ITS COMPONENTS. Methodologyin science refers to the diverse prin- ciples, procedures, and practices that govern empiri- cal research. It is useful to distinguish five major components to convey the scope of the topics and to organize the subject matter. 1.
2.2 Research Methodology. The terms methodology and methods are two similar and codependent terms; people use the two. terms interchangeably but it will be worthy of note to differentiate the two ...
1. FOREWORD. Fundamental of Research Methodology and Data Collection is an excellent book tha t has a. collection of basic concepts and terminologies in research method. It is filled with good ...
Health research methodology: A guide for training in research methods We hope this revised version of the landmark manual will help scientists, researchers, health practitioners and administrators to learn and practise the concepts and principles of scientific research. The knowledge of the scientific methods will help them design and conduct
A research methodology is 'a general approach to studying research topics' (Hussey and Hussey, 1997: 56), which is distinct from a research method. A research method is a tool or a technique that is used to gather data (Bailey, 1994). In contrast, a research methodology determines the important rela-tionship between theory and method.
It introduces qualitative methods in an interesting and hands-on way to provide you with an understanding of key concepts and methods in qualitative research as applied to the fi eld of health. All three authors are trained anthropologists who have been working in health and development for many years.
the methodology chapter: (a) Introduction and overview, (b) research sample, (c) overview of information needed, (d) research design, (e) methods of data collection, (f) methods for data analysis and synthesis, (g) ethical considerations, (h) issues of trustworthiness, (i) limitations of the study, and (j) chapter summary. • Provide ...
your chosen research method, and describe the process and participants in your study). The Methodology chapter is perhaps the part of a qualitative thesis that is most unlike its equivalent in a quantitative study. Students doing quantitative research have an established conventional 'model' to work to, which comprises these possible elements:
3. Note the method or tool you selected to answer the question. 4. Make a list of other methods you might employ to answer your original question. 5. Reflect on how identifying alternative research methods might lead you to different answers to your original question, then make a new research plan.
2023 •. Research Methodology: An Introduction 1 1 Research Methodology: An Introduction MEANING OF RESEARCH Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.
methodology in social sciences will find this book very helpful in understanding the basic concepts before they read any book on research methodology. This book is useful those students who offer the Research Methodology at Post Graduation and M.Phil. Level. This book is also very useful for Ph.D. Course Work examinations. ...
The methodology section of your paper describes how your research was conducted. This information allows readers to check whether your approach is accurate and dependable. A good methodology can help increase the reader's trust in your findings. First, we will define and differentiate quantitative and qualitative research.
Research methodology : a step-by-step guide for beginners by Kumar, Ranjit, author. Publication date 2014 Topics Social sciences -- Research -- Methodology Publisher Los Angeles : Sage ... Pdf_module_version 0.0.22 Ppi 360 Rcs_key 24143 Republisher_date 20230427025329 Republisher_operator [email protected] Republisher_time 285
PDF | Academic research is a relatively simple process when a PhD student knows the methodologies, methods and tools that underpin it. ... As a research methodology, starting point is to consider ...
The methodology section should clearly show why your methods suit your objectives and convince the reader that you chose the best possible approach to answering your problem statement and research questions. 2. Cite relevant sources. Your methodology can be strengthened by referencing existing research in your field. This can help you to:
sampling plan must be developed. The sampling plan is the methodology that will be used to select the sample from the population (p. 6). The sampling plan describes the approach that will be used to select the sample, how an adequate sample size will be determined, and the choice of media through which the survey will be administered.
Instruments. This section should include the instruments you plan on using to measure the variables in the research questions. (a) the source or developers of the instrument. (b) validity and reliability information. •. (c) information on how it was normed. •. (d) other salient information (e.g., number of. items in each scale, subscales ...
Descriptive research concentrates on finding facts to ascertain the nature of something as it exists. In contrast analytical research is concerned with determining validity of hypothesis based on analysis of facts collected. Applied research is carried out to find answers to practical problems to be solved and as an aid in decision making in different areas including product design,
Methods. The conference consisted of five presentations frompatient safety, culture, and methodology experts about different issues relevant to patient safetyculture. After each presentation, Dr. Jason Etchegaray (PI) facilitated a discussion about key points from the presentation, and this report describes these discussions. Results.
View PDF Abstract: In addition to the advancements in deepfake generation, corresponding detection technologies need to continuously evolve to regulate the potential misuse of deepfakes, such as for privacy invasion and phishing attacks. This survey comprehensively reviews the latest developments in deepfake generation and detection, summarizing and analyzing the current state of the art in ...
Discrepancies have been attributed to diversity of species sampled, phylogenetic method, and the choice of genomic regions 1-3. Here, we address these issues by analyzing genomes of 363 bird ...
A research method is a technique used. to carry out that arrangement. It means, in research (methods + theory) = methodology. Research design and strategies are unique however f irmly related ...
Proprietary data. In addition to providing third-party data, Bloomberg creates unique proprietary scores using its 700-plus research analysts across Bloomberg Intelligence and BloombergNEF.
change in uninflated ACS estimates. HUD first announced this methodology on January 10, 2024 in a Federal Register Notice. The cap and floor rules do not apply to the extremely low-income limits. HUD implements this policy in the following way: HUD computes the four-person very low-income limit as half of the local median family income.
Research Methodology (Methods, Approaches And Techniques) September 2023. DOI: 10.59646/rmmethods/040. Authors: Jaffer Ali Khan. Alamelu Mangai Raman. University of Technology and Applied Sciences ...
The mobile method is the only clock in and clock out method the service provider or CDS employee may use when delivering EVV services in the community or when traveling out of state. Contact your program representative to determine if your service provider or CDS employee may deliver EVV services while the member is out of state. The mobile method:
Chapter 3 - Research Methodology a nd Research Method. This chapter looks at the various research methodologies and research methods that are commonly. used by researchers in the field of ...