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How to Write a Methods Section for a Psychology Paper

Tips and Examples of an APA Methods Section

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

the method section of research plan typically does not specify

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

Verywell / Brianna Gilmartin

The methods section of an APA format psychology paper provides the methods and procedures used in a research study or experiment . This part of an APA paper is critical because it allows other researchers to see exactly how you conducted your research.

Method refers to the procedure that was used in a research study. It included a precise description of how the experiments were performed and why particular procedures were selected. While the APA technically refers to this section as the 'method section,' it is also often known as a 'methods section.'

The methods section ensures the experiment's reproducibility and the assessment of alternative methods that might produce different results. It also allows researchers to replicate the experiment and judge the study's validity.

This article discusses how to write a methods section for a psychology paper, including important elements to include and tips that can help.

What to Include in a Method Section

So what exactly do you need to include when writing your method section? You should provide detailed information on the following:

Research design
Participants
Participant behavior

The method section should provide enough information to allow other researchers to replicate your experiment or study.

Components of a Method Section

The method section should utilize subheadings to divide up different subsections. These subsections typically include participants, materials, design, and procedure.

Participants

In this part of the method section, you should describe the participants in your experiment, including who they were (and any unique features that set them apart from the general population), how many there were, and how they were selected. If you utilized random selection to choose your participants, it should be noted here.

For example: "We randomly selected 100 children from elementary schools near the University of Arizona."

At the very minimum, this part of your method section must convey:

Basic demographic characteristics of your participants (such as sex, age, ethnicity, or religion)
The population from which your participants were drawn
Any restrictions on your pool of participants
How many participants were assigned to each condition and how they were assigned to each group (i.e., randomly assignment , another selection method, etc.)
Why participants took part in your research (i.e., the study was advertised at a college or hospital, they received some type of incentive, etc.)

Information about participants helps other researchers understand how your study was performed, how generalizable the result might be, and allows other researchers to replicate the experiment with other populations to see if they might obtain the same results.

In this part of the method section, you should describe the materials, measures, equipment, or stimuli used in the experiment. This may include:

Testing instruments
Technical equipment
Any psychological assessments that were used
Any special equipment that was used

For example: "Two stories from Sullivan et al.'s (1994) second-order false belief attribution tasks were used to assess children's understanding of second-order beliefs."

For standard equipment such as computers, televisions, and videos, you can simply name the device and not provide further explanation.

Specialized equipment should be given greater detail, especially if it is complex or created for a niche purpose. In some instances, such as if you created a special material or apparatus for your study, you might need to include an illustration of the item in the appendix of your paper.

In this part of your method section, describe the type of design used in the experiment. Specify the variables as well as the levels of these variables. Identify:

The independent variables
Dependent variables
Control variables
Any extraneous variables that might influence your results.

Also, explain whether your experiment uses a within-groups or between-groups design.

For example: "The experiment used a 3x2 between-subjects design. The independent variables were age and understanding of second-order beliefs."

The next part of your method section should detail the procedures used in your experiment. Your procedures should explain:

What the participants did
How data was collected
The order in which steps occurred

For example: "An examiner interviewed children individually at their school in one session that lasted 20 minutes on average. The examiner explained to each child that he or she would be told two short stories and that some questions would be asked after each story. All sessions were videotaped so the data could later be coded."

Keep this subsection concise yet detailed. Explain what you did and how you did it, but do not overwhelm your readers with too much information.

Tips for How to Write a Methods Section

In addition to following the basic structure of an APA method section, there are also certain things you should remember when writing this section of your paper. Consider the following tips when writing this section:

Use the past tense : Always write the method section in the past tense.
Be descriptive : Provide enough detail that another researcher could replicate your experiment, but focus on brevity. Avoid unnecessary detail that is not relevant to the outcome of the experiment.
Use an academic tone : Use formal language and avoid slang or colloquial expressions. Word choice is also important. Refer to the people in your experiment or study as "participants" rather than "subjects."
Use APA format : Keep a style guide on hand as you write your method section. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association is the official source for APA style.
Make connections : Read through each section of your paper for agreement with other sections. If you mention procedures in the method section, these elements should be discussed in the results and discussion sections.
Proofread : Check your paper for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors.. typos, grammar problems, and spelling errors. Although a spell checker is a handy tool, there are some errors only you can catch.

After writing a draft of your method section, be sure to get a second opinion. You can often become too close to your work to see errors or lack of clarity. Take a rough draft of your method section to your university's writing lab for additional assistance.

A Word From Verywell

The method section is one of the most important components of your APA format paper. The goal of your paper should be to clearly detail what you did in your experiment. Provide enough detail that another researcher could replicate your study if they wanted.

Finally, if you are writing your paper for a class or for a specific publication, be sure to keep in mind any specific instructions provided by your instructor or by the journal editor. Your instructor may have certain requirements that you need to follow while writing your method section.

Frequently Asked Questions

While the subsections can vary, the three components that should be included are sections on the participants, the materials, and the procedures.

Describe who the participants were in the study and how they were selected.
Define and describe the materials that were used including any equipment, tests, or assessments
Describe how the data was collected

To write your methods section in APA format, describe your participants, materials, study design, and procedures. Keep this section succinct, and always write in the past tense. The main heading of this section should be labeled "Method" and it should be centered, bolded, and capitalized. Each subheading within this section should be bolded, left-aligned and in title case.

The purpose of the methods section is to describe what you did in your experiment. It should be brief, but include enough detail that someone could replicate your experiment based on this information. Your methods section should detail what you did to answer your research question. Describe how the study was conducted, the study design that was used and why it was chosen, and how you collected the data and analyzed the results.

Erdemir F. How to write a materials and methods section of a scientific article ? Turk J Urol . 2013;39(Suppl 1):10-5. doi:10.5152/tud.2013.047

Kallet RH. How to write the methods section of a research paper . Respir Care . 2004;49(10):1229-32. PMID: 15447808.

American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). Washington DC: The American Psychological Association; 2019.

American Psychological Association. APA Style Journal Article Reporting Standards . Published 2020.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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How to Write Your Methods

Ensure understanding, reproducibility and replicability

What should you include in your methods section, and how much detail is appropriate?

Why Methods Matter

The methods section was once the most likely part of a paper to be unfairly abbreviated, overly summarized, or even relegated to hard-to-find sections of a publisher’s website. While some journals may responsibly include more detailed elements of methods in supplementary sections, the movement for increased reproducibility and rigor in science has reinstated the importance of the methods section. Methods are now viewed as a key element in establishing the credibility of the research being reported, alongside the open availability of data and results.

A clear methods section impacts editorial evaluation and readers’ understanding, and is also the backbone of transparency and replicability.

For example, the Reproducibility Project: Cancer Biology project set out in 2013 to replicate experiments from 50 high profile cancer papers, but revised their target to 18 papers once they understood how much methodological detail was not contained in the original papers.

What to include in your methods section

What you include in your methods sections depends on what field you are in and what experiments you are performing. However, the general principle in place at the majority of journals is summarized well by the guidelines at PLOS ONE : “The Materials and Methods section should provide enough detail to allow suitably skilled investigators to fully replicate your study. ” The emphases here are deliberate: the methods should enable readers to understand your paper, and replicate your study. However, there is no need to go into the level of detail that a lay-person would require—the focus is on the reader who is also trained in your field, with the suitable skills and knowledge to attempt a replication.

A constant principle of rigorous science

A methods section that enables other researchers to understand and replicate your results is a constant principle of rigorous, transparent, and Open Science. Aim to be thorough, even if a particular journal doesn’t require the same level of detail . Reproducibility is all of our responsibility. You cannot create any problems by exceeding a minimum standard of information. If a journal still has word-limits—either for the overall article or specific sections—and requires some methodological details to be in a supplemental section, that is OK as long as the extra details are searchable and findable .

Imagine replicating your own work, years in the future

As part of PLOS’ presentation on Reproducibility and Open Publishing (part of UCSF’s Reproducibility Series ) we recommend planning the level of detail in your methods section by imagining you are writing for your future self, replicating your own work. When you consider that you might be at a different institution, with different account logins, applications, resources, and access levels—you can help yourself imagine the level of specificity that you yourself would require to redo the exact experiment. Consider:

Which details would you need to be reminded of?
Which cell line, or antibody, or software, or reagent did you use, and does it have a Research Resource ID (RRID) that you can cite?
Which version of a questionnaire did you use in your survey?
Exactly which visual stimulus did you show participants, and is it publicly available?
What participants did you decide to exclude?
What process did you adjust, during your work?

Tip: Be sure to capture any changes to your protocols

You yourself would want to know about any adjustments, if you ever replicate the work, so you can surmise that anyone else would want to as well. Even if a necessary adjustment you made was not ideal, transparency is the key to ensuring this is not regarded as an issue in the future. It is far better to transparently convey any non-optimal methods, or methodological constraints, than to conceal them, which could result in reproducibility or ethical issues downstream.

Visual aids for methods help when reading the whole paper

Consider whether a visual representation of your methods could be appropriate or aid understanding your process. A visual reference readers can easily return to, like a flow-diagram, decision-tree, or checklist, can help readers to better understand the complete article, not just the methods section.

Ethical Considerations

In addition to describing what you did, it is just as important to assure readers that you also followed all relevant ethical guidelines when conducting your research. While ethical standards and reporting guidelines are often presented in a separate section of a paper, ensure that your methods and protocols actually follow these guidelines. Read more about ethics .

Existing standards, checklists, guidelines, partners

While the level of detail contained in a methods section should be guided by the universal principles of rigorous science outlined above, various disciplines, fields, and projects have worked hard to design and develop consistent standards, guidelines, and tools to help with reporting all types of experiment. Below, you’ll find some of the key initiatives. Ensure you read the submission guidelines for the specific journal you are submitting to, in order to discover any further journal- or field-specific policies to follow, or initiatives/tools to utilize.

Tip: Keep your paper moving forward by providing the proper paperwork up front

Be sure to check the journal guidelines and provide the necessary documents with your manuscript submission. Collecting the necessary documentation can greatly slow the first round of peer review, or cause delays when you submit your revision.

Randomized Controlled Trials – CONSORT The Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) project covers various initiatives intended to prevent the problems of inadequate reporting of randomized controlled trials. The primary initiative is an evidence-based minimum set of recommendations for reporting randomized trials known as the CONSORT Statement .

Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses – PRISMA The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses ( PRISMA ) is an evidence-based minimum set of items focusing on the reporting of reviews evaluating randomized trials and other types of research.

Research using Animals – ARRIVE The Animal Research: Reporting of In Vivo Experiments ( ARRIVE ) guidelines encourage maximizing the information reported in research using animals thereby minimizing unnecessary studies. (Original study and proposal , and updated guidelines , in PLOS Biology .)

Laboratory Protocols Protocols.io has developed a platform specifically for the sharing and updating of laboratory protocols , which are assigned their own DOI and can be linked from methods sections of papers to enhance reproducibility. Contextualize your protocol and improve discovery with an accompanying Lab Protocol article in PLOS ONE .

Consistent reporting of Materials, Design, and Analysis – the MDAR checklist A cross-publisher group of editors and experts have developed, tested, and rolled out a checklist to help establish and harmonize reporting standards in the Life Sciences . The checklist , which is available for use by authors to compile their methods, and editors/reviewers to check methods, establishes a minimum set of requirements in transparent reporting and is adaptable to any discipline within the Life Sciences, by covering a breadth of potentially relevant methodological items and considerations. If you are in the Life Sciences and writing up your methods section, try working through the MDAR checklist and see whether it helps you include all relevant details into your methods, and whether it reminded you of anything you might have missed otherwise.

Summary Writing tips

The main challenge you may find when writing your methods is keeping it readable AND covering all the details needed for reproducibility and replicability. While this is difficult, do not compromise on rigorous standards for credibility!

Keep in mind future replicability, alongside understanding and readability.
Follow checklists, and field- and journal-specific guidelines.
Consider a commitment to rigorous and transparent science a personal responsibility, and not just adhering to journal guidelines.
Establish whether there are persistent identifiers for any research resources you use that can be specifically cited in your methods section.
Deposit your laboratory protocols in Protocols.io, establishing a permanent link to them. You can update your protocols later if you improve on them, as can future scientists who follow your protocols.
Consider visual aids like flow-diagrams, lists, to help with reading other sections of the paper.
Be specific about all decisions made during the experiments that someone reproducing your work would need to know.

Don’t

Summarize or abbreviate methods without giving full details in a discoverable supplemental section.
Presume you will always be able to remember how you performed the experiments, or have access to private or institutional notebooks and resources.
Attempt to hide constraints or non-optimal decisions you had to make–transparency is the key to ensuring the credibility of your research.
How to Write a Great Title
How to Write an Abstract
How to Report Statistics
How to Write Discussions and Conclusions
How to Edit Your Work

The contents of the Peer Review Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

The contents of the Writing Center are also available as a live, interactive training session, complete with slides, talking points, and activities. …

There’s a lot to consider when deciding where to submit your work. Learn how to choose a journal that will help your study reach its audience, while reflecting your values as a researcher…

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Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

6. The Methodology
Purpose of Guide
Design Flaws to Avoid
Independent and Dependent Variables
Glossary of Research Terms
Reading Research Effectively
Narrowing a Topic Idea
Broadening a Topic Idea
Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
Academic Writing Style
Applying Critical Thinking
Choosing a Title
Making an Outline
Paragraph Development
Research Process Video Series
Executive Summary
The C.A.R.S. Model
Background Information
The Research Problem/Question
Theoretical Framework
Citation Tracking
Content Alert Services
Evaluating Sources
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Tiertiary Sources
Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods
Insiderness
Using Non-Textual Elements
Limitations of the Study
Common Grammar Mistakes
Writing Concisely
Avoiding Plagiarism
Footnotes or Endnotes?
Further Readings
Generative AI and Writing
USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
Bibliography

The methods section describes actions taken to investigate a research problem and the rationale for the application of specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information applied to understanding the problem, thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability. The methodology section of a research paper answers two main questions: How was the data collected or generated? And, how was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and always written in the past tense.

Kallet, Richard H. "How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper." Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004): 1229-1232.

Importance of a Good Methodology Section

You must explain how you obtained and analyzed your results for the following reasons:

Readers need to know how the data was obtained because the method you chose affects the results and, by extension, how you interpreted their significance in the discussion section of your paper.
Methodology is crucial for any branch of scholarship because an unreliable method produces unreliable results and, as a consequence, undermines the value of your analysis of the findings.
In most cases, there are a variety of different methods you can choose to investigate a research problem. The methodology section of your paper should clearly articulate the reasons why you have chosen a particular procedure or technique.
The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated in a way that is consistent with accepted practice in the field of study. For example, if you are using a multiple choice questionnaire, readers need to know that it offered your respondents a reasonable range of answers to choose from.
The method must be appropriate to fulfilling the overall aims of the study. For example, you need to ensure that you have a large enough sample size to be able to generalize and make recommendations based upon the findings.
The methodology should discuss the problems that were anticipated and the steps you took to prevent them from occurring. For any problems that do arise, you must describe the ways in which they were minimized or why these problems do not impact in any meaningful way your interpretation of the findings.
In the social and behavioral sciences, it is important to always provide sufficient information to allow other researchers to adopt or replicate your methodology. This information is particularly important when a new method has been developed or an innovative use of an existing method is utilized.

Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article. Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Denscombe, Martyn. The Good Research Guide: For Small-Scale Social Research Projects . 5th edition. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 2014; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008.

Structure and Writing Style

I. Groups of Research Methods

There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences:

The e mpirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar manner that researchers study the natural sciences . This type of research focuses on objective knowledge, research questions that can be answered yes or no, and operational definitions of variables to be measured. The empirical-analytical group employs deductive reasoning that uses existing theory as a foundation for formulating hypotheses that need to be tested. This approach is focused on explanation.
The i nterpretative group of methods is focused on understanding phenomenon in a comprehensive, holistic way . Interpretive methods focus on analytically disclosing the meaning-making practices of human subjects [the why, how, or by what means people do what they do], while showing how those practices arrange so that it can be used to generate observable outcomes. Interpretive methods allow you to recognize your connection to the phenomena under investigation. However, the interpretative group requires careful examination of variables because it focuses more on subjective knowledge.

II. Content

The introduction to your methodology section should begin by restating the research problem and underlying assumptions underpinning your study. This is followed by situating the methods you used to gather, analyze, and process information within the overall “tradition” of your field of study and within the particular research design you have chosen to study the problem. If the method you choose lies outside of the tradition of your field [i.e., your review of the literature demonstrates that the method is not commonly used], provide a justification for how your choice of methods specifically addresses the research problem in ways that have not been utilized in prior studies.

The remainder of your methodology section should describe the following:

Decisions made in selecting the data you have analyzed or, in the case of qualitative research, the subjects and research setting you have examined,
Tools and methods used to identify and collect information, and how you identified relevant variables,
The ways in which you processed the data and the procedures you used to analyze that data, and
The specific research tools or strategies that you utilized to study the underlying hypothesis and research questions.

In addition, an effectively written methodology section should:

Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating your research problem . Is your study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed method)? Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or a more neutral stance?
Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design . Your methods for gathering data should have a clear connection to your research problem. In other words, make sure that your methods will actually address the problem. One of the most common deficiencies found in research papers is that the proposed methodology is not suitable to achieving the stated objective of your paper.
Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to use , such as, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, observation, archival research. If you are analyzing existing data, such as a data set or archival documents, describe how it was originally created or gathered and by whom. Also be sure to explain how older data is still relevant to investigating the current research problem.
Explain how you intend to analyze your results . Will you use statistical analysis? Will you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyze a text or explain observed behaviors? Describe how you plan to obtain an accurate assessment of relationships, patterns, trends, distributions, and possible contradictions found in the data.
Provide background and a rationale for methodologies that are unfamiliar for your readers . Very often in the social sciences, research problems and the methods for investigating them require more explanation/rationale than widely accepted rules governing the natural and physical sciences. Be clear and concise in your explanation.
Provide a justification for subject selection and sampling procedure . For instance, if you propose to conduct interviews, how do you intend to select the sample population? If you are analyzing texts, which texts have you chosen, and why? If you are using statistics, why is this set of data being used? If other data sources exist, explain why the data you chose is most appropriate to addressing the research problem.
Provide a justification for case study selection . A common method of analyzing research problems in the social sciences is to analyze specific cases. These can be a person, place, event, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis that are either examined as a singular topic of in-depth investigation or multiple topics of investigation studied for the purpose of comparing or contrasting findings. In either method, you should explain why a case or cases were chosen and how they specifically relate to the research problem.
Describe potential limitations . Are there any practical limitations that could affect your data collection? How will you attempt to control for potential confounding variables and errors? If your methodology may lead to problems you can anticipate, state this openly and show why pursuing this methodology outweighs the risk of these problems cropping up.

NOTE: Once you have written all of the elements of the methods section, subsequent revisions should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and as logically as possibly. The description of how you prepared to study the research problem, how you gathered the data, and the protocol for analyzing the data should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic. If necessary, consider using appendices for raw data.

ANOTHER NOTE: If you are conducting a qualitative analysis of a research problem , the methodology section generally requires a more elaborate description of the methods used as well as an explanation of the processes applied to gathering and analyzing of data than is generally required for studies using quantitative methods. Because you are the primary instrument for generating the data [e.g., through interviews or observations], the process for collecting that data has a significantly greater impact on producing the findings. Therefore, qualitative research requires a more detailed description of the methods used.

YET ANOTHER NOTE: If your study involves interviews, observations, or other qualitative techniques involving human subjects , you may be required to obtain approval from the university's Office for the Protection of Research Subjects before beginning your research. This is not a common procedure for most undergraduate level student research assignments. However, i f your professor states you need approval, you must include a statement in your methods section that you received official endorsement and adequate informed consent from the office and that there was a clear assessment and minimization of risks to participants and to the university. This statement informs the reader that your study was conducted in an ethical and responsible manner. In some cases, the approval notice is included as an appendix to your paper.

III. Problems to Avoid

Irrelevant Detail The methodology section of your paper should be thorough but concise. Do not provide any background information that does not directly help the reader understand why a particular method was chosen, how the data was gathered or obtained, and how the data was analyzed in relation to the research problem [note: analyzed, not interpreted! Save how you interpreted the findings for the discussion section]. With this in mind, the page length of your methods section will generally be less than any other section of your paper except the conclusion.

Unnecessary Explanation of Basic Procedures Remember that you are not writing a how-to guide about a particular method. You should make the assumption that readers possess a basic understanding of how to investigate the research problem on their own and, therefore, you do not have to go into great detail about specific methodological procedures. The focus should be on how you applied a method , not on the mechanics of doing a method. An exception to this rule is if you select an unconventional methodological approach; if this is the case, be sure to explain why this approach was chosen and how it enhances the overall process of discovery.

Problem Blindness It is almost a given that you will encounter problems when collecting or generating your data, or, gaps will exist in existing data or archival materials. Do not ignore these problems or pretend they did not occur. Often, documenting how you overcame obstacles can form an interesting part of the methodology. It demonstrates to the reader that you can provide a cogent rationale for the decisions you made to minimize the impact of any problems that arose.

Literature Review Just as the literature review section of your paper provides an overview of sources you have examined while researching a particular topic, the methodology section should cite any sources that informed your choice and application of a particular method [i.e., the choice of a survey should include any citations to the works you used to help construct the survey].

It’s More than Sources of Information! A description of a research study's method should not be confused with a description of the sources of information. Such a list of sources is useful in and of itself, especially if it is accompanied by an explanation about the selection and use of the sources. The description of the project's methodology complements a list of sources in that it sets forth the organization and interpretation of information emanating from those sources.

Azevedo, L.F. et al. "How to Write a Scientific Paper: Writing the Methods Section." Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia 17 (2011): 232-238; Blair Lorrie. “Choosing a Methodology.” In Writing a Graduate Thesis or Dissertation , Teaching Writing Series. (Rotterdam: Sense Publishers 2016), pp. 49-72; Butin, Dan W. The Education Dissertation A Guide for Practitioner Scholars . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2010; Carter, Susan. Structuring Your Research Thesis . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012; Kallet, Richard H. “How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper.” Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004):1229-1232; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008. Methods Section. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Rudestam, Kjell Erik and Rae R. Newton. “The Method Chapter: Describing Your Research Plan.” In Surviving Your Dissertation: A Comprehensive Guide to Content and Process . (Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 2015), pp. 87-115; What is Interpretive Research. Institute of Public and International Affairs, University of Utah; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Methods and Materials. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

Writing Tip

Statistical Designs and Tests? Do Not Fear Them!

Don't avoid using a quantitative approach to analyzing your research problem just because you fear the idea of applying statistical designs and tests. A qualitative approach, such as conducting interviews or content analysis of archival texts, can yield exciting new insights about a research problem, but it should not be undertaken simply because you have a disdain for running a simple regression. A well designed quantitative research study can often be accomplished in very clear and direct ways, whereas, a similar study of a qualitative nature usually requires considerable time to analyze large volumes of data and a tremendous burden to create new paths for analysis where previously no path associated with your research problem had existed.

To locate data and statistics, GO HERE .

Another Writing Tip

Knowing the Relationship Between Theories and Methods

There can be multiple meaning associated with the term "theories" and the term "methods" in social sciences research. A helpful way to delineate between them is to understand "theories" as representing different ways of characterizing the social world when you research it and "methods" as representing different ways of generating and analyzing data about that social world. Framed in this way, all empirical social sciences research involves theories and methods, whether they are stated explicitly or not. However, while theories and methods are often related, it is important that, as a researcher, you deliberately separate them in order to avoid your theories playing a disproportionate role in shaping what outcomes your chosen methods produce.

Introspectively engage in an ongoing dialectic between the application of theories and methods to help enable you to use the outcomes from your methods to interrogate and develop new theories, or ways of framing conceptually the research problem. This is how scholarship grows and branches out into new intellectual territory.

Reynolds, R. Larry. Ways of Knowing. Alternative Microeconomics . Part 1, Chapter 3. Boise State University; The Theory-Method Relationship. S-Cool Revision. United Kingdom.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Methods and the Methodology

Do not confuse the terms "methods" and "methodology." As Schneider notes, a method refers to the technical steps taken to do research . Descriptions of methods usually include defining and stating why you have chosen specific techniques to investigate a research problem, followed by an outline of the procedures you used to systematically select, gather, and process the data [remember to always save the interpretation of data for the discussion section of your paper].

The methodology refers to a discussion of the underlying reasoning why particular methods were used . This discussion includes describing the theoretical concepts that inform the choice of methods to be applied, placing the choice of methods within the more general nature of academic work, and reviewing its relevance to examining the research problem. The methodology section also includes a thorough review of the methods other scholars have used to study the topic.

Bryman, Alan. "Of Methods and Methodology." Qualitative Research in Organizations and Management: An International Journal 3 (2008): 159-168; Schneider, Florian. “What's in a Methodology: The Difference between Method, Methodology, and Theory…and How to Get the Balance Right?” PoliticsEastAsia.com. Chinese Department, University of Leiden, Netherlands.

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How to Write the Methods Section of your Research Paper

Table of Contents

In this article freelance medical writer for Kolabtree Laura Moro-Martin , MSc, PhD, provides tips to write the methods section of a research paper, along with common errors to avoid.

Goals of the methods section

The Methods section of a research article reports what you did and what you used to perform your research. It describes the tools and processes that enabled you to meet the objectives stated in the Introduction . The Methods section, depending on the field and the journal, can also be called Materials and Methods , Procedures , Methodology , Experiments , or other similar terms. Being a descriptive section where no analysis or interpretation is required, writing the Methods can help you to beat the ‘blank page syndrome’ that many of us suffer when starting to write a new paper. It is better to write the Methods section–at least a first version of it–while performing or immediately upon completion of the experiment. But do not get the wrong idea! Although the Methods could be one of the easiest sections to write, it often happens that some details are missed or that experimental procedures that seem very clear for you are not that obvious for the reader.

Therefore, the main goals of the Methods section are to present the experimental design, to allow the reader to interpret your results, and to give enough detail to replicate your work.

Structure of the methods section

Regarding the structure, this section starts with general information applying to the entire manuscript (for example, study population, sample collection, sample site, animal models, etc.) and then goes on to specific experimental details. The Methods section should include:

the organism(s) studied (plant, animal, human, etc.), their pre-experiment handling and care whenever relevant, and the study location and time if they are important factors;
in the case of field studies, a description of the study site, including the precise location and significant physical or biological features;
the experimental or sampling design, including the study population, controls, treatments applied, variables of study, sample collection and data management, etc.
the protocol for data collection, detailing all experimental procedures;
the analysis of data, either qualitative analyses or statistical procedures.

Advice on how to write the Methods section

Writing the Methods section may seem a tedious task. Yes, even as a reader, you may associate methods with ‘boredom’ because of its highly technical nature. However, a well-written methodology section enhances your chances of publication and strengthens the conclusions of your work, so it is worth investing time in meticulous writing. Take into account that this section is closely scrutinized by the journal editors and peer reviewers. The key for a great Methods section is to include all the relevant information without providing excessive or unnecessary detail. Be detailed but concise. Here you have a few more tips:

– Since the Methods section is meant to convey how the research was conducted, you should follow the accepted conventions of your field for writing.

– It is equally important to follow precisely the ‘Instructions for Authors’ of your target journal or other specific guidelines depending on your field or study type. For example, in the case of a randomized clinical trial, you will need to follow the CONSORT (Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials) guideline or, when writing a systematic review , the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses) guideline.

You can adequately structure the Methods section by using paragraphs and subheadings to identify different subsections that generally indicate a different experiment. The subheading can correspond to the specific objective or the name of each experiment. Then, you can start the paragraph providing a short rationale behind that particular experiment.
Be consistent in the notation and terminology, and specify unconventional terms or definitions that you are using.
Include citations for previously published methods, and describe any modification that you introduced.
As a general rule, any essential materials, quantities, procedures, and equipment that could influence the results should be specified. When the equipment or software used is integral to a procedure, the manufacturer should be mentioned, including location details at the first mention. For example, it is not necessary to mention the manufacturer of a light microscope to count cells or the provider of the sodium chloride used to prepare a saline solution, but you will have to mention the model and manufacturer of an electron microscope and any experimental grade compounds or pharmaceuticals that you used.
Human or animal studies should include an ethics statement mentioning the body that approved the experimental protocol. In the case of clinical research, you need to indicate that you obtained informed consent from all the study participants.
You need to describe the obstacles faced while performing the experimental part and how you overcame them to help validate your results. This is often described in the ‘Study limitations’ in the Discussion section. Similarly, the reasons why you used a particular method or how that method is superior to others should go in the Discussion section.

Methods and Results should match

The Methods section should follow the order of the results generated through those experimental procedures. You need to explain the methodology that you applied to obtain all the experimental observations. Creating a flowchart figure describing the different steps, in particular in the case of complex study designs or experimental procedures, can be of help for the reader.

Preparing the statistical methods subsection

This is probably one of the parts of the Methods section creating more problems among researchers in the life and medical sciences. The statistical analysis should be thoroughly described at the end of the Methods section, without the need to reiterate them in the Results section. Since the statistical analysis crucially determines the study findings, you will need to explain their rationale in detail.

You need to specify the variables, not only the control, independent, and dependent variables, but also potential extraneous variables that might influence the results of your study. In particular, you need to include the specific tests used for the different types of data, the prerequisites (e.g., distribution normality) that were tested and previous assumptions that you applied, data transformations, potential confounders, significance or confidence interval levels used, any other numerical (e.g., normalizing data) or graphical techniques used to analyse the data, post hoc tests applied, and any study-specific criteria (for example, established thresholds). The specific software used for statistical analyses should be always mentioned. If in doubt, you can consult the freelance biostatistician of your team to receive help to write this subsection.

The style of the Methods section

The Methods section requires a specific type of discourse that is not found in other parts of the article, and it should read as if you were verbally describing the conduct of the experiment. Think that readers will be learning from you, so they should be able not only to understand and accept your procedure but also to repeat it and obtain similar results. Take into account the specific readership of the journal to adapt the technical jargon (you may need to provide explanations for some technicisms).

The Methods section usually requires the use of third person and passive constructions. However, it is also possible (and some times more effective) to use the active voice and the first person to a certain extent (for example, ‘ We collected the samples’, but never ‘I collected the samples’ ) . This section is always written in the past tense since the work that you are reporting has been already done.

Learning from others

Selecting a few good articles from your field as models is always a good idea to improve your scientific writing . In particular, you may want to choose a few articles published in your target journal covering topics similar to yours, and that you think are particularly well written. Read them carefully and observe how the Methods section is structured, and the type and amount of information provided. Reading and learning from others is always a good starting point to write your paper.

Put yourself in the readers’ shoes

Before submitting your manuscript, you need to ask yourself a few questions to be sure that your Methods section is complete and understandable. Is there enough information to allow the reproduction of the experiments? Is there unnecessary information that can be eliminated without affecting the interpretation? Have we mentioned all the necessary references, all the controls, and the source of the reagents? Reflect on the answers and decide whether your Methods still need further improvement.

Common errors to avoid while writing the Methods section of your research paper

There are several mistakes that frequently occur when drafting the Methods section of a paper. Here we have collected a few examples:

Providing too little (not allowing the correct interpretation of the results or the replication of the experiments) or too much (providing a full account, almost a laboratory notebook) information.
Repeating published methods instead of citing them.
Failing to provide a context for the methods (it is useful to ‘think out loud’ to guide the reader and justify the choices you made, including sentences of this type: ‘In order to…, we….’; ‘Our aim was to…’; ‘in an attempt to…’; ‘for the purpose of…; ‘to validate …’; etc . ) and using visual organizers (such as subheadings).
The Results section does not correspond with the Methods section (you need to explain the experimental procedures for all the results that you obtained).
Using ambiguous terms to designate parameters or conditions (such as controls, treatments, etc.) that require specific identifiers to be clearly understood (your own designators such as ‘Sample 1’ and ‘Sample 2’ or ‘Treatment A’ and ‘Treatment B’ are meaningless out of context and difficult to follow).
Overuse or misuse of the passive voice. For example, since the agent is not indicated in the passive voice, your own work may become confused with the standard procedures that you are describing or with the work from other researchers, making difficult to identify your contribution. You can avoid this by adding words such as ‘In this study’ , ‘In our experiments’ , ‘Here’ , or by moving to the active voice.

In summary, writing a good Methods section will help you to establish the robustness of your study by making the reader able to understand, interpret, and replicate your experiments. Do not underestimate it… and of course, good writing!

Need help to write the methods section of your research paper? Consult freelance scientific editors on Kolabtree or access statistical review services from experts.

Neal Lerner. Writing Materials and Methods . http://web.mit.edu/7.17/pdfs/7.17_Methods.pdf (accessed on 14th September 2020)
Ben Mudrak. Materials and Methods: 7 Writing Tips. https://www.aje.com/arc/materials-and-methods-7-writing-tips/ (accessed on 14th September 2020)
Michael Bendiksby. Setting the Scene: Best Practices for Writing Materials and Methods. https://www.aje.com/dist/docs/Setting_the_Scene.pdf (accessed on 14th September 2020)
How to Write the Methods Section of a Scientific Article. https://www.enago.com/academy/how-to-write-the-methods-section-of-a-scientific-article/ (accessed on 14th September 2020)
Dhriti Bhattacharyya. How to write the Methods section of a research paper. https://www.editage.com/insights/how-to-write-the-methods-section-of-a-research-paper (accessed on 14th September 2020)
The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. https://abacus.bates.edu/~ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWsections.html – methods (accessed on 14th September 2020)
Scott L. Montgomery. The Chicago Guide to Communicating Science , Chapter 9. Second edition, The University of Chicago Press, 2017.
Hilary Glasman-Deal . Science Research Writing for Non-Native Speakers of English, Unit 2 . Imperial College Press, 2010.

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How to Write a Methods Section for a Research Paper

Purpose of methods section
Key components
How to describe
Step-by-step guide
Methods section formats
Additional elements

Purpose of the Methods section

What key components must be included in the methods section.

Research design. This is the most important section to help your audience see the methods used. Make sure to structure your research methodology correctly and follow the rules of the scientific field. Depending on your work type, the research design of a methods section should represent an outline with the basic introduction, set objectives, a lab/field environment, and other related elements.
Participants. When dealing with a sample group or a case study, you must discuss the research participants. Always narrow things down to why a specific group of participants have been chosen and talk about how it will be helpful to stay objective and unbiased.
Equipment. This part describes the set of tools that have been used. Writing a methods section can include software, hardware, voice recorders, chemical equipment, special labs, and more.
Materials. Describe what materials have been used for your studies. Talk about the studies and procedures used based on the available data.
Variables. Talk about independent and dependent variables. The independent variables are related to those elements of your research that can be changed, like the amount of water or the use of certain colors to replicate a process. As for dependent variables, these are those affected by specific changes. In other words, variables in a methods section can change during the process of studies, like the experiment outcome or exceptions in the sample group.
Participant behavior . This is where you talk about what has been experienced by the participants (if relevant). A methods section example may include a description of actions taken, processes experienced, and the environment used to conduct the research.

How to describe your research design and procedures?

Reflect on your hypothesis . Talk about variables or aspects you should research. This is a procedure section of a research paper where you describe the type of information you must collect as you work on your main arguments. Narrow down the scope of data that has to be evaluated.
Define your research approach . In most cases, it can be either qualitative or quantitative. While you can choose a mixture of both for your paper, focusing on one to clarify a relevant section is recommended.
Choose your research design type . If you are dealing with quantitative research, it’s possible to use experimental, quasi-experimental, correlational, or descriptive design methods. Suppose you are choosing a qualitative design methodology. In that case, you may approach ethnography (a method based on cultural immersion, inside research), phenomenology (research based on the perspective of an individual, an intuitive analytical variable), or a grounded method (social-based research).
Define your research sampling method . The risk here is to generate excessive data, making it extremely challenging to see things to include and avoid. You can choose a probabilistic sampling method or a deterministic sampling approach, also known as non-random selection. Certain methods can fit better depending on the materials section of the research paper. If you still choose a non-random design, the only challenge is that the latter sampling method is more biased.
Evaluate the best data collection method . Start your Methodology section by marking the difference between your primary (surveys, interviews) and secondary data (references that have already been published) sources.
Choose an approach to data analysis . You can alternate between qualitative and quantitative data analysis methods section approaches.

Step-by-step guide on how to compose your Methods section

Step 1: Focus on two main purposes of your Methods section. You should help your target audience understand your research project easier and make it possible to replicate all the vital processes.
Step 2: Offer sufficient information to make replication unbiased and complete. While you may have your research project ready for publishing, providing overly detailed information is only sometimes necessary. Always check things twice to learn the requirements. Most importantly, keep your research transparent, provide a clear methodology, and keep every step easy to replicate.
Step 3: To make things easier, imagine you are an individual in your target audience. Think about how you would replicate your study and what scientific paper methods you would find accessible. Ask yourself about what information you would require. Take notes and create 2-3 outlines for additional clarity.
Step 4: Consider adding visual aid elements. It may include relevant flow charts, mind maps, checklists, or statistical data for your methodology. It will help your readers interpret the study and avoid unnecessary steps.
Step 5: Always adhere to strict ethical standards and scientific guidelines. Even though the “Ethical Guidelines” section will be presented in another research paper part, you must show the main arguments and thesis concerning ethical rules. It will show that you are using strict standards and following the rules related to your discipline.

Methods section checklist

Is your logic consistent in every section?
Does your introduction provide sufficient background information?
Does your methodology structure sound clear and follows a chronology of the research?
Do you provide the results of your research in the same format?
Can you replicate your study based on a given methodology?
Do your readers have all the necessary objectives mentioned?
Are the tools used mentioned?

Methods section formats and features

Additional elements to consider.

Location specifics. This is where the location and research environment can make a major difference for replication purposes.
Limitations of the research. Talk about the limitations and specifics of the tools and methods being used.
Writing style and tone. Remember to write in the past tense and keep the same tone throughout your research paper.
Ethical considerations. Clarify and specify all the ethical guidelines for your institution, a scientific journal methodology, and a field of science.
Data analysis methodology.
Participants and subjects.
Data collection methodology.
Things required to replicate the research.
Addressing the research objectives.
Basic research question.

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A Scholar’s Guide to Writing the Methods Section of a Research Paper

Table of contents

1 What Is the Methods Section of a Research Paper
2 Methodology vs. Methods
3.1 Participants
3.2 Apparatus
3.3 Procedure
4.1 Methods and Results Should Match
4.2 Preparing the Statistical Methods Subsection
4.3 The Style of the Methodology
5 Key Information to Include in Methodology
6 Helping Hand in Writing Methodology Chapter
7.1 Which information is not included in the methodology section of a research article?
7.2 Where does the research methodology section go in a research paper?
7.3 What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative methods?

In the vast realm of academic writing, the research paper stands as a testament to a scholar’s systematic exploration of a particular subject. Each section of the paper plays a pivotal role, knitting together the fabric of the study. While the introduction sets the stage and the results showcase the findings, it is the Methods section that forms the backbone, providing a clear roadmap for any reader or researcher wishing to replicate or understand the study’s inner workings. As pivotal as it is, crafting an impeccable Methods section often poses challenges for researchers. This article aims to elucidate the intricacies of constructing a robust Methodology section in a research paper.

After reading our guide, you will:

Get a clear understanding of the importance and purpose of the Methods in a research paper.
Discover in details what should contain a comprehensive Methods section.
Learn essentials on writing a Methodology in a research paper.

Now, let’s take a detailed look at these points!

What Is the Methods Section of a Research Paper

Do you have any questions about how to write the Methodology? Firstly, let’s define this section for research. The Methods or Methodology section of the research paper gives the road map for how the research was conducted. A well-crafted Methods section not only guides the researcher but also helps other scholars understand, replicate your study.

In other words, it’s like a recipe in a cookbook. If you want others to recreate your experiment or study, this section tells them exactly how you did it. It includes details about the steps you took, the tools or ingredients you used, and how you measured your results. This way, others can see if they get the same outcome when they follow your “recipe” or if they can trust your findings.

This means that the Methodology should be thoughtfully planned, executed, and reported. The reader should understand the basic research structure and the steps taken to conduct the study, including the research design, methods, gathered data, and data analysis techniques used.

The Methodology of a research study is essential for several reasons:

Validity and Reliability: A well-defined Methodology provides the foundation for the criteria and reliability of the study, particularly in addressing the research question for research. It helps to ensure that the research is conducted in a systematic and controlled manner and that the results are accurate and trustworthy.

Replicability: It allows other researchers to understand and replicate the study, which is important for building on existing knowledge and advancing the field.

Clarity and Transparency: A clear and concise Methods part makes it easier for readers to understand the research process and evaluate the results. This helps to increase transparency and build trust in the findings.

Justification of Approach: The research methodology provides a rationale for the approach taken, including why certain methods and techniques were chosen and how they relate to the question for research.

Evidence of Rigor: A well-executed research methodology demonstrates the rigor and thoroughness of the study, which is important for establishing the credibility of the results.

Methodology vs. Methods

In rigorous academic and research contexts, there is a distinction between “methods” and “methodology.” However, outside of strict scholarly circles or in more informal discussions, there might be some overlapping use. The “methods” generally refer to the specific techniques or procedures, while “methodology” dives into the theoretical framework and rationale behind those techniques. It’s essential to use the terms correctly in formal academic and research writings to maintain clarity and precision.

Nevertheless, in many research papers, the specifics of the methods (the “how”) are the primary focus, and the theoretical rationale (the “why”) might be briefly touched upon within the same section.

Structure of the Methodology In A Research Paper

The Methods section typically begins with a brief overview of its contents and a reiteration of the research question. This is followed by a description of the participants, detailing their demographics, and how they were recruited. The materials or apparatus used are then specified, from tools to equipment, with any unique specifications highlighted.

The core of the Methods section is the procedure, a step-by-step account of the study, from experimental tasks to the sequence of operations. This is complemented by an explanation of the experimental design, where the type of research design is described, along with the variables involved. Detailed accounts of how data was gathered, whether through surveys, interviews, or other methods, are provided, ensuring the reader understands the data collection nuances.

Critical to the credibility of the study is the section on statistical analysis, which reveals how data was processed, what statistical tests were used, and the software or tools employed. If the research involved humans or animals, the ethical considerations section becomes pivotal. Here, measures taken to ensure participants’ rights, confidentiality, and informed consent are documented. Towards the end, the limitations of the study are discussed, providing insights into potential biases or constraints faced during the research process. The section wraps up with a brief recap, emphasizing the methods’ role in ensuring the study’s integrity and reproducibility.

According to APA style , there are three major subsections to report here: participants, apparatus, and procedure.

Participants

This segment reports the characteristics of the participants involved in the experiment, the method of sampling, and the sample size.

Characteristics

This details the demography of the respondents that may be relevant to the experiment. This includes but is not limited to age, gender, ethnicity or race, religion, level of education, socioeconomic status, origin of the population, and any restrictions.

✏️Example:

Fifty female undergraduate students between the ages of 19 and 23 participated in the experiment. All were sophomores in the Faculty of Engineering and native English speakers who lived on the university campus. The participants were separated into two groups of 25 students, each without any determining criteria. This study was conducted at the University of Alabama, USA .

Sampling Strategy

Identify the selection criteria and whether the sample was random or not. Include it if you have access to data informing the percentage of people invited to participate and how many agreed. You should also report the selection mode; was it voluntary, or were the participants assigned to the study? Additionally, identify any compensation that was provided to participants.

The ethics board was petitioned, and approval was granted before the recruitment of participants commenced. All the female sophomores from the faculty of Engineering at the University of Alabama, USA, were invited to participate, and those who did were self-selected. In liaison with department heads, the students were offered additional credits in a faculty-wide course as compensation for their time.

Sample Size

Identify the sample size per group, the statistical power you aimed to attain, whether you could attain it, and the analyses you used to determine the figures you arrived at. You should also include whether the final sample you got was what you initially required.

The required power for this experiment to detect a 15% effect at a significance level of .08 was 75%. To achieve this, we needed 25 participants in each group. The final sample met these conditions.

This subsection describes the materials and apparatus used in the experiment. It calls for detailed information on all devices and techniques used to collate data, measure suitable variables, and reach analysis, including tests and surveys. You must include a proper count of the number of apparatus used, their names, model number, manufacturer, reliability, and validity. For surveys, including the meaning of the formats used and the number of questions asked.

A survey that consisted of 15 multiple-choice questions was carried out to determine the safety of female students on the school campus. The participants were asked to answer the questions using a 5-point grading system (1 = Extremely True and 5 = Extremely False).

This includes the conditions in which data was collated, instructions given to the participants, and data analysis methods.

The two groups of participants were placed in two different classrooms at individual desks and given 10 minutes to answer the questions. They were instructed to give the first answers they thought of without thinking too deeply. Each group had a supervisor attached to it.

Writing a research paper requires a great deal of skill and knowledge, so if you need help compiling the Methods section of your paper, consider using a professional coursework writing service to help you.

Advice On How to Write the Methods Section

You already know the relevance of the Methods part to your research paper. Additionally, you must adhere to formatting guidelines specific for your field.

If you cannot write according to standards, you can use a research paper writing service to get good results. Go for one with good reviews and a super online reputation.

Here are some more tips for a concise and meticulously written Methodology:

Method Introduction: Begin the section on methodology by introducing the methods used in the research. Provide a brief overview of the research design and the data collection and analysis techniques used.
Methodological Connection: Establish the connection between the methodology and the research query.
Instrument Introduction: Introduce the instruments used to assemble data, such as surveys, interviews, or observation. Provide a brief description of each instrument and how it will be used in the study.
Analysis Discussion: Discuss the analysis techniques used to analyze the data collected. Explain how the data will be organized, coded, and analyzed to address the research query.
Background Information: Provide background information about the methodology and the relevant literature. Explain how the methodology fits into the broader context of the research area and what it contributes to the current understanding of the topic.
Sampling Process: Discuss the sampling process used in the study. Explain how the sample was selected, what criteria were used, and how the samples taken were determined.
Limitations: It was required to discuss any research constraints in the past tense, such as limited sample sizes, issues with the data collection process, or issues with the analysis methods employed. Researchers had to explain how these constraints might have affected the study’s findings and conclusions.

Methods and Results Should Match

In the Methods section, the results obtained should be discussed based on the experimental procedures used. Explain the methodology behind the techniques used to acquire all the observations and results of the experiment in the right order. You can create a detailed flowchart or block flow diagram (BFD) to easily describe the complexities of the study and its procedures to the reader.

Preparing the Statistical Methods Subsection

The statistical analysis subsection comes at the end of the Methods section. It includes a thorough description of the analyzed data to arrive at the results and conclusion. Due to its technicality, it might be a little difficult and daunting to write. If this is the case, you can get the statistician who participated in the study to write it.

Here, you must indicate all the data variables, including the control variables, dependent and independent variables, and any potentially irrelevant variables that could affect your results and conclusion. Specify the exact tests carried out on the different types of data you have, the requirements you tested, like distribution normality, and all assumptions you initially applied.

You should also include all data alterations, possible mix-ups, confidence intervals or significance levels used, techniques for data analysis, and ensuing statistical tests that were employed. Furthermore, specify any criteria particular to the experiment, like set baselines and any specific software used to conduct the statistical analysis.

The Style of the Methodology

As mentioned earlier, it aims to explain how and why the experiment was carried out so that readers can understand it and possibly repeat the procedure.

Therefore, it is essential to be aware of your audience so you can modify your writing based on what they know and explain technical terms where necessary. If you are finding it difficult to write in the appropriate style, you can buy a research paper written by writers. You can find these writers on several platforms for college essays.

The methodology should read as though you describe the experiment to your reader. For this reason, it should be worded in third-person constructs and a passive voice. For example, you should use “We carried out a survey” and not “I carried out a survey.” Since the experiment has already been carried out, you must write the entire section in the past tense.

Key Information to Include in Methodology

Now you know what the Methods section is, what information must be included in this segment of your paper? Here’s a summary of the things you need to include:

Literature review . The sources that helped in the methods are cited under this heading.
Research participants. This includes all information about the study participants, including compensations, mode of selection, and demographics.
Criteria for inclusion or exclusion include the factors determining what participants were eliminated and why.
Grouping conditions are the factors determining the subgrouping of the chosen participants.
Procedures. These are the conditions under which the experiment was carried out.
Materials and apparatus. These include all devices, equipment, reliability, and validity.
Statistical analysis. This is detailed information about the data, measured and analyzed, and the tests carried out.

Helping Hand in Writing Methodology Chapter

It can be challenging for researchers to adequately describe their study methodologies and strategies when writing the methodology chapter of a research report. Organizing and presenting complex material, retaining clarity and conciseness, and describing technical processes or approaches are among the usual difficulties.

To overcome these challenges, researchers can consider seeking feedback from peers, utilizing a https://papersowl.com/ or editor, and thoroughly reviewing and revising their methodology chapter multiple times. With the help of an essay writing service, you can ensure that your research paper is accurate and successful.

Which information is not included in the methodology section of a research article?

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Research Paper Guide

Research Paper Method Section

A Guide on Writing the Method Section of a Research Paper - Examples & Tips

12 min read

What Exactly is a Method Section in a Research Paper?

The method section in a research paper guides the readers through the study's design and execution.

It outlines the specific steps, procedures, and techniques used to collect and analyze data.

Think of it as the 'how-to' manual for your research design, detailing the tools, materials, and methods used to answer your research problem or test hypotheses.

Importance of Method Section in a Research Paper

The method section is super important in a research paper because it makes everything clear to readers. It's like a guide that shows exactly how the study was done.

When the method section is well-written, it makes the research more believable, and other researchers can follow the same steps to check if they get similar results.

In simple terms, the method section ensures that the research is clear, trustworthy, and can be double-checked by anyone interested.

Method Section vs. Methodology: Understanding the Difference

While the terms "method section" and "methodology" are often used interchangeably, they refer to distinct components in the research process.

The method section is a specific part of a research paper where authors outline the practical steps taken during their study. It is a detailed account that includes participant details, procedures, materials, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.

On the other hand, methodology is a broader concept. It includes the reasons why the authors chose certain steps, the theories they followed, and how they thought about the whole research process.

So, while the method section is about the actual steps, the methodology is more about the thinking and planning behind those steps. Knowing this helps everyone get a clearer picture of the whole study.

What Goes In The Method Section of a Research Paper?

The method section of a research paper includes detailed information about how the study was conducted. It typically covers several key aspects:

How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper?

Crafting an effective methods section is crucial to ensuring clarity and reproducibility in your research paper. Here's a guide on how to write the methods section:

Step 1: Start by Giving a Quick Summary

Begin your methods section with a short introduction that explains how you approached your study. Share the main goals and ideas you had or why you did the research. This sets the stage for what comes next, helping readers understand what to expect.

Step 2: Detail Participant Information

Explain who took part in your research. Share details about the people involved, like their age, gender, and any other important information that helps others get to know the group you studied. This part helps readers understand the kind of people your research is about.

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Step 3: Explain How You Did Your Research

Tell readers exactly what steps you took during your study. Start by explaining how you planned and designed your research, then move on to how you collected data, and finally, share how you analyzed the information.

This chronological order helps readers follow along with the journey of your study, making it easier for them to understand the process you went through.

Step 4: Specify Tools and Materials Used

Make a clear list and explain the tools, instruments, or materials you used in your study. This can include things like surveys or questionnaires, as well as any special equipment or software you use.

By sharing this information, you're helping readers understand what tools were essential for your research. It also makes it easier for them to picture how you gathered and processed your data.

Step 5: Explain Data Collection Methods

Share the specific ways you gathered information for your study. It could be through surveys, observations, experiments, or other methods.

Tell readers exactly what you did to get the data you needed. By explaining this, you help readers picture exactly how you got the information that's crucial to your research.

Step 6: Clarify Data Analysis Techniques

Provide a concise explanation of the statistical or analytical methods you applied to make sense of the collected data.

Whether you used numbers or special methods, briefly describe how you analyzed the data to get your results. This helps readers see the steps you took to make sense of the information you gathered.

Step 7: Highlight Ethical Considerations

Provide a clear overview of the ethical aspects involved in your study. This includes explaining how you obtained permission from participants and sticking to ethical guidelines.

Being transparent about these ethical approvals is vital for establishing the credibility and trustworthiness of your research.

At the end, highlight the steps taken to ensure the validity and reliability of your research. This could involve detailing calibration procedures, control measures, or any other relevant information.

Details Commonly Missing from the Methods Section

The Methods section of a research paper is a crucial component that outlines the procedures, materials, and techniques employed in the study.

However, researchers often overlook or omit certain essential details that are vital for the transparency of their work. Here are key details commonly missing from the Methods section:

Exact Parameters and Settings

Specify precise experimental conditions, including temperature, pressure, humidity, and any other relevant environmental factors. These details are critical for replicating experiments accurately.

Instrumentation and Equipment Details

Provide comprehensive information about the instruments and equipment used, such as the make, model, version, and calibration details. This ensures that others can use the same tools and achieve comparable results.

Sample Characteristics

Clearly define the characteristics of the study samples, including source, size, age, sex, and any other relevant demographic information. This information is crucial for understanding the generalizability of the results.

Quality Control Procedures

Describe the steps taken to ensure the quality and reliability of data. This may include detailing quality control measures, calibration checks, and validation procedures for instruments or assays.

Randomization and Blinding

If applicable, elaborate on the randomization and blinding methods employed during the experiment. These details are essential for minimizing biases and ensuring the validity of the study.

Statistical Analyses

Provide a comprehensive account of the statistical methods used, including software packages, specific tests, and any adjustments for multiple comparisons. Transparency in statistical approaches is critical for the accurate interpretation of results.

Ethical Considerations and Compliance

Clearly state the ethical considerations taken into account during the research, such as informed consent, animal welfare, or institutional review board (IRB) approval. This ensures that the study adheres to ethical standards.

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Method Section of a Research Paper - Examples

Checking out different method sections in research papers can give you a good idea of how to write your own. Here are some examples that can help you understand better.

Method Section of a Research Paper Example

Method Section of a Qualitative Research Paper

Materials and Method Section of a Research Paper

What Doesn't Belong in Your Research Paper's Method Section?

In your research paper's method section, it's crucial to be selective about what you include to maintain clarity and relevance. Here's a breakdown of what doesn't belong in this section:

Personal Opinions or Reflections

The method section is not the place for personal opinions, reflections, or subjective interpretations. Stick to objective descriptions of the research process.

Detailed Results or Findings

While it's tempting to jump into results, save the detailed findings for the results section. The method section focuses on how you conducted the study, not what you discovered.

Background Information

Keep background information about the topic for the introduction. The method section is about the practical steps of your research, not the context behind it.

Extended Literature Review

A brief justification of your chosen methods is acceptable, but the method section isn't the space for an extensive literature review. Save that for a dedicated literature review section.

In-Depth Discussions

Avoid in-depth discussions or explanations about the level of significance of your methods. Save these for the discussion section, where you can analyze their implications.

Personal Biases or Assumptions

Your personal biases or assumptions should not influence the description of your methods. Stick to objective language and presentation of facts.

Unsubstantiated Claims

Don't make claims that are not supported by evidence or references. Ensure that all information presented in the method section is verifiable and reliable.

Methods Section Checklist

To ensure that all essential components are adequately addressed, researchers can refer to the following checklist when drafting the Methods section:

To wrap it up , learning how to write a good method section is super important for any researcher.

By checking out examples and understanding how to structure this part of your research paper, you make sure your study is clear and trustworthy. A well-written method section not only adds credibility but also helps others follow your steps.

If you need a helping hand in crafting custom research paper , MyPerfectWords.com is here for you. Our expert writers know the ins and outs of research paper writing, ensuring your paper meets top-notch standards.

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Frequently Asked Questions

What are the parts of research methodology.

Below are the main parts of the research methodology are:

Measurement Objectives.
Recommended Survey.
Reporting Plan.
Data Collection Processes.

What should a methodology include?

The following are the things that you should include in the methodology section:

Research question
Description of research design or method
Discuss why you have chosen this method
Limitations

What is the scope of research methodology?

The scope of methodology is important because it decides the extent to which research will be explored and defines what parameters are in place for that work.

What are the 5 parts of methodology?

The five parts of methodology are:

Introduction and overview
Data collection methods
Research design
Methods of data analysis
Limitations of research

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Keep reading

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: The Methodology

Purpose of Guide
Writing a Research Proposal
Design Flaws to Avoid
Independent and Dependent Variables
Narrowing a Topic Idea
Broadening a Topic Idea
The Research Problem/Question
Academic Writing Style
Choosing a Title
Making an Outline
Paragraph Development
The C.A.R.S. Model
Background Information
Theoretical Framework
Citation Tracking
Evaluating Sources
Reading Research Effectively
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
Is it Peer-Reviewed?
Qualitative Methods
Quantitative Methods
Common Grammar Mistakes
Writing Concisely
Avoiding Plagiarism [linked guide]
Annotated Bibliography
Grading Someone Else's Paper

The methods section describes actions to be taken to investigate a research problem and the rationale for the application of specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information applied to understanding the problem, thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability. The methodology section of a research paper answers two main questions: How was the data collected or generated? And, how was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and always written in the past tense.

Kallet, Richard H. "How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper." Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004): 1229-1232.

Importance of a Good Methodology Section

You must explain how you obtained and analyzed your results for the following reasons:

Readers need to know how the data was obtained because the method you chose affects the results and, by extension, how you interpreted their significance.
Methodology is crucial for any branch of scholarship because an unreliable method produces unreliable results and, as a consequence, undermines the value of your interpretations of the findings.
In most cases, there are a variety of different methods you can choose to investigate a research problem. The methodology section of your paper should clearly articulate the reasons why you chose a particular procedure or technique.
The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated in a way that is consistent with accepted practice in the field of study. For example, if you are using a multiple choice questionnaire, readers need to know that it offered your respondents a reasonable range of answers to choose from.
The method must be appropriate to fulfilling the overall aims of the study. For example, you need to ensure that you have a large enough sample size to be able to generalize and make recommendations based upon the findings.
The methodology should discuss the problems that were anticipated and the steps you took to prevent them from occurring. For any problems that do arise, you must describe the ways in which they were minimized or why these problems do not impact in any meaningful way your interpretation of the findings.
In the social and behavioral sciences, it is important to always provide sufficient information to allow other researchers to adopt or replicate your methodology. This information is particularly important when a new method has been developed or an innovative use of an existing method is utilized.

Bem, Daryl J. Writing the Empirical Journal Article . Psychology Writing Center. University of Washington; Denscombe, Martyn. The Good Research Guide: For Small-Scale Social Research Projects . 5th edition. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 2014; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008.

Structure and Writing Style

The introduction to your methodology section should begin by restating the research problem and underlying assumptions underpinning your study. This is followed by situating the methods you will use to gather, analyze, and process information within the overall “tradition” of your field of study and within the particular research design you have chosen to study the problem. If the method you choose lies outside of the tradition of your field [i.e., your review of the literature demonstrates that the method is not commonly used], provide a justification for how your choice of methods specifically addresses the research problem in ways that have not been utilized in prior studies.

The remainder of your methodology section should describe the following:

Decisions made in selecting the data you have analyzed or, in the case of qualitative research, the subjects and research setting you have examined,
Tools and methods used to identify and collect information, and how you identified relevant variables,
The ways in which you processed the data and the procedures you used to analyze that data, and
The specific research tools or strategies that you utilized to study the underlying hypothesis and research questions.

In addition, an effectively written methodology section should:

Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating your research problem . Is your study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed method)? Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or a more neutral stance?
Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design . Your methods for gathering data should have a clear connection to your research problem. In other words, make sure that your methods will actually address the problem. One of the most common deficiencies found in research papers is that the proposed methodology is not suitable to achieving the stated objective of your paper.
Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to use , such as, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, observation, archival research. If you are analyzing existing data, such as a data set or archival documents, describe how it was originally created or gathered and by whom. Also be sure to explain how older data is still relevant to investigating the current research problem.
Explain how you intend to analyze your results . Will you use statistical analysis? Will you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyze a text or explain observed behaviors? Describe how you plan to obtain an accurate assessment of relationships, patterns, trends, distributions, and possible contradictions found in the data.
Provide background and a rationale for methodologies that are unfamiliar for your readers . Very often in the social sciences, research problems and the methods for investigating them require more explanation/rationale than widely accepted rules governing the natural and physical sciences. Be clear and concise in your explanation.
Provide a justification for subject selection and sampling procedure . For instance, if you propose to conduct interviews, how do you intend to select the sample population? If you are analyzing texts, which texts have you chosen, and why? If you are using statistics, why is this set of data being used? If other data sources exist, explain why the data you chose is most appropriate to addressing the research problem.
Describe potential limitations . Are there any practical limitations that could affect your data collection? How will you attempt to control for potential confounding variables and errors? If your methodology may lead to problems you can anticipate, state this openly and show why pursuing this methodology outweighs the risk of these problems cropping up.

NOTE : Once you have written all of the elements of the methods section, subsequent revisions should focus on how to present those elements as clearly and as logically as possibly. The description of how you prepared to study the research problem, how you gathered the data, and the protocol for analyzing the data should be organized chronologically. For clarity, when a large amount of detail must be presented, information should be presented in sub-sections according to topic.

ANOTHER NOTE : If you are conducting a qualitative analysis of a research problem , the methodology section generally requires a more elaborate description of the methods used as well as an explanation of the processes applied to gathering and analyzing of data than is generally required for studies using quantitative methods. Because you are the primary instrument for generating the data, the process for collecting that data has a significantly greater impact on producing the findings. Therefore, qualitative research requires a more detailed description of the methods used.

III. Problems to Avoid

Irrelevant Detail The methodology section of your paper should be thorough but to the point. Do not provide any background information that does not directly help the reader understand why a particular method was chosen, how the data was gathered or obtained, and how the data was analyzed in relation to the research problem [note: analyzed, not interpreted! Save how you interpreted the findings for the discussion section]. With this in mind, the page length of your methods section will generally be less than any other section of your paper except the conclusion.

Azevedo, L.F. et al. "How to Write a Scientific Paper: Writing the Methods Section." Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia 17 (2011): 232-238; Blair Lorrie. “Choosing a Methodology.” In Writing a Graduate Thesis or Dissertation , Teaching Writing Series. (Rotterdam: Sense Publishers 2016), pp. 49-72; Butin, Dan W. The Education Dissertation A Guide for Practitioner Scholars . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, 2010; Carter, Susan. Structuring Your Research Thesis . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012; Kallet, Richard H. “How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper.” Respiratory Care 49 (October 2004):1229-1232; Lunenburg, Frederick C. Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation: Tips and Strategies for Students in the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2008. Methods Section . The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Rudestam, Kjell Erik and Rae R. Newton. “The Method Chapter: Describing Your Research Plan.” In Surviving Your Dissertation: A Comprehensive Guide to Content and Process . (Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 2015), pp. 87-115; What is Interpretive Research . Institute of Public and International Affairs, University of Utah; Writing the Experimental Report: Methods, Results, and Discussion . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Methods and Materials . The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College.

Writing Tip

Statistical designs and tests do not fear them.

To locate data and statistics, GO HERE .

Another Writing Tip

Knowing the relationship between theories and methods.

Reynolds, R. Larry. Ways of Knowing . Alternative Microeconomics . Part 1, Chapter 3. Boise State University; The Theory-Method Relationship . S-Cool Revision. United Kingdom.

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44 Drafting the Methods Section

Drafting the methods section.

While the substance of the methods section will differ by genre and method chosen, basic components can be derived across genres. Methods sections in the social sciences tend to have five sub-components. They must:

summarize the method used while arguing the value and limitations of the method for your data/context;
discuss the data of your study (participants, artifacts, academic literature)
present the instruments and measures used;
outline the procedure of the data (i.e. how it was collected and ensured of its integrity), and
Analysis : discuss how you analyzed your data.

Splitting these sections into components, however, should not give you the impression that the methods section is merely a list. The methods section is also an argument (Johnson, 2018), meaning that it aims to convince your reader of the value of your method through a narrative that briefly applies your method to the context of your research. In addition, the method must find a way to align with the research question stated in the introduction. Your methodology should build upon the introduction, justifying that the approach you utilized to investigate the problem is suitable (see Table 7.3.1 for common justifications for some established methods). We will refer back to this key point as we overview each step of the methods section.

A simple summary of your method is a good way to begin the method’s section. The length and depth of this summary depends entirely on the method chosen and the audience it is presented to. If the method is commonly known and used within your field, an overly intricate summary of the method is not necessary; a couple sentences overview will work fine. If the method is not commonly used or entirely new, however, more argument will be required for your audience to understand your choice of method. For instance, grounded theory is a commonly used paradigm in many qualitative social science journals. It is therefore unnecessary to sketch the method’s history in detail. Rather, a simple definition, such as grounded theory being an inductive approach which only designates codes after data collection (and how you enacted in your project) will suffice. On the other hand, newer methods such as linked data (methods based on web technologies such as HTTP, RDF, SPARQL, and URIs to enable semantic connections between various databases) would require a more extensive discussion. In addition, while it is good to offer your own summary of the method, the definition used by another researcher (particularly methodological researchers) is a simple way to align your research with a legitimate approach in your field.

The key point to keep in mind for summarizing your method is to outline its theory insofar as it explains your procedure, that is, discuss the method’s intentions with respect to how you applied it. We will touch on this again in the procedure section.

As you provide an overview of your method, you must also justify it. Justification of your method must appeal to the method’s ethical, practical and factual utility for the project. Ethical justifications are those that argue that the method is best for reducing the harm of research on your participants (and the communities they inhabit). It must also make the point that your method aligns with the principles of your institution’s ethical values.

Factual issues have to do with the value of the data your method is able to gather. It must consider whether the method is appropriate to your research question and topic. If, for instance, the research question is about “Malaysian immigrants’ conception of justice in comparison to American immigrants,” then you may argue that ‘in-depth interviews’ are the only approach deep enough to unravel a person’s “conception of justice.” Arguments for the factual benefits of a method frequently highlight its novelty for studying a particular method. For instance, there could be a lack of discourse analyses of Uber’s advertising materials (the previous research being content analyses). One could then argue that a discourse analysis approach not only has merits in its own right, but it also may be able to discover data which other approaches miss. Finally, you should outline the strengths of the methods in relation to all aspects of your research process (e.g., alignment with your theory, personal values, practicality etc.).

Practical justifications highlight why the method is suitable given logistics, administrative and everyday concerns. For example, if you are interested in studying how Malaysian migrants’ prepare for their transit to America, an ethnographic approach might be tempting. But practically (financially and time-wise), you might not be able to visit Malaysia to observe their preparations. Hence, you might decide that surveys or interviews (while less desirable) are more practical in that instance.

Again, we emphasize the importance of highlighting the limitations of your method. Every method has weaknesses, it is vital that show an awareness of them. It is important, however, not to have the weaknesses outweigh your method’s benefits. Your reader should be able to understand why you choose the methods, so you need to explain how, in spite of the limitation, your method is the most suitable choice. Hence, you need to justify why you decided to choose the methods over others. To help in the weighing of the costs and benefits of different methodological approaches, we have provided below a list of the potential limitations of some of the more common methods used in the social sciences.

Once you have provided an overview of your method and its value for your context, the next step is to discuss the data or population that the method will be used upon. Summarizing the data or population of your method often requires answering (Johnson, 2017): (a) how many participants/cases compose your data? (b) what are some of the common or key attributes of your data? And c) how did you select your data/participants?

The first question means answering the size (e.g., n = 88) of your corpus. Commentary on the size of your sample should also consider the total population that you are attempting to comment on. For instance, if you are writing about “student experiences with online open book examinations,” then it is important to consider how many students participated in the research compared to the students that took the examination (i.e., identify the characteristics of the sample versus the target populations). Answering the common attributes of this case study would mean considering the descriptives (usually sample size, mean, distribution etc.) or characteristics (e.g. gender, age, class, ethnicity) of participants/unit of observation. Building from our previous example, we should ask pertinent questions about the participants that took this exam: what was the average score of the exam? What grade level is this course? Which discipline was this course in, and which discipline do most students in this specific class come from? Finally, we need to also discuss how we recruited these students. Outline your recruitment process by discussing how you advertised the study, whether a stipend or incentive was offered, and how students finally agreed to join in the study (mainly regarding whether consent forms were required). For online texts or any other data that is not a participant/population, the same questions can be answered. The amount of the texts, components of the texts (their genre and author mainly), and the data collection process is all relevant to your method.

Box 7.1 – Writing About Recruitment

Have I discussed how I advertised the study?
Have I stated if a stipend was used?
Have I stated if a consent form was used?
How were participants identified?
Where were they recruited?

While the above questions must be asked for all methods, the key concerns will differ depending on whether your research is primary, secondary, content analysis or theoretical research. Primary research is research that collects and derives its own raw data by sampling participants/cases, such as selecting and interviewing participants. Secondary research uses data from other primary research projects, such as a systematic literature review of other research. Theoretical research uses other papers and articles, sometimes even other data (like secondary research), but with the purpose of advancing a new argument in the field. Its method does not have to be as explicit as the other two methods of research. The following table summarizes the distinct tasks of the three approaches when discussing methodology. As theoretical research often uses articles and other social artifacts to make its argument, its methodological concerns are similar to content analysis. For that reason, we have grouped them together in the following table.

It is important to note that merely listing these components of your data/participants does not satisfy the requirements of a good methods section. Remember that you are still making an argument. While discussing the attributes relevant to your study, you are still arguing why you selected these participants/cases for your study, why you are listing that demographic/characteristic(s) as important to your study, and why you chose this sampling method over the other options . Allow yourself to be guided by the argument and the relevant things to include in your sections will follow. The following box provides a checklist of questions to help you to evaluate whether your methods section has successfully addressed all the key questions regarding your ‘data’.

Box 7.2 – Checkist for Summarizing the Data of Your Study

Have I stated how many participants/data was in my study?
Including in comparison to the relevant groups that they occupy?
Have I discussed all the key attributes of my data?
Have I discussed the relevant demographics of the populations and groups I am researching?
If it is textual data, what is important to know about the author and genre of this text?
Have I discussed the sampling method of my study?
Have I argued the value and limitations of my sampling method?

Instruments and Measures

Research instruments are the tools that you use to collect, analyze and measure data in your research. These include literature reviews, survey questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, ethnography etc. In your methods section, you must describe how these serve to collect data, for example, was the survey composed of only open-ended questions, how many questions were included in the survey etc. Likewise, if you are using interviews, you need to discuss what kind of interviews were conducted (semi-structured, unstructured, structured)? How were the questions organized (e.g. by theme, no order etc.). Again, if you are doing a meta-analysis (literature review), you need to detail how it was done, what search engines, databases and search criteria were used etc. To reiterate, description of your instruments requires a an outline of how you used the particular measure to collect data.

As you will remember from your methods classes, when we talk about measurement in social research, we are referring to the process of operationalization (i.e., what concrete observations are being checked to empirically indicate a concept?). To do this, you must first identify the key variables or issues in your research question and explain how your research instrument captures it. For example, say your research question is “Do international students engage in economic transnationalism while studying on campus?” You will want to indicate how you will determine (a) who is an international student? and (b) what is economic transnationalism? It might seem silly that you need to operationalize “international student” but practically, you must have a system to determine who is an international student. It would be hard to walk around campus and determine who is an international student without having some criteria e.g. a student without Canadian citizenship. But again, how would you determine which student has Canadian citizenship and which ones do not? Operationalization requires that you specify precisely how you determine who is an international student (maybe you simply let participants self-declare their status on the survey or at the beginning of the interview). Likewise, “economic transnationalism” is a concept that needs to be measured (operationalized). You need to specify how in your research you will determine that economic transnationalism was taking place. Maybe you determined that if participants engaged in at least one economic activity (such as remitting money to origin countries, conducting business in origin countries, investing in origin countries etc), then economic transnationalism has taken place. The key to measurement is making it clear (and justifying) to your readers how your key concepts and variables are determined in the study. This requires that you consider how other researchers have measured these variables. If your measures are different from how other researchers measure the same concepts/variables, you need to justify why. On the other hand, the use of existing measures assures measurement consistency and contributes to the reliability of your study.

Measurement in quantitative studies can get complex by recoding, and the creation of composites such as indexes and scales. You must discuss how you recode variables and how the new variables allow you to better measure concepts. Likewise, you need to justify how the scales and indexes that you are using improve your measurements. If you are using established indexes and scales, it is important that you justify why they are applicable in your research. Again, if you are creating new measures, you need to identify why existing ones were inadequate for your research goals. As mentioned before, the methodology is not merely checking boxes, it requires justification of your choices, and engagement with an argument and or the literature (see the following example).

Box 7.3 – Examples – How a Team of Researchers Measured Friendship

Source: Walsworth, S., Somerville, K., & Robinson, O. (2021). The importance of weak friendships for international student satisfaction: Empirical evidence from Canada. International Journal of Intercultural Relations , 80 , 134-146.

The procedure is a step-by-step description of what you did to collect and analyze your data (see Figure 7.6.1 and Box 7.6.3). It should be the largest part of your methods section (Johnson, 2017), and it will incorporate explanation of how you collected your data, interpreted your data, and organized your data in your final-write up. As pointed out in the introduction, it is in this part of the methods section that the imitation function of methods – helping others to find our findings – is completed (Johnson, 2017). After providing a walkthrough of each step of your research process, it then discusses how you analyzed that data. The procedure clearly divides and orders the steps of your research chronologically, seeking to present a summative narrative of your research from recruitment/sampling of data to analysis. Documenting your procedure allows another researcher to attempt the exact same process as you with the expectation that they should be able to find (roughly) the same results. It is through this cross-reference system that the method can likewise become generalizable. If other researchers can replicate your procedure across contexts with effective results, then the method proves itself intuitive and effective to be useful for further research. It is an important kind of tedium!

Box 7.4 – Procedure Checklist

Recruitment

Did I discuss how I recruited my participants and/or collect my data? Did I mention and outline the type of sampling method I used?
Did I discuss how I ensured ethical fairness in gathering my data?
Did I discuss how many participants I reached out to, and if any problems occurred in gathering my data?
Did I discuss how I solved problems in recruiting my participants?

Data Collection

Have I discussed the method for collecting data in my study (interviews, surveys, census data)?
Have I discussed procedures for cleaning, recoding, and otherwise ensuring the integrity of my data?

The final aim of your methods section will be to discuss how you processed and analyzed the data collected. This will differ significantly depending on the method chosen, but there are a few standard things to do depending on whether your paper is qualitative or quantitative. The following table highlights:

The next table provides a demonstration of the analysis portion of Alexander Wilson’s (2021) methodology in his undergraduate honours thesis.

The above table shows that honours student, Alexander Wilson (2021) began by discussing the instrument used to organize the analysis (NVivo) and then moves onto the steps taken to conduct a discourse analysis (which is overviewed earlier in the paper). It discusses how the media data was analyzed, through an open reading to a codification of the issues according to their being “hopes or externalities” of Uber’s service. The codification is situated within the overall method of discourse analysis, which seeks to interpret the meaning of speech/text with respect to the larger discussion that it is contributing to. For Alexander, this larger discussion leads to a change in legislation, so it is his goal to interpret the significance of Uber’s promises and externalities in the media discourse with respect to the final legislative conclusions.

Box 7.5 – Reviewing and Revising the Methods Section

Have I summarized the method?
Will this summary make sense to someone doing similar research?
Have I adequately highlighted the elements of this method which are especially relevant for my research?
Have I adequately highlighted elements of this method which are relevant for my argument regarding its value for my research?
Have I argued the value of my approach?
Have I argued that this methodological approach will be effective for gathering data in an ethical manner?
What other approaches can I compare my method with? What are the tradeoffs?
Have I summarized the data of my study?
Have I clarified the type of my data (participants, text, articles etc.)?
Have I stated common attributes of that data?
Have I disclosed important ethical concerns regarding interaction with that data or population?
Have I outlined the instruments and materials used in my study?
Have I discussed the design and procedure of my study?
Have I outlined how I analyzed the data?
Did I adequately discuss the key steps of my analysis?
Did I state how many iterations of my analysis were conducted (how many readings, how many calculations)?

Johnson, M. (2017). “Writing a Methods Section” In Allen, M. (2017). The SAGE Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods (Vols. 1-4). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc doi: 10.4135/9781483381411

Walsworth, S., Somerville, K., & Robinson, O. (2021). The importance of weak friendships for international student satisfaction: Empirical evidence from Canada. International Journal of Intercultural Relations , 80 , 134-146.

Gudykunst, W. B., Yang, S., & Nishida, T. (1985). A Cross-Cultural Test of Uncertainty Reduction Theory: Comparisons of acquaintances, friends, and dating relationships in japan, korea, and the united states. Human Communication Research, 11 (3), 407-454. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.1985.tb00054.x

Maeda, E., & Ritchie, L. D. (2003). The concept of shinyuu in japan: A replication of and comparison to cole and Bradac’s study on U.S. friendship. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 20 (5), 579-598. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075030205001

Hall, J. A. (2019). How many hours does it take to make a friend? Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36 (4), 1278-1296. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407518761225

The tools used to obtain data (e.g., questionnaires, interviews etc.).

The activities that a researcher takes to collect data.

the descriptives (usually sample size, mean, distribution etc.) or characteristics (e.g. gender, age, class, ethnicity) of participants/unit of observation

how you advertised the study, whether a stipend or incentive was offered, and how students finally agreed to join in the study

Research that collects and derives its own raw data by sampling participants or cases, such as selecting and interviewing respondents.

Uses data from other primary research projects, such as a systematic literature review of other research.

Uses other papers and articles, sometimes even other data (like secondary research), but with the purpose of advancing a new argument in the field.

things created by humans e.g., books, graffiti, advertisements, photographs, blogs etc.

The process of defining how one is going to measure a phenomenon that is not directly measurable.

Practicing and Presenting Social Research Copyright © 2022 by Oral Robinson and Alexander Wilson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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How To Write A Research Paper

Research Paper Methods Section

How To Write The Methods Section of a Research Paper Step-by-Step

13 min read

Published on: Mar 6, 2024

Last updated on: Mar 5, 2024

What is the Methods Section of a Research Paper?

The methods section of a research paper provides a detailed description of the procedures, techniques, and methods employed to conduct the study ( American Psychological Association, 2020 ). It outlines the steps taken to collect, analyze, and interpret data, allowing other researchers to replicate the study and assess the validity of the results.

This section includes information on the study design, participants, materials or apparatus used, data collection procedures, and statistical analyses. Typically, the methodology section is placed after the introduction and before the results section in a research paper.

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Importance of Methods Section

The methods section of a research paper holds significant importance. Here is why:

Replicability: The methods section ensures the replicability of the study by providing a clear and comprehensive account of the procedures used.
Transparency: It enhances transparency, allowing other researchers to understand and evaluate the validity of the study's findings.
Credibility: A well-documented methods section enhances the credibility of the research, instilling confidence in the study's design and execution.
Guidance for Future Research: It serves as a guide for future research, offering insights into methodologies that can be applied or modified in similar studies.
Ethical Considerations: The section highlights ethical considerations, promoting responsible and accountable research practices.

Structure of Methods Section of a Research Paper

There are some important parts of the method section of a research paper that you will need to include, whether you have done an experimental study or a descriptive study.

Provided structured approach below ensures clarity and replicability of the research methodology:

Formatting of the Methods Section

Make the main " Methods " heading centered, bold, and capitalized. For subtopics under "Methods," like participant details or data collection, use left-aligned, bold, and title cases.

Feel free to include even sub-headings for more specifics. This formatting helps readers easily follow your study steps.

Next, we will address the most common query, i.e., how to write the methodology section of a research paper. Letâs explain the steps for writing the methodology section of a research paper:

Step 1: Start with Study Design

The initial step in the method section of a research paper is to provide a clear description of the study type. This involves outlining the overall plan and structure of the research.

Different types of studies, such as cohort, case-control, and cross-sectional, may be employed based on the research objectives.

For instance:

Starting with the study design sets the stage for understanding the methodology. It provides readers with a foundation for subsequent sections in the methods portion of the research paper.

Step 2: Describe Participants

In the methods section, the second step involves providing a detailed account of the participants involved in the study. Start by describing the characteristics of both human and non-human subjects, using clear and descriptive language.

Address specific demographic characteristics relevant to your study, such as age, sex, ethnic or racial group, gender identity, education level, and socioeconomic status. Clearly outlining these essential details ensures transparency, replicability, and a comprehensive understanding of the study's sample.

Sampling Procedures:

Clearly outline how participants were selected, specifying any inclusion and exclusion criteria applied.
Appropriately identify the sampling procedure used, such as random sampling, convenience sampling, or stratified sampling.
If applicable, note the percentage of invited participants who actually participated.
Specify if participants were self-selected or chosen by their institutions (e.g., schools submitting student data).

Sample Size and Power:

Detail the intended sample size estimation per condition and the statistical power aimed for in the study.
Provide information on any analyses conducted to determine the sample size and power.
Emphasize the importance of statistical power for detecting effects if present.
State whether the final sample size differed from the originally intended sample.
Base your interpretations of study outcomes solely on the final sample, reinforcing the importance of transparency in reporting.

Step 3: State Materials or Apparatus

In the third step, thoroughly describe the materials or apparatus used in your research. In addition, gives detailed information on the tools and techniques employed to measure relevant outcome variables.

Primary and Secondary Measures:

Clearly define both primary and secondary outcome measures aligned with research questions.
Specify all instruments used, citing hardware models, software versions, or references to manuals/articles.
Report settings of specialized apparatus, such as screen resolution.

Reliability and Validity:

For each instrument, detail measures of reliability and validity.
Include an explanation of how consistently (reliability) and precisely (validity) the method measures the targeted variables.
Provide examples or reference materials to illustrate the reliability and validity of tests, questionnaires, or interviews.

Covariates and Quality Assurance:

Describe any covariates considered and their relevance to explaining or predicting outcomes.
Review methods used to assure measurement quality, such as researcher training, multiple assessors, translation procedures, and pilot studies.
For subjectively coded data, report interrater reliability scores to gauge consistency among raters.

Step 4 Write the Procedure

Next is the procedure section of the research paper, which thoroughly details the procedures applied for administering the study, processing data, and planning data analyses.

Data Collection Methods and Research Design

Summarize data collection methods (e.g., surveys, tests) and the overall research design.
Provide detailed procedures for administering surveys, tests, or any other data collection instruments.
Clarify the research design framework, specifying whether it's experimental, quasi-experimental, descriptive, correlational, and/or longitudinal.
For multi-group studies, report assignment methods, group instructions, interventions, and session details.

Data Analysis

Clearly state the planned data analysis methods for each research question or hypothesis.
Specify descriptive statistics, inferential statistical tests, and any other analysis techniques.
Include software or tools used for data analysis (e.g., SPSS, R).
Provide a brief rationale for choosing each analysis method.

Step 5: Mention Ethical Approvals

In the fifth step of the methods section, explicitly address the ethical considerations of your research, ensuring transparency and adherence to ethical standards. Here are some key ethical considerations:

IRB Approval:

Clearly state that the research received approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) or an equivalent ethical review body.

Informed Consent:

Specify the process of obtaining informed consent, including the provision of information sheets to participants.

Confidentiality:

Describe measures taken to maintain confidentiality, such as assigning unique identification numbers and securing data.

Participant Rights:

Emphasize participants' right to withdraw from the study at any point without consequences.

Debriefing:

Mention if debriefing procedures were implemented to address any participant concerns post-study.

Methods Section of Research Paper Examples

Exploring sample methodology sections is crucial when composing your first research paper, as it enhances your understanding of the structure. We provide PDF examples of methodology sections that you can review to gain inspiration for your own research paper.

Methods Section of A Qualitative Research Paper

Methods Section of Research Paper Template

Methods Section of Research Proposal Example

Methods Section of Research Paper APA

How To Write A Method For An Experiment

Journal Guidelines to Consider

When writing the methods section, be mindful of the specific guidelines set by your target journal. These guidelines can vary, impacting the structure, word limitations, and even the presentation of your methodology.

Here's a detailed explanation, along with an example:

Structure & Word Limitations

If a journal follows APA guidelines, it might allow flexibility in structuring the method section. However, some journals may impose strict limitations on the manuscript's length and the number of subsections.

For instance, a journal might specify a maximum of 3000 words for the entire paper and limit the method section to 500 words. In such cases, ensure you adhere to these constraints, potentially submitting supplemental files for additional details.

Standardized Checklists

Journals often request authors to use standardized checklists for various study types to ensure completeness.

For a randomized clinical trial, the CONSORT(Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials) checklist might be required. If your research involves observational studies, the STROBE (Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology) checklist may be applicable.

For diagnostic accuracy studies, adherence to the STARD (Standards for the Reporting of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies) checklist is common. These checklists serve as a systematic way to include essential details in your manuscript, aligning with the journal's preferred reporting standards.

Blind Review Procedures

Some journals implement single- or double-blind review procedures. If a double-blind review is in place, authors need to remove any information that might reveal their identity or institutional affiliations.

For instance, the method section cannot explicitly mention the institution's name, researchers' identities, or the institutional ethics committee. This ensures an unbiased evaluation of the research without reviewers being influenced by the authors' affiliations.

The Dos And Donâts Of Writing The Methods Section

While it's important to be thorough, certain elements are better suited for other sections of the paper. Here are some Doâs and Donâts of writing the methods section:

Dos of Writing the Methods Section

Here are what to include in the methods section:

Clarity and Precision: Clearly and concisely describe the procedures used in your study. Ensure that another researcher can replicate your work based on your explanation.
Chronological Order: Present the methods in a logical and chronological sequence. This helps readers follow the flow of your research.
Detail and Specificity: Provide sufficient detail to allow for replication. Specify equipment, materials, and procedures used, including any modifications.
Consistency with Study Design: Align your methods with the overall design of your study. Clearly state whether it's experimental, observational, or another design.
Inclusion of Participants: Detail participant characteristics, including demographics and any inclusion/exclusion criteria. Clearly state the sample size.
Operational Definitions: Define and operationalize key variables. Clearly explain how each variable was measured or manipulated.
Transparency in Data Collection: Describe the data collection process, including the timing, location, and any relevant protocols followed during the study.
Statistical Information: Outline the statistical methods used for analysis. Specify the software, tests employed and significance levels.
Ethical Considerations: Discuss ethical approvals obtained, informed consent procedures, and measures taken to ensure participant confidentiality. Address any potential conflicts of interest.

Don'ts of Writing the Methods Section

Extraneous Details: Unlike the discussion section avoid including unnecessary details or information that does not contribute directly to understanding the research methods.
Results Discussion: Refrain from discussing or interpreting the results in the methods section. Focus solely on describing the methods employed.
Ambiguity and Vagueness: Steer clear of vague or ambiguous language. Be precise and specific in your descriptions.
Overemphasis on Background: While some background information is relevant, avoid turning the methods section into an extensive literature review . Keep the focus on the research methods.
Personal Opinions: Do not include personal opinions or anecdotes. Stick to factual and objective descriptions.
Excessive Jargon: Minimize the use of technical jargon that may be confusing to readers who are not experts in your field. If necessary, provide clear explanations.
Inadequate Explanation of Modifications: If you deviate from standard procedures, clearly explain the modifications and justify why they were made.
Inconsistency with Design: Ensure that your methods align with the study design. Avoid inconsistencies that could create confusion for readers.

In conclusion , learning the art of writing the methods section is pivotal for any research paper. Following a step-by-step approach, from defining the study design to detailed data collection and analysis, ensures clarity and replicability.

Remember, precision matters. If you find yourself grappling with the intricacies of your methodology, don't hesitate to reach out to CollegeEssay.org.

Our professional writing service is ready to assist you in crafting a robust and well-structured methods section.

Connect with our research paper writing service for expert guidance and conquer the challenges of research paper writing.

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Writing a Research Proposal

First Online: 10 April 2022

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Lobat Tayebi 3

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A research proposal is a roadmap that brings the researcher closer to the objectives, takes the research topic from a purely subjective mind, and manifests an objective plan. It shows us what steps we need to take to reach the objective, what questions we should answer, and how much time we need. It is a framework based on which you can perform your research in a well-organized and timely manner. In other words, by writing a research proposal, you get a map that shows the direction to the destination (answering the research question). If the proposal is poorly prepared, after spending a lot of energy and money, you may realize that the result of the research has nothing to do with the initial objective, and the study may end up nowhere. Therefore, writing the proposal shows that the researcher is aware of the proper research and can justify the significance of his/her idea.

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Additional Resources

https://grants.nih.gov

https://grants.nih.gov/grants/oer.htm

https://www.ninr.nih.gov

https://www.niaid.nih.gov

http://www.grantcentral.com

http://www.saem.org/research

http://www.cfda.gov

http://www.ahrq.gov

http://www.nsf/gov

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Research mcqs-part-ii.

51. Which of the following can best be described as a categorical variable? a. Age b. Annual Income c. Grade Point Average d. Religion

52. In research, something that does not “vary” is called a ___________. a. Variable b. Method c. Constant d. control group

53. The strongest evidence for causality comes from which of the following research methods? a. Experimental b. Causal-comparative c. Correlational d. Ethnography

54. good qualitative problem statement: a. Defines the independent and dependent variables b. Conveys a sense of emerging design c. Specifies a research hypothesis to be tested d. Specifies the relationship between variables that the researcher expects to find

55. Sometimes a comprehensive review of the literature prior to data collection is not recommended by grounded theorists. a. True b. False

56. The research participants are described in detail in which section of the research plan? a. Introduction b. Method c. Data analysis d. Discussion

57. The statement of purpose in a research study should: a. Identify the design of the study b. Identify the intent or objective of the study c. Specify the type of people to be used in the study d. Describe the study

58. A qualitative research question: a. Asks a question about some process, or phenomenon to be explored b. Is generally an open-ended question c. both a and b are correct d. None of the above

59. According to the text, which of the following orders is the recommended in the flowchart of the development of a research idea? a. Research topic, research problem, research purpose, research question, hypothesis b. Research topic, research purpose, research problem, research question, hypothesis c. Research topic, research problem, research purpose, research question, hypothesis d. Research topic, hypothesis, research problem, research question, research purpose

60. One step that is not included in planning a research study is: a. Identifying a researchable problem b. A review of current research c. Statement of the research question d. Conducting a meta-analysis of the research e. Developing a research plan

61. Sources of researchable problems can include: a. Researchers’ own experiences as educators b. Practical issues that require solutions c. Theory and past research d. All of the above

62. Which of the following is a function of theory? a. Integrating and summarizing current knowledge b. Making predictions c. Explaining phenomena d. All of the above are important functions of theory

63. A review of the literature prior to formulating research questions allows the researcher to do which of the following? a. To become familiar with prior research on the phenomenon of interest b. To identify potential methodological problems in the research area c. To develop a list of pertinent problems relative to the phenomenon of interest d. All of the above

64. Computer database searches can be done: a. With a computer with CD-ROM drive b. At the library c. Online d. All of the above

65. What is the primary approach that is used by the IRB to assess the ethical acceptability of a research study? a. Utilitarianism b. Deontology c. Ethical skepticism d. Comparativeism

66. The feasibility of a research study should be considered in light of: a. Cost and time required to conduct the study b. Skills required of the researcher c. Potential ethical concerns d. All of the above

67. A formal statement of the research question or “purpose of research study” generally; a. Is made prior to the literature review b. Is made after the literature review c. Will help guide the research process d. b and c

68. Research hypotheses are ______. a. Formulated prior to a review of the literature b. Statements of predicted relationships between variables c. Stated such that they can be confirmed or refuted d. b and c

69. Hypotheses in qualitative research studies usually _____. a. Are very specific and stated prior to beginning the study b. Are often generated as the data are collected, interpreted, and analyzed c. Are never used d. Are always stated after the research study has been completed

70. A research plan _____. a. Should be detailed b. Should be given to others for review and comments c. Sets out the rationale for a research study d. All of the above

71. The Method section of the research plan typically specifies EXCEPT; a. The research participants b. The results of prior studies that address the phenomena of interest c. The apparatus, instruments, and materials for the research study d. The planned research procedures

72. The Introduction section of the research plan a. Gives an overview of prior relevant studies b. Contains a statement of the purpose of the study c. Concludes with a statement of the research questions &, for quantitative research, it includes the research hypothesis d. All of the above

73. Which of the following is necessary in obtaining informed consent? a. A description of the statistical analyses that will be carried out b. A description of the purpose of the research c. A description of the reliability and validity of test instruments d. A list of publications that the researcher has had in the last ten years

74. Which of the following need(s) to be obtained when doing research with children? a. Informed consent from the parent or guardian b. Assent from the child if he or she is capable c. Informed consent from the child d. Both a and b

75. Ideally, the research participant’s identity is not known to the researcher. This is called: a. Anonymity b. Confidentiality c. Deception d. Desensitizing

76. Which of the following is true about the use of deception in research? a. It should never be used b. It can be used anytime c. If there is deception in a study, the participants may need to be debriefed d. The use of deception must be outweighed by other benefits of the study e. Both c and d are true

77. Which of the following is not an ethical guideline for conducting research with humans? a. Getting informed consent of the participant b. Telling participants they must continue until the study has been completed c. Keeping participants’ identity anonymous d. Telling participants they are free to withdraw at any time

78. ________ means that the participant’s identity, although known to the researcher, is not revealed to anyone outside of the researcher and his or her staff. a. Anonymity b. Confidentiality

79. Which of the following is not true? a. Misrepresenting and creating fraudulent data is dishonest b. Misrepresenting data is very easy to detect c. Misrepresenting data can be difficult to detect d. Breaking confidentiality is not a problem

80. What is it called when the participants are not revealed to any one but researcher and staff? a. Confidentiality b. Anonymity c. Ethics d. Discretion

81. Research participants must give what before they can participate in a study? a. Guidelines b. A commitment c. Informed consent d. Private information

82. Identify the term that refers to a post study interview in which all aspects of the study are revealed, reasons for the use of deception are given, and the participants’ questions are answered? a. Desensitizing b. Debriefing c. Dehoaxing d. Deploying

83. A set of principles to guide and assist researchers in deciding which goals are most important and in reconciling conflicting values when conducting research is called ____. a. Research ethics b. Deontological approach c. Utilitarianism d. None of the above

84. IRB is an acronym for which of the following? a. Internal Review Board b. Institutional Rating Board c. Institutional Review Board d. Internal Request Board

85. The act of publishing the same data and results in more than one journal or publication refers to which of the following professional issues: a. Partial publication b. Duplicate publication c. Deception d. Full publication

86. Which term refers to publishing several articles from the data collected in one large study? a. Duplicate publication b. Partial publication c. Triplicate publication d. None of these

87. Which of the following is a right of each participant in research? a. Deception b. Utilitarianism c. Freedom to withdraw d. Participants have no rights

88. The use of statistics to make assumptions concerning some unknown aspect of a population from a sample of that population is known as follow; a. Inferential Statistics b. Parameter c. Descriptive Statistics d. Sampling

89. Which of the following is not an assumption underlying testing and measurement? a. Various approaches to measuring aspects of the same thing can be useful b. Error is rarely present in the measurement process c. Present-day behavior predicts future behavior d. Testing and assessment benefit society

90. Systematic error is associated with: a. Reliability b. Validity

91. Which of the following generally cannot be done in qualitative studies conducted in the field? a. Getting informed consent b. Keeping participants from physical harm c. Maintaining consent forms d. Having full anonymity rather than just confidentiality

92. Which of the following is a type of criterion–related validity evidence? a. Concurrent evidence b. Predictive evidence c. Internal consistency d. Both a and b are correct answers

93. The actual population of study participants selected from a larger population is known as: a. Target population b. Accessible population c. Population d. Cluster

94. Sampling criteria may be used by Nurse to develop the desired sample. Characteristics those must be present for a subject to be included in the sample is called: a. Inclusion criteria b. Exclusion criteria c. Representativeness d. Consent

95. Selection of sample in this study is an important step in doing research. A good sample is: a. One that includes both male and female nurses b. One that shows a balance in the number of nurses from hospital and school c. One that is representative of the population from which it was selected d. One that can be manipulated and controlled

96. A study in which we see the nurse’s level of education is classified in which level of measurement? a. Nominal-scale b. Ordinal scale c. Interval scale d. Ratio-scale

97. Which one of the following supports “reasoning moves from general to specific situation or conclusion”? a. Scientific reasoning b. Deductive reasoning c. Inductive reasoning d. None of the above

98. Which one of the following is a type of nonparametric test? a. t-test b. Chi-squire c. z-test d. f-test

99. Which one of the following is consists of rules for assigning numbers to objects to represent quantities of attributes? a. Reliability b. Measurement c. Measurement error d. Validity

100. Following are the elements of research critique EXCEPT ONE; a. Methodological dimensions b. Practical dimensions c. Ethical dimensions d. Interpretive dimensions

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

How often do you use social media per day?
Less than 30 minutes
30 minutes to 1 hour
1 to 2 hours
2 to 4 hours
More than 4 hours
Which social media platforms do you use?
Others (Please specify)
How often do you experience the following on social media?
Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
Cyberbullying
Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
Very positive
Somewhat positive
Somewhat negative
Very negative
In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
Social comparison
In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
Education on healthy social media use
Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
Social media detox programs
Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

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How to Write an APA Methods Section
The main heading of "Methods" should be centered, boldfaced, and capitalized. Subheadings within this section are left-aligned, boldfaced, and in title case. You can also add lower level headings within these subsections, as long as they follow APA heading styles. To structure your methods section, you can use the subheadings of ...
How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper
The methods section is a fundamental section of any paper since it typically discusses the 'what', 'how', 'which', and 'why' of the study, which is necessary to arrive at the final conclusions. In a research article, the introduction, which serves to set the foundation for comprehending the background and results is usually ...
How to Write a Methods Section of an APA Paper
To write your methods section in APA format, describe your participants, materials, study design, and procedures. Keep this section succinct, and always write in the past tense. The main heading of this section should be labeled "Method" and it should be centered, bolded, and capitalized. Each subheading within this section should be bolded ...
How to Write Your Methods
Your Methods Section contextualizes the results of your study, giving editors, reviewers and readers alike the information they need to understand and interpret your work. Your methods are key to establishing the credibility of your study, along with your data and the results themselves. A complete methods section should provide enough detail ...
Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper
Methods and the Methodology. Do not confuse the terms "methods" and "methodology." As Schneider notes, a method refers to the technical steps taken to do research. Descriptions of methods usually include defining and stating why you have chosen specific techniques to investigate a research problem, followed by an outline of the procedures you ...
How to write the Methods section of a research paper
3. Follow the order of the results: To improve the readability and flow of your manuscript, match the order of specific methods to the order of the results that were achieved using those methods. 4. Use subheadings: Dividing the Methods section in terms of the experiments helps the reader to follow the section better.
How to Write the Methods Section of your Research Paper
Be detailed but concise. Here you have a few more tips: - Since the Methods section is meant to convey how the research was conducted, you should follow the accepted conventions of your field for writing. - It is equally important to follow precisely the 'Instructions for Authors' of your target journal or other specific guidelines ...
PDF How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper
The methods section should describe what was done to answer the research question, describe how it was done, justify the experimental design, and explain how the results were analyzed. Scientific writing is direct and orderly. Therefore, the methods section structure should: describe the materials used in the study, explain how the materials ...
The Methods Section
Abstract. The Methods section of a paper describes how a research study was done. This section is perhaps the most important part of a scientific paper as it describes the strategy and procedures used to answer the research question. Since the validity of the results obtained in a study depends on the approach and techniques used to generate ...
How to Write a Methods Section for a Research Paper
Most importantly, keep your research transparent, provide a clear methodology, and keep every step easy to replicate. Step 3: To make things easier, imagine you are an individual in your target audience. Think about how you would replicate your study and what scientific paper methods you would find accessible.
How to Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper
Structure of the Methodology In A Research Paper. The Methods section typically begins with a brief overview of its contents and a reiteration of the research question. This is followed by a description of the participants, detailing their demographics, and how they were recruited. The materials or apparatus used are then specified, from tools ...
Q: How do I write the methods section of a research proposal?
Answer: The methods section of a research proposal contains details about how you will conduct your research. It includes your study design - the methodology and methods that you plan to use - as well as your work plan - the activities that you plan to undertake to complete your project. The methods section of a research proposal must contain ...
Developing a Research Plan
The research methodology section should specify the research methodology, i.e., materials and methods for consideration and or the data types—primary or secondary-to be obtained with a brief explanation of how the materials and methods would be executed and the required research data would be acquired. Based on the nature of the research ...
How To Write the Methods Section of a Research Paper
Step 2: Detail Participant Information. Explain who took part in your research. Share details about the people involved, like their age, gender, and any other important information that helps others get to know the group you studied. This part helps readers understand the kind of people your research is about.
What should I include in an APA methods section?
In your APA methods section, you should report detailed information on the participants, materials, and procedures used. Describe all relevant participant or subject characteristics, the sampling procedures used and the sample size and power. Define all primary and secondary measures and discuss the quality of measurements.
Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: The Methodology
The methodology section of your paper should be thorough but to the point. Do not provide any background information that does not directly help the reader understand why a particular method was chosen, how the data was gathered or obtained, and how the data was analyzed in relation to the research problem [note: analyzed, not interpreted!
Drafting the Methods Section
Drafting the Methods Section. While the substance of the methods section will differ by genre and method chosen, basic components can be derived across genres. Methods sections in the social sciences tend to have five sub-components. They must: summarize the method used while arguing the value and limitations of the method for your data/context;
How To Write The Methods Section of a Research
Step 1: Start with Study Design. The initial step in the method section of a research paper is to provide a clear description of the study type. This involves outlining the overall plan and structure of the research. Different types of studies, such as cohort, case-control, and cross-sectional, may be employed based on the research objectives.
Writing a Research Proposal
A research proposal is a roadmap that brings the researcher closer to the objectives, takes the research topic from a purely subjective mind, and manifests an objective plan. It shows us what steps we need to take to reach the objective, what questions we should answer, and how much time we need. It is a framework based on which you can perform ...
Research MCQs-Part-II
70. A research plan _____. a. Should be detailed b. Should be given to others for review and comments c. Sets out the rationale for a research study d. All of the above. 71. The Method section of the research plan typically specifies EXCEPT; a. The research participants b. The results of prior studies that address the phenomena of interest c.
Research Paper
Definition: Research Paper is a written document that presents the author's original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue. It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new ...
Methodology tutorial
It explains the "what" and the "how" of your research. Writing a serious research plan may have a strong impact on your [[research subject. Important elements of the research plan. A research plan must include a few important elements, like important "definitions", the general approach, a literature review, conceptual frameworks, the research ...
Research Exam 1 Flashcards
A. Express the goals for the research study. B. Provide a succinct justification for the research study. C. Briefly summarize the background literature. D. Indicate the hypothesis being proposed by the researcher. E. Specify the type of research approach. A. Express the goals for the research study.

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Ensure understanding, reproducibility and replicability

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A clear methods section impacts editorial evaluation and readers’ understanding, and is also the backbone of transparency and replicability.

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How to Write the Methods Section of your Research Paper

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Step 1: Start by Giving a Quick Summary

Step 2: Detail Participant Information

Step 3: Explain How You Did Your Research

Step 4: Specify Tools and Materials Used

Step 5: Explain Data Collection Methods

Step 6: Clarify Data Analysis Techniques

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