essay about language register

Language Register in English Writing: Definition, Meaning, and Examples

Language register is something you use every day in speaking, writing, and sign language, even though you might be unaware of it. So what is it? That's what you'll learn in this article.

• Your language register informs the type of vocabulary you use and how closely you stick to grammar rules based on the setting.

What is Language Register?

We all use language registers daily when we speak, write, and sign, whether voluntarily or involuntarily. In fact, I'm using it right now. It's usually best to gain awareness of it because this will allow you to make intentional decisions that improve your English language use.

Read on to find out what it means and learn about the different types of language registers.

Definition of Language Register

Language register determines how you express yourself based on the content you're trying to communicate and who you speak to.

Think about it:

• You won't express yourself in the same way if you're chatting to a friend as when you give a presentation to your seniors at work.

What differentiates language registers can be several things:

• Ranging from specialized vocabulary (jargon)
• The difference in intonation
• Adherence to varied grammar rules
• Even using certain turns of phrases.

Using the Right Register

Your choice of language register will vary depending on several factors , including:

• Your audience
• The topic of conversation
• The context
• Your purpose

Who are you talking to? What's it about? Are you giving legal advice or casually conversing at the grocery store?

Is this a BBQ with friends, a business meeting, or perhaps an email ? Are you trying to convince, make small talk, or inquire about something?

The answer to these questions will affect the language register you choose to use.

Types of Language Register

Depending on where you look, you'll find differing information on types of language registers. Some people refer simply to the formal and informal (also known as casual or colloquial) registers. And that's correct. But if you dig a little deeper, you'll find there is more than that.

I like American linguist Martin Joos's classification of language register types, so I'll lay them out for you here.

The frozen language register:

• It relates to historical language that, unlike other registers, can't be changed depending on the context.
• The words will always remain the same, and you'll use them regardless of the situation.

It's frozen in time, if you will.

Quotes from the Bible are a good example . Old texts like the Constitution are another. References to classic writings, such as a Shakespeare novel, would also be frozen.

Generally, anything that has stayed unchanged and will continue to remain intact is considered to be of the frozen language register.

Here's an example:

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger;

This one's pretty easy to use because you're basically just quoting other people's words. You don't need to put much thought into how to employ this register.

The formal register is:

• Used in settings where you want to impress
• Earn or show respect
• Be taken seriously
• Communicate important information.

Some common examples of settings where you can use formal language are: at work, in email communication with employers, in an academic situation, at an interview, or in a court of law.

Under no circumstances will cheating be permitted. You shall not be permitted to speak to other pupils during examinations, nor shall you have access to your personal belongings. You are obligated to remain in your seats.

There are certain conventions around using the formal register. You would be expected to follow grammatical rules more closely, avoid contractions, slang, idioms, and swearing, form complete sentences, and so on. But don't use big words just for the sake of it, or you might come across as arrogant. Just stick to the rules, and you'll be good to go.

Consultative

A consultative register is:

• Mainly reserved for conversations about specialized knowledge or where a person gives specialized advice on a topic they're an expert in.

Therefore , this register is usually used in a conversation between someone looking for advice and a person qualified to give that advice. Or, if it isn't a conversation, it might be a tutorial via video medium, online, on the radio, or on TV.

This is where you can use the big words and not feel guilty about it!

Some likely settings where a consultative register might be used:

• A check-up with a doctor
• Seeking advice from a lawyer
• An academic conversation about a research study.

The tone can be friendly in a consultative register and almost casual sometimes, but it would always be respectful.

The casual - or colloquial/informal - language register is:

• Probably the one you use most naturally and most often.
• It has a more relaxed feel to it and is more versatile, meaning you can use it in many contexts.

Basically, as long as the setting you're in doesn't require you to be more formal, then you can pretty much always get away with casual language. Use it when conversing with family or friends, chatting to the postman, or even with your colleagues in the break room.

I'm using it now in this blog post because the informal register makes for a smoother read. Shorter sentences, more contractions, and less complicated language give the text more flow.

Let's have a look at our earlier formal register example and change it to the casual register:

Don't cheat. You're not allowed to talk to your classmates or access your personal stuff. Please stay seated.

See how much shorter the sentence is? There are contractions in this passage, slang words ('stuff'), and less formal nouns ('pupils' becomes 'classmates'). There's definitely more flexibility with the casual register. I t's not that you shouldn't try to make your sentences grammatically correct, but let's just say you'll be forgiven for bending the rules slightly.

The intimate register is:

• Personal and private.
• It might include inside jokes, made-up words, pet names, secrets, and non-verbal communication that only your close ones would understand.

Using cheesy pick-up lines when flirting is also a creative way to use the intimate register. For example, when you use fun and original ways to say 'I love you,' that's the intimate register.

For example:

I love you, Pumpkin. I love you, Honey Bunny.

Code-Switching

Here's the thing about code-switching: Everybody can and probably does use all the registers. There's a unique term to refer to the act of changing from one register to another, and it's called 'code-switching.'

There are actually many different forms of code-switching, and the term has significant cultural relevance. Still, for the purposes of this article, I'm referring only to switching from one register to another.

Code-switching is:

• One of the many ways we, as human beings, adapt to our changing environments. We're like chameleons in a way.
• We can sense when we need to change how we act and speak based on the setting and who we are talking to.

Here are some examples of code-switching:

The difference between how a teenager speaks to their parents vs their friends. A conversation at the water cooler in the office vs on the phone with clients. How a judge expresses themselves in a courtroom vs with their family.

Concluding Thoughts on Language Register

That concludes this article on language register. I hope you found it helpful.

Let's summarize what we've learned:

• The language register determines how we speak based on the context.
• Your choice of language register depends on several factors.
• There are five types of language registers, according to one linguist.
• People naturally code-switch.

If you enjoyed this article and want to continue your grammar education, check out our Grammar Rules blog.

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Language Register

Formal, informal, and neutral.

Click Here for Step-by-Step Rules, Stories and Exercises to Practice All English Tenses

Formal Language Register

• Letters of complaint
• Some essays
• Official speeches
• Announcements
• Professional emails

Rules of the formal language register:

1. do not use contractions.

• cannot instead of can’t
• have not instead of haven’t
• will not instead of won’t
• could not instead of couldn’t
• is not instead of isn’t
• children’s classroom
• professor’s report
• elephant’s trunk

2. Spell out numbers less than one hundred

• seventy-eight

3. Write in third person point of view

• You can purchase a car for under $10,000. One can purchase a car for under $10,000. OR A car can be purchased for under $10,000.
• You will probably see an elephant on an African safari. One may see elephants on an African safari. OR Elephants are a common sight on African safaris.
• We decided to invest in the company. The group decided to invest in the company.

4. Avoid using too much passive voice

• The bone was eaten by the dog.
• The research was completed by the students in 2009.
• The dog ate the bone.
• The students completed the research in 2009.  In 2009, the students completed the research.

5. Avoid using slang, idioms, exaggeration (hyperboles) and clichés

• awesome/cool
• check it out
• in a nutshell
• too much of a good thing
• moment of truth
• Time is money.
• Don’t push your luck.
• Beauty is only skin deep.

6. Avoid abbreviations and acronyms

• National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
• Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT)
• influenza => flu
• United States of America => U.S.A or USA
• tablespoon => tbsp.
• Kansas => KS
• LOL (laugh out loud)
• ttyl (talk to you later)
• b/c (because)
• w/o (without)

7. Do not start sentences with words like and, so, but, also

• Nevertheless
• Additionally
• In addition
• As a result of

8. Always write in complete sentences.

9. write longer, more complex sentences., informal language register.

• Personal e-mails
• Phone texts
• Short notes
• Friendly letters
• Diaries and journals
• Slang and clichés
• Figurative language
• Symbols and abbreviations
• Incomplete sentences
• Short sentences
• First person, second person, and third person
• Paragraphs or no paragraphs
• Personal opinions
• Extra punctuation (Hi Bob!!!!!!!)
• Passive and active voice

Neutral Language Register

• Some letters
• Technical writing

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What Is Register in Linguistics?

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

In  linguistics , the register is defined as the way a speaker uses language differently in different circumstances. Think about the words you choose, your tone of voice, even your body language. You probably behave very differently chatting with a friend than you would at a formal dinner party or during a job interview. These variations in formality, also called stylistic variation, are known as registers in linguistics. They are determined by such factors as social occasion, context, purpose, and audience .

Registers are marked by a variety of specialized vocabulary and turns of phrases, colloquialisms and the use of jargon , and a difference in intonation and pace; in "The Study of Language," linguist George Yule describes the function of jargon as helping " to create and maintain connections among those who see themselves as 'insiders' in some way and to exclude 'outsiders.'"

Registers are used in all forms of communication, including written, spoken, and signed. Depending on grammar, syntax, and tone, the register may be extremely rigid or very intimate. You don't even need to use an actual word to communicate effectively. A huff of exasperation during a debate or a grin while signing "hello" speaks volumes.

Types of Linguistic Register

Some linguists say there are just two types of register: formal and informal. This isn't incorrect, but it is an oversimplification. Instead, most who study language say there are five distinct registers.

• Frozen : This form is sometimes called the static register because it refers to historic language or communication that is intended to remain unchanged, like a constitution or prayer. Examples: The Bible, the United States Constitution, the Bhagavad Gita, "Romeo and Juliet."
• Formal : Less rigid but still constrained, the formal register is used in professional, academic, or legal settings where communication is expected to be respectful, uninterrupted, and restrained. Slang is never used, and contractions are rare. Examples: a TED talk, a business presentation, the Encyclopaedia Brittanica, "Gray's Anatomy," by Henry Gray.
• Consultative : People use this register often in conversation when they're speaking with someone who has specialized knowledge or who is offering advice. Tone is often respectful (use of courtesy titles) but may be more casual if the relationship is longstanding or friendly (a family doctor.) Slang is sometimes used, people may pause or interrupt one another. Examples: the local TV news broadcast, an annual physical, a service provider like a plumber.
• Casual : This is the register people use when they're with friends, close acquaintances and co-workers, and family. It's probably the one you think of when you consider how you talk with other people, often in a group setting. Use of slang, contractions, and vernacular grammar is all common, and people may also use expletives or off-color language in some settings. Examples: a birthday party, a backyard barbecue.
• Intimate : Linguists say this register is reserved for special occasions, usually between only two people and often in private. Intimate language may be something as simple as an inside joke between two college friends or a word whispered in a lover's ear.

Additional Resources and Tips

Knowing which register to use can be challenging for English students. Unlike Spanish and other languages, there is no special form of a pronoun expressly for use in formal situations. Culture adds another layer of complication, especially if you're not familiar with how people are expected to behave in certain situations.

Teachers say there are two things you can do to improve your skills. Look for contextual clues such as vocabulary, use of examples, and illustrations. Listen for tone of voice . Is the speaker whispering or yelling? Are they using courtesy titles or addressing people by name? Look at how they're standing and consider the words they choose.

• Yule, George. "The Study of Language." Cambridge University Press, 2014, Cambridge.
• Eaton, Sarah. " Language Register and Why It Matters ." Drsaraheaton.com. 22 May 2012.
• Lund University staff. " Register Types ." .Lunduniversity.lu.se. 21 February 2011.
• Wolfram, Walt, and Natalie Schilling. " American English: Dialects and Variation, 3rd Edition ."  John Wiley & Sons, 2015. 
• Young, Jennifer. " How Did That Register? Five Levels of Formality in Language ." Altalang.com. 1 May 2012.
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• Linguistic Variation
• Levels of Usage: Definition and Examples
• What Is Linguistic Anthropology?
• Definition and Examples of Jargon
• Pragmatics Gives Context to Language
• Vocal Fry (Creaky Voice)
• The Difference Between a Speech and Discourse Community
• Learn the Function of Code Switching as a Linguistic Term
• Slang, Jargon, Idiom, and Proverb Explained for English Learners
• Using Informal Style in Prose Writing
• Social Dialect or Sociolect Definition and Examples
• Definition and Examples of Linguists
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Language register: what is it and why does it matter in education.

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Many teacher and parents today lament a lack of formality in student language, especially writing. Ask any educator about the use of so-called "texting language" in student writing, and you will likely see eye rolls, a pained look on their face, hear a sigh or complaint about the decline in language.

What students may not understand, however, is language register — different language and levels of formality are used in different situations and scenarios. While most people have a working understanding of the concept, students may need to be taught or reminded that different scenarios call for different language.

Perhaps the first considerations for students, when speaking or writing, are audience, topic, purpose and location. Many students need to be explicitly taught about these ideas and how to adjust their language use based on these considerations. When working with English learners, explicit instruction in vocabulary and syntax is important.

Students need to understand that different audiences require differing types of language.

For example, the way they speak to their parents may differ from how they speak to their siblings when they are alone. The language they use will likely change when speaking with friends, and should change again when speaking in school.

Similarly, when writing, students should adjust the formality, tone, and vocabulary used based on who the writing is intended for.

Different subject areas in school and differing topics require differing styles of speech and writing. Mathematicians, scientists, historians, artists, musicians and others use differing styles when speaking about or writing about the subject and topic at hand.

For example, when writing in science, students should avoid the use of metaphors or unnecessary language, being as concise as possible while getting the appropriate principle, finding, description, etc., across to the reader. It is critical that we, as educators, share with students the differing language styles used in the subject areas we are discussing and learning about.

Students should clearly understand the purpose of their writing or speech. Is it to inform, argue, persuade, describe, narrate, share cause and effect, or some other purpose? When students are clear on the purpose of the writing or speech, they can more accurately choose the language register to use.

Additionally, teachers will need to explicitly teach students the appropriate general academic vocabulary that pertains to the specific language function. Teachers can include instruction on specific sentence frames, starters and signal words to help students choose the most appropriate language for the purpose of their writing or speech.

Location can, and often does, dictate the appropriate register to use. In a school setting, the language and formality used in the classroom should differ from the language used in the hallways or on the playground. Similarly, the vocabulary and syntax used to answer a simple question versus giving a formal speech in the classroom differs.

Students should know that the way they speak and the words they use in a library versus a restaurant versus a shopping center differ, and they should adjust their language register accordingly.

The considerations listed above will help students begin to understand how language should be used in differing contexts. Once they understand these, or while learning about the considerations, students can learn about and be given examples of the five language registers.

It is helpful for students to learn about register, especially if students are from culturally and linguistically diverse homes. As people are interacting with others, it is acceptable to move from one register into an adjacent register without any problems or awkward moments. However, skipping a level or even more than one level may be considered inappropriate or offensive.

• Frozen/Static Register: This register rarely or never changes. Examples of frozen register include the Pledge of Allegiance or the Preamble to the Constitution.
• Formal/Academic Register: This register includes academic language from speeches, proclamations and formal announcements.
• Consultative Register: This register is formal and acceptable speech often used in professional settings. Some examples of this register include discourse between teachers and students, judges and lawyers, doctors and patients, and between a superior and a subordinate.
• Casual Register: This register is used among friends and peers, and includes informal language including slang and colloquialisms. Casual register is often used among friends, teammates, etc.
• Intimate Register: This register is reserved for close family members such as parents and children and siblings, or intimate people such as spouses.

In the context of schools and instruction, it is important to note that students can be taught about the five registers and when they are used, but perhaps more importantly should be taught the language that is used in the first three registers listed.

Students will encounter the language in the Frozen/Static Register as they study social studies primarily. The Preamble, Pledge of Allegiance and other examples are exemplary resources to teach history along with language and word choice.

Speeches, lab reports and other examples of the Formal/Academic Register are also prime candidates for close reading and analysis of text and language. Lastly, the Consultative Register should be focused on in schools as students learn to interact with teachers, administrators, guest speakers and each other. Utilizing and practicing this register allows students to incorporate skills such as interviewing a professional or practicing being interviewed for a job, or speaking formally to another.

While teaching students about the five registers may not be high on the teaching priority list, being aware of register is helpful as teachers prepare students for a variety of contexts and task. The language involved in each of these registers provides rich opportunities for language and content instruction, especially for English learners.

Teaching the audience, topic, purpose and location in regard to language, including speech and writing, will benefit students as we help them to achieve academically.

Erick Herrmann

Erick Herrmann is an educational consultant specialized in teaching English learners, and he runs Academic Language Learning Institute, Inc. . Erick has worked with thousands of teachers across the nation to help them improve their instructional practice and increase academic achievement for all students.

How Language Varies: Everyday Registers and Academic Registers

• First Online: 16 September 2016

Cite this chapter

• Angel M. Y. Lin 2  

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In this chapter, the concept of language variation is introduced through examining the different features of everyday registers and academic registers with examples from everyday life and academic contexts. In particular, Jim Cummins’ concepts of ‘BICS’ and ‘CALP’ are both delineated and enriched with insights from genre and register theory from the Sydney School. Ahmar Mahboob’s three-dimensional framework integrating language variation theories and register theory is further discussed to explore possible ways of using L1 academic linguistic resources in scaffolding the learning of L2 academic registers.

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Cummins, J. (1980/2001). The entry and exit fallacy in bilingual education. In C. Baker & N. H. Hornberger (Eds.), An introductory reader to the writings of Jim Cummins (pp. 110–138). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. [This paper was originally given as a keynote address at the Workshop on ‘Comparative Review of Identified District Continua’ sponsored by the National Origin Desegregation LAU Centre, at the 9th Annual Bilingual Bicultural Education Conference (NABE), San Diego State University, Anaheim, California, April, 1980].

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Lin, A.M.Y. (2016). How Language Varies: Everyday Registers and Academic Registers. In: Language Across the Curriculum & CLIL in English as an Additional Language (EAL) Contexts. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1802-2_2

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• Vocabulary awareness
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• Genres Introduction The Nature of Academic Writing Student writing genres Writing in Academic Genres Writing for Publication Writing for Administrative Purposes
• Writing The writing process Pre-writing stage Writing stage Rewriting stage
• Language Introduction Common problems and how to avoid them Selective mini grammar Coherence Punctuation Spelling Focus on vocabulary Register and style Dictionaries Corpora - resources for writer autonomy References
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'Ceremonial'

• American Experience (2009) .Retrieved from www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/macarthur/filmmore/reference/primary/macspeech05.html

How To Write In Formal Register For Essays And Letters

Learning to write in formal register is easy once you understand the basics.

When you write a job application, a business letter, an essay, or an academic article, you need to use the formal register.

It’s not only used in writing. In speaking, we use the formal voice when addressing a doctor or judge or in ceremonies such as a marriage.

You certainly know when people speak formally. But what are the elements that change between formal and informal registers?

In This Article

How to write in formal register

There are six levels of formality for language register in writing and speaking .

The two we use the most are formal and informal.

You naturally use an informal voice when you speak to friends or write social media or blog posts.

But when you write a cover letter for a job application, communicate with a government agency, or write an academic essay, you use the formal voice.

How do we control the difference between the two levels?

It’s a combination of changes in grammar and vocabulary and in writing, modifying punctuation.

Another element is the point of view we use . Formal writing tends to avoid using the first person where possible.

It might sound like a lot of elements to consider, but it is easier than it seems.

Let’s look at each of the most essential elements in detail.

Each point has examples to make it easy to understand.

1. Remove all contractions

If there is a number one rule for formal writing, this is it.

You might think that it only applies to writing.

But when we speak formally, we also use full words.

It’s with pleasure that I’m here today to accept the award you’ve bestowed upon me. Informal

It is with pleasure that I am here today to accept the award you have bestowed upon me. Formal

The example sentence above is definitely formal because it uses the words bestowed, accept, upon, and pleasure.

When we mix words like these with contractions, it sounds and reads awkwardly.

2. Avoid acronyms and abbreviations

Similar to contractions, you should rewrite all abbreviations in full.

The same applies to acronyms.

In reference to my letter to the SG of the WHO, I am still awaiting a reply. Informal

In reference to my letter to the Secretary-General of the World Health Organization, I am still awaiting a reply. Formal

Other common examples are, e.g., info and memo.

Use, for example, information and memorandum.

3. Avoid using phrasal verbs

The formal register tends to avoid Anglo-Saxon verbs such as hit, put, cut, got, and sometimes even go.

But phrasal verbs like give up, go away, put up with, go on, and look into should be avoided whenever possible.

We got your complaint, and we assure you that we will look into it asap. Informal

We received your complaint, and we assure you that we will investigate it as soon as possible. Formal

When you can’t think of a single-word verb to replace a phrasal verb, use a thesaurus to help you.

4. Use indirect questions

Direct questions are generally informal. So for questions in formal writing, you need to rewrite them in an indirect form.

Indirect questions use an introductory phrase and often remove the question adverb, do.

What time does the meeting start? Direct

Could you tell me what time the meeting starts? Indirect

Do you work in New York? Direct

I was wondering if you work in New York. Indirect

5. Remove slang and idioms

To maintain formality, be aware of slang and clichés. Also, avoid idioms and try to find better alternatives.

We sent your application to HR, and we are waiting for them to okay it. But sometimes, these things move at a snail’s pace . Informal

We sent your application to Human Resources, and we are waiting for them to approve it. However, these things often move slowly. Formal

Other common words to avoid include cool, awesome, and yeah.

6. Write numbers under one hundred

Knowing when to spell out numbers is an important point in formal writing.

Generally, you need to spell out numbers under one hundred and use digits for larger numbers.

But if a sentence starts with a number , it is always written in full.

2,000 people attended the exhibition, but only 45 people bought our products. However, we have 125 new contacts who may be interested in buying at a later date. Informal

Two thousand people attended the exhibition, but only forty-five people bought our products. However, we have 125 new contacts who may be interested in buying at a later date. Formal

7. Use longer linking words

When speaking or writing using the informal register, we tend to use and, but, and so , a lot.

The seven short coordinating conjunctions , for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so are often referred to by the acronym, Fanboys.

It is best in formal writing to replace these with longer linking words.

We received your delivery, but some items were damaged. So I have sent a list of the items you need to replace. Informal

We received your delivery. However , some items were damaged. Therefore , I have sent a list of the items you need to replace. Formal

8. Use longer verbs

As mentioned in point three, when you write in a formal register, you can often replace short Anglo-Saxon verbs with longer and better alternatives.

We got a new car last week, and I couldn’t wait to go for a drive. Informal

Can you put it on the table for me? Informal

We’ll have to cut that item from the agenda. Informal

We purchased a new car last week, and I was eager to drive it. Formal

Can you place it on the table for me? Formal

We will have to remove that item from the agenda. Formal

9. Use more complex sentences

Longer and more complex sentences are very common in formal writing.

Try joining short sentences together with perhaps relative pronouns.

We are waiting for the delivery. It should have arrived yesterday. But it is a result of the transport strike. Informal

We are waiting for the delivery, which should have arrived yesterday if it was not for the transport strike. Formal

10. Use noun phrases

It is one of the best little tricks when trying to write formally. All you need to do is use an object and turn it into the subject.

The big benefit is that it will help you avoid lots of sentences starting with I and you.

I went to the exhibition, and it was a great opportunity to meet new clients. Informal

The exhibition I attended was an excellent opportunity to meet new clients. Formal

If you follow the ten key points above, it’s easy to control your level of formality .

But as with all forms of writing, try to avoid using the passive voice when you write in the formal register.

Also, be selective with your vocabulary and try to use longer and better words whenever possible.

But if there is one takeaway, the biggest mistake you can make is using contractions in formal writing.

Related reading: Wish In The Past Tense For Present And Future Wants

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Appendix : List of language registers

Registers are different styles of language that are associated with different social contexts. Registers can vary in terms of formality, respect, and vocabulary. This chart lists and defines different registers.

References [ edit ]

• ^ https://www.meertens.knaw.nl/ss17/contributions/abstract.php?paperID=114

• English terms with usage examples

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PAPER 8 DIALECT, REGISTER AND STYLE

Related Papers

Sherif Makkawy

This paper explores the linguistic as well as sociolinguistic factors or criteria used by linguists and sociolinguists to help define both terms with examples of relevant language varieties and dialects in addition to the sociopolitical factors determining the difference between the standard variety, which is considered a language per se, and the related varieties, whether they are distinctive in their phonetic or syntactic form or similar.

Todd L Sandel

A dialect is a distinct manner of speech that differs in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar from other regional dialects nearby (Wolfram, Adger, & Christian, 1999). For instance, a person from eastern Massachusetts may add the [r] sound to the word “idea” and pronounce it as “idear.” The same person may go to a store to purchase a sandwich that she calls a “grinder” and others call a “sub” or “hoagie.”Or, as we see in this sample of quoted speech coming from the character Tom Joad in John Steinbeck’s famous novel The Grapes of Wrath, there is a distinct grammar displayed in the “Oklahoma dialect”: “‘They was too old,’ he said. ‘They wouldn’t of saw nothin’ that’s here.’” Finally, a feature of most dialects that are considered members of a given language (e.g., dialects of German, or dialects of English) is that they are mutually intelligible, meaning that native speakers of different dialects of X language can understand each other for the most part. Yet, as will be explained later, some dialects, such as Chinese, are not mutually intelligible.

Promise Otovwe

Maria Isabel Maldonado Garcia , Akhtar Hussain Sandhu

History is replete with events, change, cause and effect on the basis of language. Political movements and geographical changes occurred in different corners of the world and eras have slightly and massively been linked with language. Many regions are currently facing separatist movements mainly rooted in languages or dialects. A few authors have written about the criteria to define a particular linguistic system as a language in terms of the number of speakers, its prestige, whether they have been accepted as national languages, whether they present written forms and literary traditions, whether similar linguistic systems exist in the same country or area which present an elevated level of lexical similarity, whether they have less number of speakers, etc. It seems simple to differentiate between a language and a dialect. However, although the definition of language seems to be clear and every dictionary of the world contains it, in practical terms when facing the dilemma of whether a particular linguistic system is a language or a dialect, these definitions are blurry from a scientific point of view and sociolinguistic and political pressures may play a role in many cases. This paper will propose better criteria towards differentiation of language and dialect basing the argument on the empirical evidence of the history of linguistcs.

Hikmat Ahmed

Frederick Wehbe

Language & Communication

Malcah Yaeger-Dror

ernita daulay

The purpose of human life is to serve, and to show compassion and the will to help others. Language is one of the most important features that separate humanbeings from the animal world. Language is directly connected withthought. Whereas dialect refers to a variation of a language that is characteristic of the users of that language, register refers to a variation of a language that is determined by use a situation or context. Dialects are different ways of saying the same thing; they reflect social structure (e.g., class, gender, and origin). Registers are ways of saying different things; they reflect social processes. Dialects are associated with the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the students who belong to the same broad linguistic group; registers are associated with the characteristics of the language (especially academic language) used in tests. Language as a source of measurement error addresses the fact that bilingual individuals do not typically replicate their...

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Language Registers

There are five language registers or styles. Each level has an appropriate use that is determined by differing situations. It would certainly be inappropriate to use language and vocabulary reserve for a boyfriend or girlfriend when speaking in the classroom. Thus the appropriate language register depends upon the audience (who), the topic (what), purpose (why) and location (where).

You must control the use of language registers in order to enjoy success in every aspect and situation you encounter.

1.       Static Register

This style of communications RARELY or NEVER changes. It is “frozen” in time and content. e.g. the Pledge of Allegiance, the Lord’s Prayer, the Preamble to the US Constitution, the Alma Mater, a bibliographic reference, laws .

2.       Formal Register

This language is used in formal settings and is one-way in nature. This use of language usually follows a commonly accepted format. It is usually impersonal and formal. A common format for this register are speeches. e.g. sermons, rhetorical statements and questions, speeches, pronouncements made by judges,  announcements.

3.       Consultative Register

This is a standard form of communications. Users engage in a mutually accepted structure of communications. It is formal and societal expectations accompany the users of this speech. It is professional discourse. e.g. when strangers meet, communications between a superior and a subordinate, doctor & patient, lawyer & client, lawyer & judge, teacher & student, counselor & client,

4.       Casual Register

This is informal language used by peers and friends. Slang, vulgarities and colloquialisms are normal. This is “group” language. One must be member to engage in this register. e.g. buddies, teammates, chats and emails, and blogs, and letters to friends.

5.       Intimate Register

This communications is private. It is reserved for close family members or intimate people. e.g. husband & wife, boyfriend & girlfriend, siblings, parent & children.

Rule of Language Use:

One can usually transition from one language register to an adjacent one without encountering repercussions. However, skipping one or more levels is usually considered inappropriate and even offensive. 

Source: Montano-Harmon, M. R. “Developing English for Academic Purposes” California State University, Fullerton.

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Title: q-groundcam: quantifying grounding in vision language models via gradcam.

Abstract: Vision and Language Models (VLMs) continue to demonstrate remarkable zero-shot (ZS) performance across various tasks. However, many probing studies have revealed that even the best-performing VLMs struggle to capture aspects of compositional scene understanding, lacking the ability to properly ground and localize linguistic phrases in images. Recent VLM advancements include scaling up both model and dataset sizes, additional training objectives and levels of supervision, and variations in the model architectures. To characterize the grounding ability of VLMs, such as phrase grounding, referring expressions comprehension, and relationship understanding, Pointing Game has been used as an evaluation metric for datasets with bounding box annotations. In this paper, we introduce a novel suite of quantitative metrics that utilize GradCAM activations to rigorously evaluate the grounding capabilities of pre-trained VLMs like CLIP, BLIP, and ALBEF. These metrics offer an explainable and quantifiable approach for a more detailed comparison of the zero-shot capabilities of VLMs and enable measuring models' grounding uncertainty. This characterization reveals interesting tradeoffs between the size of the model, the dataset size, and their performance.

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Special Features

Vendor voice.

Graph databases speaking the same language after ISO gives GQL the nod

Standards body adoption could help ease portability between vendors.

GQL, the query language for graph databases, has been recognized by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), offering users more portability of queries and skills between graph database systems.

The first database query language to be certified by ISO since SQL in 1987, the new standard was developed by a group of database vendors, academics, and tech infrastructure companies.

Carl Olofson, research vice president at analyst IDC, said the industry had been waiting for "quite some time" for a standard graph query language to emerge.

"The formalization of GQL should remove a key barrier to graph database adoption," he said. "Although query languages are sometimes used for import and export, the main function of GQL is in traversing a graph with all its interconnections, finding patterns and locating specific nodes based on their relationships with other nodes. Other query languages, including SQL with graph enhancements, can't really support that completely."

The standard was edited by Stefan Plantikow, Neo4j product manager and standards engineer, and as such the graph database specialist is one of the leading companies in the collaboration. Neo4j also has its own query language called Cypher.

Jim Webber, Neo4j's chief scientist and a professor of computer science at Newcastle University, said those who understand the ubiquitous database query language SQL would see some familiar things in GQL, while other elements are very different.

"If you're familiar with SQL, then certainly things like the aggregate parts of GQL are going to look very familiar," he said. "But if you're familiar with things like Cypher or open Cypher, that's a much more straightforward segue into GQL. SQL deals with tables and sets, so its machinery is geared up for that. GQL code deals with graph so the machinery works on pattern matching and path expressions. Having said that, if you're someone that's competent at SQL, you're easily smart enough to be able to pick up [GQL] because graphs are a bit easier."

Webber argued that the emergence of the standard would give CIOs a sense of confidence in investing in the graph database model as they could more easily migrate their applications and queries from one vendor to another, so long as they have both adopted the standard.

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Incidentally, GQL should not be confused with Google Query Language, used for Google's databases or GraphQL, a language for querying and managing APIs.

In a sign of harmony among software vendors, TigerGraph, Neo4j's main rival in the market, is also supporting the standard.

In a blog post , Mingxi Wu, TigerGraph SVP of engineering, writes: "As the graph database industry evolves, it becomes the third canonical database, alongside relational databases and key-value store databases.

"In the past decade, the burgeoning graph database industry has witnessed a plethora of vendors offering their own graph database products, each accompanied by their proprietary graph query language. Amidst this thriving ecosystem, GQL emerged to address the growing demand for a standardized graph query language. Its publication establishes a solid foundation and drives the prosperity of graph databases in the coming years, akin to what SQL did for relational databases."

Whether the graph database model is better for representing networks of relationships than relational systems is still up for debate. It did come out on top of The Register's Great Graph Debate last year, but only narrowly. A new standard query language might help, but it won't change the fundamentals. ®

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Opinion | This Mental Health Awareness Month, Congress…

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Opinion | This Mental Health Awareness Month, Congress should unlock telehealth’s potential

In February of 2023, over 30 percent of U.S. adults reported symptoms consistent with depression or anxiety. Of adults suffering from these afflictions, more than 20% reported needing mental health services, but not receiving them. We all recall the pandemic-era isolation. In many cases, that isolation was even greater for Americans with language barriers. Just as FaceTime and Zoom helped Americans address their need for social interaction, telehealth expanded to help address their need for behavioral health services like virtual counseling. While social distancing and quarantines have ended, the mental health crisis persists. Telehealth must continue to be a part of our toolkit to address this problem.

Today, approximately 60% of psychiatric services are provided via telehealth. Telehealth has remarkable potential to increase access to health services and improve patient outcomes. While patients seeking behavioral health care previously had to take the time to get to a clinic and see a provider in person, now you can get therapy from the comfort of your couch, home office, or a park bench. However, barriers to this revolutionary technology remain for too many Americans.

For many reasons, seniors, minorities, and non-native English speakers are the ones least likely to get the care they need, as telehealth increasingly dominates the behavioral health space. Individuals with disabilities that inhibit their speech or comprehension of English are among the 25 million Americans with limited English proficiency (LEP) who may struggle to find the care they need. In fact, only 31 percent of Hispanics and 22 percent of Asians with mental illness receive any kind of treatment.

The Expanding Language Access in Telehealth Act seeks to make behavioral telehealth services more accessible for Medicare beneficiaries, of whom there are more than 80,000 in California’s 45 th Congressional District. The District is also home to 175,000 LEP individuals and nearly 75,000 individuals with a disability. For them, and for millions like them across the country, breaking down barriers to care will drastically improve physical and mental health outcomes. 

Telehealth offers an opportunity to turn the tide in the mental health crisis, but we must remove barriers to access. We cannot allow lack of English proficiency to shut out millions of Americans from getting the help they need. 

By enacting targeted policy reforms, we can unlock telehealth’s potential to connect Americans with convenient, quality, and accessible care. These pieces of legislation are a part of the key. Congress should pass the SPEAK Act and the Expanding Language Access in Telehealth Act so that every American can happily and healthily build their own American Dream.

Michelle Steel is the United States Representative for California’s 45 th District, which comprises parts of Orange and Los Angeles Counties. She is a member of the House Ways and Means Committee, which has jurisdiction over many areas of health care policy. 

Isabel Soto is the Policy Director of the LIBRE Initiative, a 501(c4) nonpartisan, nonprofit grassroots organization dedicated to amplifying the voice of the U.S. Hispanic community so it can thrive and contribute to a more prosperous America.

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