what is a counter argument in an essay

How to Write a Counter Argument (Step-by-Step Guide)

Have you been asked to include a counter argument in an essay you are writing? Unless you are already an experienced essay writer, you may have no idea where to even start. We're here to help you tackle your counter argument like a pro.

What Is a Counter Argument?

A counter argument is precisely what it sounds like — an argument that offers reasons to disagree with an essay's thesis statement. As you are writing your essay, you will likely pen multiple supporting arguments that outline precisely why readers should logically agree with the thesis. In a counter argument paragraph, you show that you also understand common reasons to believe differently.

In any given essay, you may write one or more counter arguments — and then, frequently, immediately refute them. Whether you are required to include a counter argument or you simply want to, always include:

• A simple statement explaining the counter argument. As it will likely follow paragraphs in which you fleshed out your argument, this can start with words like "Some people are concerned that", or "critics say", or "On the other hand".
• Then include further reasoning, data, or statistics.
• Following this, you will want to discredit the counter argument immediately.

Why Include a Counter Argument?

Including a counter argument (or multiple, for that matter) in an essay may be required, but even in cases where it is not, mentioning at least one counter argument can make your essay much stronger. You may, at first glance, believe that you are undermining yourself and contradicting your thesis statement. That's not true at all. By including a counter argument in your essay, you show that:

• You have done your research and are intimately familiar with each aspect of your thesis, including opposition to it.
• You have arrived at your conclusion through the power of reason, and without undue bias.
• You do not only blindly support your thesis, but can also deal with opposition to it.

In doing so, your essay will become much more reasoned and logical, and in practical terms, this likely means that you can count on a higher grade.

How To Write a Counter Argument (Step-by-Step Guide)

You have been laboring over your essay for a while, carefully researching each aspect of your thesis and making strong arguments that aim to persuade the reader that your view is the correct one — or at least that you are a solid writer who understands the subject matter and deserves a good grade for your efforts.

If you are passionate about the topic in question, it can be hard to decide how to incorporate a counter argument. Here's how to do it, step-by-step:

1. Brainstorm

You have already researched your topic, so you know on what grounds people most frequently oppose your argument. Write them down. Pick one, or a few, that you consider to be important and interesting. Formulate the counter argument as if you were on the opposing side.

2. Making the Transition

Your counter argument paragraph or paragraphs differ from the rest of your essay, so you will want to introduce a counter argument with a transition. Common ways to do this are to introduce your counter argument with phrases like:

• Admittedly, conversely, however, nevertheless, or although.
• Opponents would argue that...
• Common concerns with this position are...
• Critics say that...

3. Offering Evidence

Flesh the counter argument out by offering evidence — of the fact that people hold that position (where possible, quote a well-known opponent), as well as reasons why. Word your counter argument in such a way that makes it clear that you have carefully considered the position, and are not simply belittling it. This portion of your counter argument will require doing additional research in most cases.

4. Refute the Counter Argument

You are still arguing in favor of your main thesis. You will, therefore, not just want to describe the opposing side and leave it at that — you will also thoughtfully want to show why the opposing argument is not valid, in your opinion, and you will want to include evidence here, as well.

5. Restate Your Argument

After refuting your counter argument, you can go ahead and restate your argument. Why should people believe what you have to say, despite any opposition?

How To Write A Good Counter Argument

As you're writing a counter argument, you might run into some difficulties if you fervently believe in the truth of your argument. Indeed, in some cases, your argument may appear to you to be so obvious that you don't understand why anyone could think differently.

To help you write a good counter argument, keep in mind that:

• You should never caricature the opposing viewpoint. Show that you deeply understand it, instead.
• To do this, it helps if you validate legitimate concerns you find in an opponent's point of view.
• This may require quite a bit of research, including getting into the opposing side's mindset.
• Refute your counter argument with compassion, and not smugly.

Examples of Counter Arguments with Refutation

Still not sure? No worries; we have you covered. Take a look at these examples:

• Many people have argued that a vaccine mandate would strip people of their individual liberties by forcing them to inject foreign substances into their bodies. While this is, in a sense, true, the option of remaining unvaccinated likewise forces other people to be exposed to this virus; thereby potentially stripping them of the most important liberty of all — the liberty to stay alive.
• The concern has been raised that the death penalty could irreversibly strip innocent people of their lives. The answer to this problem lies in raising the bar for death penalty sentences by limiting them to only those cases in which no question whatsoever exists that the convicted party was truly guilty. Modern forensic science has made this infinitely easier.

In short, you'll want to acknowledge that other arguments exist, and then refute them. The tone in which you do so depends on your goal.

What is a counter argument in a thesis?

A counter argument is one that supports the opposing side. In an essay, it shows that you understand other viewpoints, have considered them, and ultimately dismissed them.

Where do I place the counter argument in an essay?

Place the counter argument after your main supporting arguments.

How long should the counter argument be?

It may be a single paragraph or multiple, depending on how important you believe the counter argument to be and the length of the essay.

What is the difference between a counter argument and a rebuttal?

A counter argument describes the opposing side in some detail before it is refuted. In a rebuttal, you may simply oppose the opposition.

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Counterarguments

A counterargument involves acknowledging standpoints that go against your argument and then re-affirming your argument. This is typically done by stating the opposing side’s argument, and then ultimately presenting your argument as the most logical solution. The counterargument is a standard academic move that is used in argumentative essays because it shows the reader that you are capable of understanding and respecting multiple sides of an argument.

Counterargument in two steps

Respectfully acknowledge evidence or standpoints that differ from your argument.

Refute the stance of opposing arguments, typically utilizing words like “although” or “however.”

In the refutation, you want to show the reader why your position is more correct than the opposing idea.

Where to put a counterargument

Can be placed within the introductory paragraph to create a contrast for the thesis statement.

May consist of a whole paragraph that acknowledges the opposing view and then refutes it.

• Can be one sentence acknowledgements of other opinions followed by a refutation.

Why use a counterargument?

Some students worry that using a counterargument will take away from their overall argument, but a counterargument may make an essay more persuasive because it shows that the writer has considered multiple sides of the issue. Barnet and Bedau (2005) propose that critical thinking is enhanced through imagining both sides of an argument. Ultimately, an argument is strengthened through a counterargument.

Examples of the counterargument structure

• Argument against smoking on campus:  Admittedly, many students would like to smoke on campus. Some people may rightly argue that if smoking on campus is not illegal, then it should be permitted; however, second-hand smoke may cause harm to those who have health issues like asthma, possibly putting them at risk.
• Argument against animal testing:  Some people argue that using animals as test subjects for health products is justifiable. To be fair, animal testing has been used in the past to aid the development of several vaccines, such as small pox and rabies. However, animal testing for beauty products causes unneeded pain to animals. There are alternatives to animal testing. Instead of using animals, it is possible to use human volunteers. Additionally, Carl Westmoreland (2006) suggests that alternative methods to animal research are being developed; for example, researchers are able to use skin constructed from cells to test cosmetics. If alternatives to animal testing exist, then the practice causes unnecessary animal suffering and should not be used.

Harvey, G. (1999). Counterargument. Retrieved from writingcenter.fas.harvard.edu/pages/counter- argument

Westmoreland, C. (2006; 2007). “Alternative Tests and the 7th Amendment to the Cosmetics Directive.” Hester, R. E., & Harrison, R. M. (Ed.) Alternatives to animal testing (1st Ed.). Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry.

Barnet, S., Bedau, H. (Eds.). (2006). Critical thinking, reading, and writing . Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

Contributor: Nathan Lachner

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All About Counterarguments

So, you’ve been assigned a paper about counterarguments....

Or, maybe a paper that just requires you to think about the opposition to your argument. Never fear! Counter-arguments can help you to better understand your own argument. This type of assignment allows you the opportunity to think about the issue or problem as a whole rather than just your piece of the whole.

What is a counterargument?

A counterargument is an argument that goes against your thesis and that expresses the perspective of someone with an opposite point of view from your own. While it may seem that acknowledging your opponent’s argument would undermine your own argument, if done well, a counterargument actually fortifies your point. With a counterargument, you have an opportunity to acknowledge and respond to any objections from the opposition, giving you the advantage since the response comes from you. Usage of a counterargument also demonstrates that you’re a rational and fair arguer who is well-versed in your issue since you acknowledge both sides of the argument.

How to start:

First, start as early as possible. Part of utilizing a counterargument is in knowing your argument well, and knowing any subject well takes time.

To find your subject, think about what you’re interested in, but also something that you’re not necessarily emotionally, politically, or personally tied to. That way, you can consider both points in a fair and unbiased way, allowing for equal arguments for both sides of the issue, even though eventually you’ll only take one side of the issue. Start by looking up information about your topic.

Use online databases, looking up both sides of the issue. Remember to that the library has access to hundreds of online databases housing scholarly articles that you can access for free! The university pays for the resources, so be sure to take advantage of them.

Be open to what you find! Even if you initially take one side of the issue, you might find that your stance has changed. This is not necessarily a bad thing! Consider which side feels more compelling based on the research that you find.

How to present your counterargument:

It may be tempting to just write a sentence or two explaining your opponent’s argument and then spend paragraphs refuting that argument, but a good counter-argument is fair in the assessment of the opponent’s position.

Here are some tips:

Provide a few fair reasons why someone could possibly have the perspective of your opposition.

Communicate the counter-point objectively without bias. Look for any words that communicate feelings specific (especially negative) emotions or feelings concerning the argument. Those probably aren’t fair or unbiased. A reader can usually tell that you’re being unfair and might not want to continue reading.

Consider this: would the person who holds this opposite perspective be okay with your method of explaining their side of the issue? If not, then you’re probably not being fair.

How to actually write and implement a counter-argument:

Identify or explain opposing viewpoints. Use phrases like “on the other hand...” or “it is often perceived that...” or “critics may argue...” or “although...” or “some people may think” or (invoking the viewpoint of an expert/group) “according to...”

Summarize their stance in your own words.

Concede. Explain what aspects of your opponent’s argument have validity (but only if you really feel this way because if you don’t, the reader can tell).

Respond. Bring the reader back to your argument and its strengths. Refute your opponent’s argument by explaining how your point works better, is more logically sound, or makes more sense.

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Writing a Paper: Responding to Counterarguments

Basics of counterarguments.

When constructing an argument, it is important to consider any counterarguments a reader might make. Acknowledging the opposition shows that you are knowledgeable about the issue and are not simply ignoring other viewpoints. Addressing counterarguments also gives you an opportunity to clarify and strengthen your argument, helping to show how your argument is stronger than other arguments.

Incorporating counterarguments into your writing can seem counterintuitive at first, and some writers may be unsure how to do so. To help you incorporate counterarguments into your argument, we recommend following the steps: (a) identify, (b) investigate, (c) address, and (d) refine.

Identify the Counterarguments

First you need to identify counterarguments to your own argument. Ask yourself, based on your argument, what might someone who disagrees counter in response? You might also discover counterarguments while doing your research, as you find authors who may disagree with your argument.

For example, if you are researching the current opioid crisis in the United States, your argument might be: State governments should allocate part of the budget for addiction recovery centers in communities heavily impacted by the opioid crisis . A few counterarguments might be:

• Recovery centers are not proven to significantly help people with addiction.
• The state’s money should go to more pressing concerns such as...
• Establishing and maintaining a recovery center is too costly.
• Addicts are unworthy of assistance from the state. 

Investigate the Counterarguments

Analyze the counterarguments so that you can determine whether they are valid. This may require assessing the counterarguments with the research you already have or by identifying logical fallacies . You may also need to do additional research.

In the above list, the first three counterarguments can be researched. The fourth is a moral argument and therefore can only be addressed in a discussion of moral values, which is usually outside the realm of social science research. To investigate the first, you could do a search for research that studies the effectiveness of recovery centers. For the second, you could look at the top social issues in states around the country. Is the opioid crisis the main concern or are there others? For the third, you could look for public financial data from a recovery center or interview someone who works at one to get a sense of the costs involved. 

Address the Counterarguments

Address one or two counterarguments in a rebuttal. Now that you have researched the counterarguments, consider your response. In your essay, you will need to state and refute these opposing views to give more credence to your argument. No matter how you decide to incorporate the counterargument into your essay, be sure you do so with objectivity, maintaining a formal and scholarly tone . 

Considerations when writing:

• Will you discredit the counteragument by bringing in contradictory research?
• Will you concede that the point is valid but that your argument still stands as the better view? (For example, perhaps it is very costly to run a recovery center, but the societal benefits offset that financial cost.)
• Placement . You can choose to place the counterargument toward the beginning of the essay, as a way to anticipate opposition, or you can place it toward the end of the essay, after you have solidly made the main points of your argument. You can also weave a counterargument into a body paragraph, as a way to quickly acknowledge opposition to a main point. Which placement is best depends on your argument, how you’ve organized your argument, and what placement you think is most effective.
• Weight . After you have addressed the counterarguments, scan your essay as a whole. Are you spending too much time on them in comparison to your main points? Keep in mind that if you linger too long on the counterarguments, your reader might learn less about your argument and more about opposing viewpoints instead. 

Refine Your Argument

Considering counterarguments should help you refine your own argument, clarifying the relevant issues and your perspective. Furthermore, if you find yourself agreeing with the counterargument, you will need to revise your thesis statement and main points to reflect your new thinking. 

Templates for Responding to Counterarguments

There are many ways you can incorporate counterarguments, but remember that you shouldn’t just mention the counterargument—you need to respond to it as well. You can use these templates (adapted from Graff & Birkenstein, 2009) as a starting point for responding to counterarguments in your own writing.

• The claim that _____ rests upon the questionable assumption that _____.
• X may have been true in the past, but recent research has shown that ________.
• By focusing on _____, X has overlooked the more significant problem of _____.
• Although I agree with X up to a point, I cannot accept the overall conclusion that _____.
• Though I concede that _____, I still insist that _____.
• Whereas X has provided ample evidence that ____, Y and Z’s research on ____ and ____ convinces me that _____ instead.
• Although I grant that _____, I still maintain that _____.
• While it is true that ____, it does not necessarily follow that _____.

Graff, G., & Birkenstein, C. (2009). They say/I say: The moves that matter in academic writing (2 nd ed.). Norton.

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Argumentative Essays: The Counter-Argument & Refutation

An argumentative essay presents an argument for or against a topic. For example, if your topic is working from home , then your essay would either argue in favor of working from home (this is the for  side) or against working from home.

Like most essays, an argumentative essay begins with an introduction that ends with the writer's position (or stance) in the thesis statement .

Introduction Paragraph

(Background information....)

• Thesis statement : Employers should give their workers the option to work from home in order to improve employee well-being and reduce office costs.

This thesis statement shows that the two points I plan to explain in my body paragraphs are 1) working from home improves well-being, and 2) it allows companies to reduce costs. Each topic will have its own paragraph. Here's an example of a very basic essay outline with these ideas:

• Background information

Body Paragraph 1

• Topic Sentence : Workers who work from home have improved well-being .
• Evidence from academic sources

Body Paragraph 2

• Topic Sentence : Furthermore, companies can reduce their expenses by allowing employees to work at home .
• Summary of key points
• Restatement of thesis statement

Does this look like a strong essay? Not really . There are no academic sources (research) used, and also...

You Need to Also Respond to the Counter-Arguments!

The above essay outline is very basic. The argument it presents can be made much stronger if you consider the counter-argument , and then try to respond (refute) its points.

The counter-argument presents the main points on the other side of the debate. Because we are arguing FOR working from home, this means the counter-argument is AGAINST working from home. The best way to find the counter-argument is by reading research on the topic to learn about the other side of the debate. The counter-argument for this topic might include these points:

• Distractions at home > could make it hard to concentrate
• Dishonest/lazy people > might work less because no one is watching

Next, we have to try to respond to the counter-argument in the refutation (or rebuttal/response) paragraph .

The Refutation/Response Paragraph

The purpose of this paragraph is to address the points of the counter-argument and to explain why they are false, somewhat false, or unimportant. So how can we respond to the above counter-argument? With research !

A study by Bloom (2013) followed workers at a call center in China who tried working from home for nine months. Its key results were as follows:

• The performance of people who worked from home increased by 13%
• These workers took fewer breaks and sick-days
• They also worked more minutes per shift

In other words, this study shows that the counter-argument might be false. (Note: To have an even stronger essay, present data from more than one study.) Now we have a refutation.

Where Do We Put the Counter-Argument and Refutation?

Commonly, these sections can go at the beginning of the essay (after the introduction), or at the end of the essay (before the conclusion). Let's put it at the beginning. Now our essay looks like this:

Counter-argument Paragraph

• Dishonest/lazy people might work less because no one is watching

Refutation/Response Paragraph

• Study: Productivity  increased by 14%
• (+ other details)

Body Paragraph 3

• Topic Sentence : In addition, people who work from home have improved well-being .

Body Paragraph 4

The outline is stronger now because it includes the counter-argument and refutation. Note that the essay still needs more details and research to become more convincing.

Working from home may increase productivity.

Extra Advice on Argumentative Essays

It's not a compare and contrast essay.

An argumentative essay focuses on one topic (e.g. cats) and argues for or against it. An argumentative essay should not have two topics (e.g. cats vs dogs). When you compare two ideas, you are writing a compare and contrast essay. An argumentative essay has one topic (cats). If you are FOR cats as pets, a simplistic outline for an argumentative essay could look something like this:

• Thesis: Cats are the best pet.
• are unloving
• cause allergy issues
• This is a benefit >  Many working people do not have time for a needy pet
• If you have an allergy, do not buy a cat.
• But for most people (without allergies), cats are great
• Supporting Details

Use Language in Counter-Argument That Shows Its Not Your Position

The counter-argument is not your position. To make this clear, use language such as this in your counter-argument:

• Opponents might argue that cats are unloving.
• People who dislike cats would argue that cats are unloving.
• Critics of cats could argue that cats are unloving.
• It could be argued that cats are unloving.

These  underlined phrases make it clear that you are presenting  someone else's argument , not your own.

Choose the Side with the Strongest Support

Do not choose your side based on your own personal opinion. Instead, do some research and learn the truth about the topic. After you have read the arguments for and against, choose the side with the strongest support as your position.

Do Not Include Too Many Counter-arguments

Include the main (two or three) points in the counter-argument. If you include too many points, refuting these points becomes quite difficult.

If you have any questions, leave a comment below.

- Matthew Barton / Creator of Englishcurrent.com

Additional Resources :

• Writing a Counter-Argument & Refutation (Richland College)
• Language for Counter-Argument and Refutation Paragraphs (Brown's Student Learning Tools)

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24 comments on “ Argumentative Essays: The Counter-Argument & Refutation ”

Thank you professor. It is really helpful.

Can you also put the counter argument in the third paragraph

It depends on what your instructor wants. Generally, a good argumentative essay needs to have a counter-argument and refutation somewhere. Most teachers will probably let you put them anywhere (e.g. in the start, middle, or end) and be happy as long as they are present. But ask your teacher to be sure.

Thank you for the information Professor

how could I address a counter argument for “plastic bags and its consumption should be banned”?

For what reasons do they say they should be banned? You need to address the reasons themselves and show that these reasons are invalid/weak.

Thank you for this useful article. I understand very well.

Thank you for the useful article, this helps me a lot!

Thank you for this useful article which helps me in my study.

Thank you, professor Mylene 102-04

it was very useful for writing essay

Very useful reference body support to began writing a good essay. Thank you!

Really very helpful. Thanks Regards Mayank

Thank you, professor, it is very helpful to write an essay.

It is really helpful thank you

It was a very helpful set of learning materials. I will follow it and use it in my essay writing. Thank you, professor. Regards Isha

Thanks Professor

This was really helpful as it lays the difference between argumentative essay and compare and contrast essay.. Thanks for the clarification.

This is such a helpful guide in composing an argumentative essay. Thank you, professor.

This was really helpful proof, thankyou!

Thanks this was really helpful to me

This was very helpful for us to generate a good form of essay

thank you so much for this useful information.

Thank you so much, Sir. This helps a lot!

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A Guide to Rebuttals in Argumentative Essays

4-minute read

• 27th May 2023

Rebuttals are an essential part of a strong argument. But what are they, exactly, and how can you use them effectively? Read on to find out.

What Is a Rebuttal?

When writing an argumentative essay , there’s always an opposing point of view. You can’t present an argument without the possibility of someone disagreeing.

Sure, you could just focus on your argument and ignore the other perspective, but that weakens your essay. Coming up with possible alternative points of view, or counterarguments, and being prepared to address them, gives you an edge. A rebuttal is your response to these opposing viewpoints.

How Do Rebuttals Work?

With a rebuttal, you can take the fighting power away from any opposition to your idea before they have a chance to attack. For a rebuttal to work, it needs to follow the same formula as the other key points in your essay: it should be researched, developed, and presented with evidence.

Rebuttals in Action

Suppose you’re writing an essay arguing that strawberries are the best fruit. A potential counterargument could be that strawberries don’t work as well in baked goods as other berries do, as they can get soggy and lose some of their flavor. Your rebuttal would state this point and then explain why it’s not valid:

Read on for a few simple steps to formulating an effective rebuttal.

Step 1. Come up with a Counterargument

A strong rebuttal is only possible when there’s a strong counterargument. You may be convinced of your idea but try to place yourself on the other side. Rather than addressing weak opposing views that are easy to fend off, try to come up with the strongest claims that could be made.

In your essay, explain the counterargument and agree with it. That’s right, agree with it – to an extent. State why there’s some truth to it and validate the concerns it presents.

Step 2. Point Out Its Flaws

Now that you’ve presented a counterargument, poke holes in it . To do so, analyze the argument carefully and notice if there are any biases or caveats that weaken it. Looking at the claim that strawberries don’t work well in baked goods, a weakness could be that this argument only applies when strawberries are baked in a pie.

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Step 3. Present New Points

Once you reveal the counterargument’s weakness, present a new perspective, and provide supporting evidence to show that your argument is still the correct one. This means providing new points that the opposer may not have considered when presenting their claim.

Offering new ideas that weaken a counterargument makes you come off as authoritative and informed, which will make your readers more likely to agree with you.

Summary: Rebuttals

Rebuttals are essential when presenting an argument. Even if a counterargument is stronger than your point, you can construct an effective rebuttal that stands a chance against it.

We hope this guide helps you to structure and format your argumentative essay . And once you’ve finished writing, send a copy to our expert editors. We’ll ensure perfect grammar, spelling, punctuation, referencing, and more. Try it out for free today!

Frequently Asked Questions

What is a rebuttal in an essay.

A rebuttal is a response to a counterargument. It presents the potential counterclaim, discusses why it could be valid, and then explains why the original argument is still correct.

How do you form an effective rebuttal?

To use rebuttals effectively, come up with a strong counterclaim and respectfully point out its weaknesses. Then present new ideas that fill those gaps and strengthen your point.

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Encyclopedia

Writing with artificial intelligence, counterarguments – rebuttal – refutation.

• © 2023 by Roberto León - Georgia College & State University

Ignoring what your target audience thinks and feels about your argument isn't a recipe for success. Instead, engage in audience analysis : ask yourself, "How is your target audience likely to respond to your propositions? What counterarguments -- arguments about your argument -- will your target audience likely raise before considering your propositions?"

Counterargument Definition

C ounterargument refers to an argument given in response to another argument that takes an alternative approach to the issue at hand.

C ounterargument may also be known as rebuttal or refutation .

Related Concepts

Audience Awareness ; Authority (in Speech and Writing) ; Critical Literacy ; Ethos ; Openness ; Researching Your Audience

Guide to Counterarguments in Writing Studies

Counterarguments are a topic of study in Writing Studies as

• Rhetors engage in rhetorical reasoning : They analyze the rebuttals their target audiences may have to their claims , interpretations , propositions, and proposals
• Rhetors may develop counterarguments by questioning a rhetor’s backing , data , qualifiers, and/or warrants
• Rhetors begin arguments with sincere summaries of counterarguments
• a strategy of Organization .

Learning about the placement of counterarguments in Toulmin Argument , Arisotelian Argument , and Rogerian Argument will help you understand when you need to introduce counterarguments and how thoroughly you need to address them.

Why Do Counterarguments Matter?

If your goal is clarity and persuasion, you cannot ignore what your target audience thinks, feels, and does about the argument. To communicate successfully with audiences, rhetors need to engage in audience analysis : they need to understand the arguments against their argument that the audience may hold.

Imagine that you are scrolling through your social media feed when you see a post from an old friend. As you read, you immediately feel that your friend’s post doesn’t make sense. “They can’t possibly believe that!” you tell yourself. You quickly reply “I’m not sure I agree. Why do you believe that?” Your friend then posts a link to an article and tells you to see for yourself.

There are many ways to analyze your friend’s social media post or the professor’s article your friend shared. You might, for example, evaluate the professor’s article by using the CRAAP Test or by conducting a rhetorical analysis of their aims and ethos . After engaging in these prewriting heuristics to get a better sense of what your friend knows and feels about the topic at hand, you may feel more prepared to respond to their arguments and also sense how they might react to your post.

Toulmin Counterarguments

There’s more than one way to counter an argument.

In Toulmin Argument , a counterargument can be made against the writer’s claim by questioning their backing , data , qualifiers, and/or warrants . For example, let’s say we wrote the following argument:

“Social media is bad for you (claim) because it always (qualifier) promotes an unrealistic standard of beauty (backing). In this article, researchers found that most images were photoshopped (data). Standards should be realistic; if they are not, those standards are bad (warrant).” 

Besides noting we might have a series of logical fallacies here, counterarguments and dissociations can be made against each of these parts:

• Against the qualifier: Social media does not always promote unrealistic standards.
• Against the backing : Social media presents but does not promote unrealistic standards.
• Against the data : This article focuses on Instagram; these findings are not applicable to Twitter.
• Against the warrant : How we approach standards matters more than the standards themselves; standards do not need to be realistic, but rather we need to be realistic about how we approach standards.

In generating and considering counterarguments and conditions of rebuttal, it is important to consider how we approach alternative views. Alternative viewpoints are opportunities not only to strengthen and contrast our own arguments with those of others; alternative viewpoints are also opportunities to nuance and develop our own arguments. 

Let us continue to look at our social media argument and potential counterarguments. We might prepare responses to each of these potential counterarguments, anticipating the ways in which our audience might try to shift how we frame this situation. However, we might also concede that some of these counterarguments actually have good points.

For example, we might still believe that social media is bad, but perhaps we also need to consider more about 

• What factors make it worse (nuance the qualifier)?
• Whether or not social media is a neutral tool or whether algorithms take advantage of our baser instincts (nuance the backing )
• Whether this applies to all social media or whether we want to focus on just one social media platform (nuance the data ) 
• How should we approach social standards (nuance the warrant )?

Identifying counterarguments can help us strengthen our arguments by helping us recognize the complexity of the issue at hand.

Neoclassical Argument – Aristotelian Argument

Learn how to compose a counterargument passage or section.

While Toulmin Argument focuses on the nuts and bolts of argumentation, a counterargument can also act as an entire section of an Aristotelian Argument . This section typically comes after you have presented your own lines of argument and evidence .

This section typically consists of two rhetorical moves :

Examples of Counterarguments

By introducing counterarguments, we show we are aware of alternative viewpoints— other definitions, explanations, meanings, solutions, etc. We want to show that we are good listeners and aren’t committing the strawman fallacy . We also concede some of the alternative viewpoints that we find most persuasive. By making concessions, we can show that we are reasonable ( ethos ) and that we are listening . Rogerian Argument is an example of building listening more fully into our writing. 

Using our social media example, we might write: 

I recognize that in many ways social media is only as good as the content that people upload to it. As Professor X argues, social media amplifies both the good and the bad of human nature.

Once we’ve shown that we understand and recognize good arguments when we see them, we put forward our response to the counterclaim. In our response, we do not simply dismiss alternative viewpoints, but provide our own backing, data, and warrants to show that we, in fact, have the more compelling position. 

To counter Professor X’s argument, we might write:

At the same time, there are clear instances where social media amplifies the bad over the good by design. While content matters, the design of social media is only as good as the people who created it.

Through conceding and countering, we can show that we recognize others’ good points and clarify where we stand in relation to others’ arguments.

Counterarguments and Organization

Learn when and how to weave counterarguments into your texts.

As we write, it is also important to consider the extent to which we will respond to counterarguments. If we focus too much on counterarguments, we run the risk of downplaying our own contributions. If we focus too little on counterarguments, we run the risk of seeming aloof and unaware of reality. Ideally, we will be somewhere in between these two extremes.

There are many places to respond to counterarguments in our writing. Where you place your counterarguments will depend on the rhetorical situation (ex: audience , purpose, subject ), your rhetorical stance (how you want to present yourself), and your sense of kairos . Here are some common choices based on a combination of these rhetorical situation factors:

• If a counterargument is well-established for your audience, you may want to respond to that counterargument earlier in your essay, clearing the field and creating space for you to make your own arguments. An essay about gun rights, for example, would need to make it clear very quickly that it is adding something new to this old debate. Doing so shows your audience that you are very aware of their needs.
• If a counterargument is especially well-established for your audience and you simply want to prove that it is incorrect rather than discuss another solution, you might respond to it point by point, structuring your whole essay as an extended refutation. Fact-checking and commentary articles often make this move. Responding point by point shows that you take the other’s point of view seriously.
• If you are discussing something relatively unknown or new to your audience (such as a problem with black mold in your dormitory), you might save your response for after you have made your points. Including alternative viewpoints even here shows that you are aware of the situation and have nothing to hide.

Whichever you choose, remember that counterarguments are opportunities to ethically engage with alternative viewpoints and your audience. 

The following questions can guide you as you begin to think about counterarguments:

• What is your argument ? What alternative positions might exist as counterarguments to your argument?
• How can considering counterarguments strengthen your argument?
• Given possible counterarguments, what points might you reconsider or concede?
• To what extent might you respond to counterarguments in your essay so that they can create and respond to the rhetorical situation ?
• Where might you place your counterarguments in your essay?
• What might including counterarguments do for your ethos ?

Recommended Resources

• Sweetland Center for Writing (n.d.). “ How Do I Incorporate a Counterargument? ” University of Michigan. 
• The Writing Center (n.d.) “ All About Counterarguments .” George Mason University. 
• Lachner, N. (n.d.). “ Counterarguments .” University of Nevada Reno, University Writing and Speaking Center. 
• Jeffrey, R. (n.d.). “ Questions for Thinking about Counterarguments .” In M. Gagich and E. Zickel, A Guide to Rhetoric, Genre, and Success in First-Year Writing. 
• Kause, S. (2011). “ On the Other Hand: The Role of Antithetical Writing in First Year Composition Courses .” Writing Spaces Vol. 2.
• Burton, G. “ Refutatio .” Silvae Rhetoricae.

Toulmin, S. (1958). The Uses of Argument. Cambridge University Press.

Perelman, C. and Olbrechts-Tyteca, L. (1971). “The Dissociation of Concepts”; “The Interaction of Arguments,” in The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation (pp. 411-459, 460-508), University of Notre Dame Press.

Mozafari, C. (2018). “Crafting Counterarguments,” in Fearless Writing: Rhetoric, Inquiry, Argument (pp. 333-337), MacMillian Learning

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21 Argument, Counterargument, & Refutation

In academic writing, we often use an Argument essay structure. Argument essays have these familiar components, just like other types of essays:

• Introduction
• Body Paragraphs

But Argument essays also contain these particular elements:

• Debatable thesis statement in the Introduction
• Argument – paragraphs which show support for the author’s thesis (for example: reasons, evidence, data, statistics)
• Counterargument – at least one paragraph which explains the opposite point of view
• Concession – a sentence or two acknowledging that there could be some truth to the Counterargument
• Refutation (also called Rebuttal) – sentences which explain why the Counterargument is not as strong as the original Argument

Consult  Introductions & Titles for more on writing debatable thesis statements and  Paragraphs ~ Developing Support for more about developing your Argument.

Imagine that you are writing about vaping. After reading several articles and talking with friends about vaping, you decide that you are strongly opposed to it.

Which working thesis statement would be better?

• Vaping should be illegal because it can lead to serious health problems.

Many students do not like vaping.

Because the first option provides a debatable position, it is a better starting point for an Argument essay.

Next, you would need to draft several paragraphs to explain your position. These paragraphs could include facts that you learned in your research, such as statistics about vapers’ health problems, the cost of vaping, its effects on youth, its harmful effects on people nearby, and so on, as an appeal to logos . If you have a personal story about the effects of vaping, you might include that as well, either in a Body Paragraph or in your Introduction, as an appeal to pathos .

A strong Argument essay would not be complete with only your reasons in support of your position. You should also include a Counterargument, which will show your readers that you have carefully researched and considered both sides of your topic. This shows that you are taking a measured, scholarly approach to the topic – not an overly-emotional approach, or an approach which considers only one side. This helps to establish your ethos as the author. It shows your readers that you are thinking clearly and deeply about the topic, and your Concession (“this may be true”) acknowledges that you understand other opinions are possible.

Here are some ways to introduce a Counterargument:

• Some people believe that vaping is not as harmful as smoking cigarettes.
• Critics argue that vaping is safer than conventional cigarettes.
• On the other hand, one study has shown that vaping can help people quit smoking cigarettes.

Your paragraph would then go on to explain more about this position; you would give evidence here from your research about the point of view that opposes your own opinion.

Here are some ways to begin a Concession and Refutation:

• While this may be true for some adults, the risks of vaping for adolescents outweigh its benefits.
• Although these critics may have been correct before, new evidence shows that vaping is, in some cases, even more harmful than smoking.
• This may have been accurate for adults wishing to quit smoking; however, there are other methods available to help people stop using cigarettes.

Your paragraph would then continue your Refutation by explaining more reasons why the Counterargument is weak. This also serves to explain why your original Argument is strong. This is a good opportunity to prove to your readers that your original Argument is the most worthy, and to persuade them to agree with you.

Activity ~ Practice with Counterarguments, Concessions, and Refutations

A. Examine the following thesis statements with a partner. Is each one debatable?

B. Write  your own Counterargument, Concession, and Refutation for each thesis statement.

Thesis Statements:

• Online classes are a better option than face-to-face classes for college students who have full-time jobs.
• Students who engage in cyberbullying should be expelled from school.
• Unvaccinated children pose risks to those around them.
• Governments should be allowed to regulate internet access within their countries.

Is this chapter:

…too easy, or you would like more detail? Read “ Further Your Understanding: Refutation and Rebuttal ” from Lumen’s Writing Skills Lab.

Note: links open in new tabs.

reasoning, logic

emotion, feeling, beliefs

moral character, credibility, trust, authority

goes against; believes the opposite of something

ENGLISH 087: Academic Advanced Writing Copyright © 2020 by Nancy Hutchison is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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25 Counterargument Examples

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

Learn about our Editorial Process

A counterargument is a response, rebuttal, or refutation of an argument with your own argument. Its purpose is to oppose and disprove a theory that someone else has put forward.

We use counterarguments extensively in debates as well as argumentative essay writing.

When teaching essay writing, I teach my students to always present counterarguments to their opponents’ points of view. This helps them to strengthen their own argument and demonstrate awareness of potential rebuttals.

Below are some methods, with examples, that could be used – be it in essay writing, debates, or any other communication genre.

Counterargument Examples

1. empirical challenges.

An empirical challenge is, simply, a rebuttal that challenges the facts presented by the opponent, showing that their facts are wrong and yours are right.

To undermine your opponent’s set of facts, it will be your job to present facts that show that the opponent’s supposed facts are wrong, perhaps due to misreading data or cherry-picking.

Then, you would need to present concrete information, data, or evidence that negates the claim or conclusion of an opponent’s argument.

The core strength of empirical challenges is in their reliance on hard facts and numbers, which are difficult to refute without equally credible opposing data.

Example of Empirical Challenge: If your opponent argues that global warming isn’t a serious issue, an empirical challenge would be to provide scientific data or research studies showing the increase in global temperatures and the harmful effects.

See Also: Empirical Evidence Examples

2. Challenging the Relevance

Challenging the relevance means questioning whether your opponent’s argument or perspective is applicable to the discussion at hand.

This sort of counter-argument seeks to destabilize your opponent’s view by showing that, while their facts or arguments might be sound in isolation, they do not bear any relation to, or are unfit for, the topic at hand, making them irrelevant.

The power of relevance challenge lays in its ability to destabilize your opponent’s argument without needing to directly dispute the truth of their claims.

Example of Challenging the Relevance: You will often find this argument when comparing the usefulness of various research methodologies for a research project. Multiple research methods may be valid, but there’s likely one that’s best for any given study.

See Also: Relevance Examples

3. Reductio ad absurdum

Reductio ad absurdum is a latin term that means reducing to the absurd . This method involves demonstrating the absurdity of an opponent’s argument by showing its illogical or extreme consequences.

The goal is to show that if the argument were valid, it would inevitably lead to senseless or ridiculous outcomes.

The application of reductio ad absurdum is especially effective in debates or discussions where flawed logic or hyperbolic statements are used to influence the audience’s opinion, as it discredits the credibility of the other person’s argument.

Example of Reductio ad absurdum : Consider a scenario where someone argues for the total removal of all regulations on vehicle speed to improve the efficiency of transportation. You can counter this argument through reductio ad absurdum by stating, “By that logic, let’s allow cars to travel at 200 miles per hour down residential streets. After all, it would make the mail delivery much faster!” It becomes evident that permitting extremely high speeds could lead to dangerous conditions and potential for disastrous accidents.

4. Pointing Out Logical Fallacies

The strategy of pointing out logical fallacies involves identifying and highlighting flaws in your opponent’s reasoning.

In a debate or discussion, logical fallacies are often subtle errors that lead to invalid conclusions or arguments.

By identifying these fallacies, you avoid being swayed by flawed reasoning and instead promote cognizant, logical thought.

Successful use of this strategy requires a good understanding of the different kinds of logical fallacies , such as straw man fallacies, ad hominem attacks, and appeals to ignorance.

Example of Pointing Out Logical Fallacies: Consider an argument where your opponent asserts, “All cats I’ve ever seen have been aloof, so all cats must be aloof.” This is a hasty generalization fallacy, where a conclusion about all members of a group is drawn from inadequate sample size.

5. Counterexamples

A counterexample is an example that opposes or contradicts an argument or theory proposed by another.

The use of a counterexample is a practical and powerful means of rebutting an argument or theory that has been presented as absolute or universally applicable.

When you provide a singular example that contradicts your opponent’s proposed theory, it demonstrates the theory isn’t universally true and therefore, weakens their argument.

However, this tactic requires sound knowledge and a good command of subject matter to be able to identify and present valid exceptions.

Example of Counterexamples: Consider an argument where someone states that “Mammals can’t lay eggs.” A solid counterexample would be the platypus, a mammal that does lay eggs. This single example is sufficient to contradict the universal claim.

6. Using Hypotheticals

Hypothetical situations, in essence, are imagined scenarios used to refute your opponent’s point of view. It’s, in essence, an example that is plausible, but not real.

Using hypotheticals assists in clarifying the ramifications of a particular argument, policy, or theory. When a hypothetical scenario effectively illustrates the flaws or shortcomings of your opponent’s viewpoint, it can completely unsettle their position.

However, care must be taken to frame the hypotheticals reasonably and realistically, lest they distort the argument or derail the conversation.

Example of Using Hypotheticals: If someone argues that raising the minimum wage will lead to job loss, you could counter with a hypothetical that if businesses paid their employees more, those employees would have more spending power, bolstering the economy and creating more jobs.

7. Comparison and Contrast

Comparison and contrast entails directly comparing your argument to your opponent’s, showing the strength of your perspective and the weakness of the opponent’s.

This tool allows you to support your arguments or disprove your opponent’s by using existing examples or situations that illustrate your point clearly.

The technique relies heavily on the logical thinking of comparing two or more entities in a manner that is informative, convincing, and significant to the argument.

Example of Comparison and Contrast: Let’s say, for instance, you are arguing against privatization of public utilities. You could compare the rates and services of private utilities to those of public ones showing that private companies often charge more for the same services, thereby supporting your argument against privatization.

See More: Compare and Contrast Examples

8. Challenging Biases

Challenging biases involves questioning the objectivity of your opponent’s argument by pointing out the predispositions that may influence their perspective.

Biases can greatly affect the validity and reliability of an argument because they can skew the interpretation of information and hinder fair judgement.

By challenging biases, you can expose the partiality in your opponent’s argument, thereby diminishing its credibility and persuasiveness.

However, it’s important to respectfully and tactfully challenge biases to prevent the discussion from turning into a personal attack.

Example of Challenging Biases: If your opponent is a staunch supporter of a political party and they provide an argument that solely favors this party, you could challenge their bias by questioning whether their support for the party is unduly influencing their viewpoint, hence the need for them to consider the opposing perspectives.

See More: List of Different Biases

9. Ethical Dispute

Ethical disputes involve challenging your opponent’s argument based on moral values or principles.

Ethics play a crucial role in shaping people’s beliefs, attitudes, and actions. Therefore, ethical disputes can serve as powerful counterarguments, especially in debates concerning sensitive or controversial topics.

If your opponent’s position contradicts generally accepted ethical norms or values, you can point this out to weaken their argument.

Just remember, ethics can occasionally be subjective and personal, so it’s important to approach ethical disputes with sensitivity and respect.

Example of Ethical Dispute: If your opponent supports factory farming based on economic benefits, you could challenge their argument by pointing out the ethical issues related to animal welfare and the environment.

10. Challenging the Source

Challenging the source is a tactic used to question the credibility or reliability of the information used by your opponent in their argument.

This technique focuses on examining the origin of the evidence presented, probing whether the source is credible, trusted, and free from bias.

To do this, I recommend using this media literacy framework .

If the source used by your opponent is flawed, biased or unreliable, their argument loses credibility, making your position stronger.

Example of Challenging the Source: If your opponent uses an obscure blog as their primary source of their argument on a scientific topic, you could challenge the source by questioning its credibility and offering information from reputable scientific journals instead.

See More: Good Sources for Essay Writing

A Full List of Methods for Counterargument

• Empirical challenges
• Challenging the relevance
• Reductio ad absurdum
• Pointing out logical fallacies
• Counterexamples
• Using hypotheticals
• Comparison and contrast
• Challenging biases
• Ethical dispute
• Challenging the source
• Questioning assumptions
• Slippery slope argument
• Challenging a false dichtomy
• Historical Precedent
• Anecdotal Evidence
• Challenging the Definition
• Socratic Questioning
• Highlighting Unintended Consequences
• Appeal to Emotion
• Challenging the Frame
• Highlighting Inconsistencies
• Challenging Completeness
• Temporal Challenge
• Offering alternative explanations
• Exposing oversimplifications
• Appeal to authority

Counterargument is an essential skill for debaters and essay writers. You need to be able to know and understand strategies for countering the arguments of your opponents to position your argument in the best light possible. To do this, we have to vectors of attack: First, you can undermine their arguments and demonstrate the flaws. Second, you can present your argument as stronger.

The key, however, is to ensure your arguments are as airtight and foolproof as possible to prevent effective rebuttals to your own counterarguments!

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 25 Number Games for Kids (Free and Easy)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 25 Word Games for Kids (Free and Easy)
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9.7.3: Counter Argument Paragraphs

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Counter-Argument Paragraphs

The purpose of a counter argument is to consider (and show that you are considering) perspectives other than your own. A counter-argument tears down other viewpoints; it does not build up your own, which you should do in separate paragraphs.

Placement of Counter-Arguments in an Essay

A counter argument can appear anywhere in the essay, but it most commonly appears:

• As part of your introduction—before you propose your thesis—where the existence of a different view is the motive for your essay. This works if your entire essay will be a counter-argument and you are not building up your own argument.
• As a section or paragraph just after your introduction, in which you lay out the expected reaction or standard position of opposing viewpoints before turning away to develop your own.
• As a quick move within a paragraph, where you imagine a counter-argument not to your main idea but to the sub-idea that the paragraph is arguing or is about to argue.
• As a section or paragraph just before the conclusion of your essay, in which you imagine what someone might object to in what you have argued. (However, this is really too late to be very effective in persuading someone to your position. It only shows you are considering other points of view.

Watch that you don't overdo it. A turn into counter argument here and there will sharpen and energize your essay, but too many such turns will have the reverse effect by obscuring your main idea or suggesting that you're ambivalent about your point of view. At the worst, it can sound like you are contradicting yourself. Writing a lead-in sentence with subordination or concession can help avoid this problem.

Example Counter-Argument

The following paragraph explains an opposing point of view to the writer's position in almost the whole paragraph. Words in bold italics explain the essential component of a counter-argument that a writer is doing in the following sentence(s).

The next paragraph is the counter-argument to the previous paragraph. Notice, however, that this count-argument does have some problems. The writer doesn't distinguish between public and private charter schools and also creates some logical fallacies in the process. Counter-arguments should be logically solid, cite sources, and argue logically.

At this point, the writer would then begin to argue their point of view with sub-claims and facts developed in a number of paragraphs to support their thesis.

If a writer is constructing an entire essay as a counter-argument, then the writer will need to fully develop multiple, well-supported arguments against the other point of view. The writer may also want to point out any logical flaws or other errors in the argument that they oppose.

Contributors and Attributions

• Revision, Adaptation, and Original Content. Provided by: Libretexts. License: CC BY-SA 4.0: Attribution.

This page most recently updated on June 6, 2020.

How To Write A Counter Argument In An Essay

Steps of how to effectively design and write a counter argument.

Has your professor asked you to include a counterargument in your next assignment? Are you puzzled about where to start and what to write? If you wonder how to write a counter argument essay, worry not. Many students struggle to come up with the right standpoints in their papers, so we’ve decided to lend you a hand.

Expressing conflicting positions on a hot topic is a critical skill in the academic world. In short, you need a well-grounded contradicting stance with supporting facts to refute the opponent’s opinion. Keep reading to find out how.

What Is A Counterargument In An Essay – The Definition

Counter arguments should clear any doubts readers might have about your positions. Moreover, the purpose of an opposing argument is to offer a reason to disagree with the thesis statement. Whether you include it in the introduction or dedicate an entire paragraph to it, your counter argument shows that you’re aware that various views exist.

Addressing claims against your main standpoints makes you savvier, and your paper well-structured and substantiated. Since your  argument essay outline will urge your readers to agree with your claim, it’s advisable to mention a reason to believe differently.

Why Are Counterarguments Important

By incorporating a contradicting standpoint in your assignment, you demonstrate that:  

•       You are knowledgeable about the topic and know how to back up your thoughts.
•       You have researched the subject matter well and can tackle alternative views.
•       You don’t underestimate opinions that clash with yours.
•       You don’t stick to your perspectives blindly but are ready to discuss opposing ideas.
•       You aren’t biased but have come to the ultimate standpoint through reasoning.
•       You solidify your arguments and give them credibility.

How To Start A Counterargument

This segment will alert readers that a different stand from the thesis follows. So how to write a counterargument paragraph? The beginning of the denial section should explicitly or implicitly tell whoever’s reading to prepare for a contradiction. Omitting hints about the rebuttal in the paper will make it look one-sided and blunt.

So, how do you start the segment containing the counter argument? When you write your argumentative essay , ensure you include relevant starters and transitions. These may be a single word, a phrase, or an entire sentence supporting the overall statement.  

Counter Argument Starters

Let’s discuss the possible phrases you can use to introduce the counter argument. Here are a few starters that inform whoever’s reading to expect a change of direction:

•       However, yet, but
•       Even though/although
•       In spite of/despite the fact that
•       On the contrary
•       On the other side/hand
•       A possible concern/problem is
•       Conversely, in contrast

Another approach that arouses interest is to use a rhetorical question. For instance, try the following starting phrases:

•       Wouldn’t it be better if…?
•       But, what if…?
•       Nonetheless, how can this be true…?

Similarly, you may take an indirect stance and present the counterviews of others to express your opinion. For example, say this:

•       However, scientists claim that
•       Yet, many people believe that
•       On the other hand, students stand for
•       Critics say that

Transition Words

Choosing the right counter argument starter is just a part of the equation. A coherently written assignment requires you to use transitions that make the argument flow smooth. Even the best custom essay writing service will fail its purpose if it lacks linking phrases.

Coordinating transitions ease the reading process by linking ideas into a cohesive whole. These phrases show that two things are alike or that you add extra information along the same lines. Here are a few relevant examples:

•       What is more
•       Not to mention
•       Likewise
•       Then again
•       On top of that
•       Not only
•       Additionally
•       Furthermore

Why Include A Counterargument In An Argumentative Essay?

Including a counter argument in your essay will make your written piece more convincing. Though you may think this approach will weaken your position or undermine your claim, this isn’t true. On the contrary, by doing so, you respectfully acknowledge evidence or standpoints that differ from your argument.

Some students believe a counter argument will lead the readers away from the main claim. However, any top-notch argumentative essay writer service will include it because it demonstrates the issue was elaborated from multiple perspectives. Finally, you enhance critical thinking by presenting both sides of the problem.

Example Of Counter Argument Paragraph

Below, we share a relevant example of an argument on a specific topic with guidance on avoiding writing an irrelevant counter argument.

The argument:

Many students prefer to smoke on college campuses. They often argue that authorities can’t ban smoking on campus if it isn’t illegal.

Ineffective counter argument:

However, the college management is the ultimate decision-maker and can prohibit whatever they deem harmful on campus.

This counter argument is useless because even if the college management has the right to impose bans, it can’t disregard students’ requirements on all grounds.

So, how to write an argumentative essay with a relevant counter argument? Check the suggestion below.

Effective counter argument:

Yet, second-hand smoke can harm people in the vicinity that suffer from conditions like asthma, thus putting them at risk of health deterioration.

This example will achieve its primary purpose – discuss the other perspective openly. You may disagree with this view but demonstrate you’re aware that some people might take a different standpoint. And they have every right to because no issue is one-sided. In the second example, the reader can see how students smoking on campus might harm those around.

How To Respond To A Counterargument: The Refutation

Among other things, you must address the counterviews in your written piece with a rebuttal . Stating and refuting the contradicting idea is critical if you want to give credence to your standpoint . No matter how and where you incorporate the rebuttal, do it objectively by maintaining a formal and scholarly tone.

The best approach is to oppose the counter opinion logically by considering these questions:

•       Will you discredit the different perspectives by bringing in contradictory research?
•       Will you say that the other point is valid but that your argument is more relevant by means of comparison?

Responding to these questions and taking a specific route will refine your stance and clarify the issues considered. Moreover, if you suddenly agree with the counter opinion, revise your statement and main points to reflect your new thinking.

Common Mistakes And Fallacies To Avoid While Writing Opposing Arguments

Keep these things in mind when you write argumentative essays, and avoid them as much as possible:

•       You haven’t done research on the multiple perspectives on the topic.
•       You don’t include supporting ideas for the positions against your thesis.
•       You dedicate too much space and attention to contradicting reasons.
•       You don’t bring up a different perspective in the introduction but keep to your opinion only.
•       Your line of thought is incoherent, and you constantly switch standpoints throughout the paper.
•       You use offensive or biased language to refute the opponent’s viewpoint.
•       You believe the opponent’s stance is wrong and don’t give it credit.
•       Besides having a strong argument , you make the counterview weak and ineffective.
•       You can’t explain how your position responds to the contradicting idea.
•       If you aren’t a rhetoric expert, avoid using sarcasm and satire.

Bottom Line

When writing your work, you might decide to include a sentence or a whole segment that presents a denial statement. Whatever your choice, use a specific layout to express your views clearly and accurately. It is important to remember that for urgent essay writing , the need for incorporating counterargument examples is even more critical to ensure a well-substantiated and persuasive written piece. Therefore, it is essential to consider both sides of the argument when constructing your response.

Hopefully, this post helps you understand what is a counterargument and how to write a counterargument. Provided you follow the tips outlined above, it won’t take long to polish your work. If you have any concerns about your writing assignment, always ask your teacher for support.

Do Synthesis Essays Need A Counter Argument?

Yes, ensure you include a counter argument and oppose it to justify your viewpoint. It’s best to place it in the first body segment of your synthesis essay. By doing so, you show your capacity to appreciate different opinions than yours.

Does An Argumentative Essay Need A Counter Argument?

Yes, argumentative papers should contain a well-presented contradicting idea than the one expressed in the thesis. Taking a single standpoint doesn’t add value to your work because readers with a different opinion will see it as biased and unfair.

Where Does The Counterargument Go In An Essay?

One idea is to write it in the introduction to create a contrast for the main claim. Alternatively, you may explain the contradictory opinion in one section that acknowledges the idea and then discredit it. It is often better to place it before your opinion to end the paper on a positive note that supports your perspective.

Related posts:

• 6 Step Process for Essay Writing
• How to Write an Appendix for a Research Paper: Step-by-Step Guide
• How to Write a Rhetorical Analysis Essay
• Footnotes 101: A Guide to Proper Formatting

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4.5 Identifying Concessions and Counter Arguments

Learning objectives.

• Identify the parts of a reasonable concession
• Evaluate paragraphs for concessions
• Apply concession format to a series of sentences

Let’s take some time to learn how to concede logical points and then counter them appropriately. These skills are INCREDIBLY IMPORTANT. Oftentimes, only the strongest and most confident writers can write in a concession style. Your use of concession-style thesis statements and concessions throughout a response signals to your readers that you are a confident and capable writer and critical thinker. Concessions are invaluable to DISCOURSE and DIALOGUE, the two most important parts of responsible argumentation.

The purpose of this chapter and its activities is to teach you how to concede strong points and, more importantly, how to counter them effectively.  Students new to writing arguments often think that including concessions will weaken their argument or that a reader will be more likely to agree with them if they pretend that no weaknesses exist in the argument. This assumption is untrue. In fact, your willingness to admit where the prompt writer’s argument has value and either present an extension of that argument or move it in a different direction is really impressive.

What is more, you will be learning to grow comfortable in conceding that your own argument might have limitations. All arguments have limitations, whether they belong to a prompt writer or to you. Remember the final instruction given to you before all prompt responses (Goal #3)?

Your Task:  compose a critical response essay—including, ideally, an introduction, at least three body paragraphs, and a conclusion—to the text below

Goals:  your essay should include the following:

• A brief summary of the author’s argument
• mostly agree with the author  and  provide your own persuasive assertions that  extend support for the author’s position
• mostly disagree with the author  and  provide your own persuasive assertions that  defend your counter-position
• Your refutation of  at least one  objection a reader might have to  your  argument (or any point therein)

At a very basic level, the purpose behind learning counter-arguments is because the prompt instructions on each prompt ask you to do so.  The goal of that instruction is to teach you how to strengthen your argument.  Acknowledging weaker points (or strong points from your opposition) makes your writing more compelling because it demonstrates to your reader that 1) you have actually considered the topic without making snap judgments, and 2) you are not hiding the weaknesses of your argument from your reader, hoping that they will miss them.

More importantly, it creates an honest relationship between you and your reader, which is essential because some audiences will know something about the topic of your argument already, and they could have oppositions to offer.  Ultimately, you need to learn how to concede and counter in writing because you cannot respond to a reader’s objections verbally, as you might in a conversation.  The greater challenge is to anticipate the objections and respond to them before they come up. This strategy is akin to an artist writing a diss track in which they not only identify faults in their rival but also in themselves. What ammunition is left for their rival in response? When you “anticipate and defend,” there is little left for the opposition. It is a proven strategy.

To begin the process, we need to understand how to make reasonable concessions first.  It’s likely that you may have already learned how to make one of these two types of concessions early in your WRIT course, but let’s look over them again.

First, read the following prompt below.  You can also Download a PDF version (68.7 KB) if you prefer.

Drink Your Way to Success by Randolph Hennepin

The following editorial appeared in the May/June 2024 issue of Today’s Student

     Success in just about any profession often depends on a person’s ability to network, and to develop contacts. A prime way to network is over drinks. In fact, a person who does not drink is less likely to be successful than one who does . Students who spend time drinking rather than studying are ensuring their eventual success.

     Facts are facts. A recent study “found drinkers earn between 10 and 14 percent more than non-drinkers.” Further, according to the same study, men who go to a bar at least once a month earn an additional 7 percent. The reason for the success of drinkers, according to the author of the study, is that “Social drinking builds social capital. Social drinkers are networking, building relationships and adding contacts to their [phones] that result in bigger paycheques.”

     Perhaps this study is not good news for people who do not drink. Perhaps these people feel that there are other ways to develop contacts, such as getting involved in charitable organizations or meeting colleagues for breakfast instead of in a bar after work. While these strategies do have merit, neither is as effective as the social networking that occurs while drinking.

     In fact, a reasonable conclusion from this study would be to encourage students to learn how to drink. Knowing how to drink without embarrassing oneself is a key skill in business, as the above study proves. Therefore, students should not feel guilty about spending evenings drinking instead of working or studying, since drinking will lead to their eventual success. Students should not focus on school other than to do well enough to pass; otherwise, they are doomed to earn less than their peers who put their study time to good use by hitting the bottle.

Now, look at these straightforward responses to the prompt and determine which one uses a  general concession and which one uses a  specific concession .

• Introduction: Version 1

In “Drink Your Way to Success,” Randolph Hennepin argues that students need to focus more on drinking than studying in order to be successful in their future professions and careers.  Hennepin justifies this position by suggesting that social drinkers tend to be better at social networking and, because of this, tend to build better social capital with others in their professions, as well as earn more money over their careers.   Although Hennepin makes some good points, his argument is flawed.   If students focus more on drinking than studying, as Hennepin suggests, they will likely never do well enough in their courses to get into their profession in the first place.  Focusing on drinking rather than studying will lead to students who are less likely to graduate and less likely to achieve success in the workplace.

• Introduction: Version 2

In “Drink Your Way to Success,” Randolph Hennepin argues that students need to focus more on drinking than studying in order to be successful in their future professions and careers.  Hennepin justifies this position by suggesting that social drinkers tend to be better at social networking and, because of this, tend to build better social capital with others in their professions, as well as earn more money over their careers.  While it may be true that building up social capital is important for some professions, stating that students should focus on drinking instead of studying will not necessarily lead to eventual success . If students focus more on drinking than studying, as Hennepin suggests, they will likely never do well enough in their courses to get into their profession in the first place.  Focusing on drinking rather than studying will lead to students who are less likely to graduate and less likely to achieve success in the workplace.

Activity 1: Identifying Concessions

Which introduction in the above example uses a more specific concession? Vote on your choice below and then view the results. Click the accordion below to learn more.

The purpose behind the concession is two-fold:

• It provides your reader with a clear indication that you are shifting from your summary of the author’s position to your argument or response to the position.
• It is the first indication of a possible concession and counter-argument that you might make in your body paragraphs.

Now, while the first paragraph offers a modicum of concession (“the author makes some good points”), it doesn’t acknowledge what good points the author might have made, which makes it a weaker concession. Remember that the point here is to acknowledge that, even though you might not agree with the author, you clearly understand the reasonable elements of the argument. The second option offers a much clearer concession.

The next section includes practice activities for concessions and counterarguments.

Putting the Pieces Together Copyright © 2020 by Andrew M. Stracuzzi and André Cormier is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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What Is a Counterargument in an Argumentative Essay?

A guy walks up to a counter, orders lunch, and immediately starts a political debate with the man seated next to him. The two engage in a full-fledged argument before the server even brings his drink.

Given that the two are at a counter arguing, does this mean it’s a counterargument?

Not exactly.

So what is a counterargument?

I’m sure you know that a counterargument isn’t defined as an argument you have at a lunch counter. I’m sure you also know that it has something to do with essay writing and should appear in your argument essay.

But if that’s where your understanding of counterarguments ends, this post can help clear up any confusion.

What Is a Counterargument?

In any type of argumentative essay , you’ll include a strong thesis statement to identify the focus of your essay. You’ll also include several main arguments to support your thesis.

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A counterargument opposes your argument. It expresses the opposite view of your thesis.

Consider this example:

It’s Friday night, and funds are limited. You decide to gather a few friends and watch a movie. You scroll through the on-demand selections and immediately hit play when you see La La Land . Your friends are skeptical and ask why you want to watch it again.

Even though you’ve seen it more times than you can count, you tell your friends that it’s worth watching again because it’s an awesome movie. Both Ryan Gosling and Emma Stone are amazing, and you know every note to every song on the soundtrack.

The reasons you give your friends for wanting to watch the movie are your supporting arguments.

When your friends argue that some of the scenes are too campy and Ryan Gosling isn’t all that, they’re offering the opposing view.

These are the counterarguments.

When you write an argument essay, readers will either agree or disagree with your thesis. Think of the readers who disagree as those who would express a counterargument.

Why Should I Include a Counterargument?

A counterargument, though, actually does just the opposite. It strengthens your argument because it shows that you have done your research, that you have thoughtfully examined both sides of the argument, and that you’re objectively presenting information .

A counterargument lets you acknowledge your readers’ objections even before they have a chance to finish reading your paper.

Keep in mind that you’re not developing another detailed argument when you write a counterargument. Your goal is to simply write a concise summary of the opposing view to illustrate that you understand and are able to acknowledge another viewpoint.

(You’ll also explain why your argument is stronger than the counterargument. More about that later in this post.)

Can You Give Me An Example of a Counterargument?

Let’s look at the topic of helicopter parenting .

Helicopter parents often treat their teens like young children. Parents make all decisions for their teens, and this ultimately leads to children becoming overly dependent on their parents.

Bad Counterargument:

Parents tell their kids what to do anyway, so they might as well make decisions for their teens.

Some counterarguments are better than others, and this counterargument isn’t at all effective. Just because parents make decisions for their children doesn’t mean that they should make all decisions for their teenage children. There is no argument here.

Good Counterargument:

Parents have already made plenty of mistakes, so they’re guiding their teens and protecting them from making the same mistakes. This helps, rather than hurts, teens.

Even if you don’t agree with the fact that helicopter parenting helps children, you can at least see why people might feel that parents who make more decisions for their teens are actually helping their teens avoid mistakes (and the negative consequences that come with them).

But wait… there’s more…

It’s not enough to simply present both sides of the argument. Remember, you’re writing an argument, so your goal is to convince your readers.

Simply stating the opposing view won’t convince your readers, so you’ll also need to refute the counterargument . Essentially, you’ll acknowledge the opposing view but provide additional evidence to state why your argument is stronger.

How Do I Include a Rebuttal of a Counterargument?

Often, counterarguments appear at the end of your paper (just before the conclusion ). This allows you to present all of your arguments before addressing the opposing view.

Counterarguments don’t need to be at the end of your paper, though. You can also weave in counterarguments throughout your paper. But no matter where you insert them, you’ll need to refute the claims of the opposing view and offer your rebuttal.

For example, if your counterargument states that helicopter parents are helping their teens avoid mistakes, you might offer the following rebuttal:

Though some believe that parents who make most decisions for their teens shield teens from the consequences of their mistakes, this type of parental over-involvement actually stunts teens’ emotional growth, does not allow them to learn from their actions, and makes it more difficult to handle failure when they eventually do make a mistake.

Notice how the rebuttal restates and acknowledges the opposing viewpoint but then explains why the counterargument  isn’t valid .

A note about wording…

It’s important to effectively introduce your counterargument and rebuttal.

If you don’t, readers may become confused because your paper will seem like you’re contradicting yourself by including two different arguments (one that supports your thesis and one that is against your thesis).

In other words, give your readers fair warning that you’re moving from your main argument to a counterargument and then to the rebuttal.

Read the example above again. Notice that it uses the phrase “Though some believe…” to transition from the argument to the counterargument.

Here’s another example of an introduction to a rebuttal:

Although the argument for paying athletes presents many good points, there are underlying issues that are not addressed by proponents of paying Alabama football players.

Notice how the writer of this example uses clear transitional words to signal to readers that he is switching from argument to counterargument and finally to rebuttal.

Want to see the complete argument and rebuttal in the context of an actual essay? Check out the example essay Should Football Players at the University of Alabama Be Paid to Play?

Need a few additional example words and phrases for your rebuttal? Try these phrases:

• While some [argue/state/believe]…
• Even though the opposition [asserts/claims]…
• This statement is only partially accurate because…
• Though these concerns may be valid, the argument [fails to acknowledge/does not take into account]…

Final Thoughts

Remember, building a strong argument takes many components. You need a solid focus and argument, strong evidence to support your assertions , and a counterargument and rebuttal to further demonstrate that you’ve done your research .

If you’re still not sure how to use counterarguments in your own writing, check out these example argument essays in our essay database to see how other writers have incorporated them.

Feeling a little uneasy about whether you’ve effectively addressed the counterargument in your paper? Let a Kibin editor help with revision.

Psst... 98% of Kibin users report better grades! Get inspiration from over 500,000 example essays .

About the Author

Susan M. Inez is a professor of English and writing goddess based out of the Northeast. In addition to a BA in English Education, an MA in Composition, and an MS in Education, Susan has 20 years of experience teaching courses on composition, writing in the professions, literature, and more. She also served as co-director of a campus writing center for 2 years.

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One way to build credibility in crafting persuasive arguments is to make use of possible well-reasoned objections to your argument. Sometimes when we spend so much time coming up with a persuasive argument, we tend to want to avoid even acknowledging its possible flaws, for fear of weakening our stance. We may just avoid bringing them up altogether in order to ensure the apparent solidity of our argument. Even when we decide to reckon with possible objections, we tend to rely on one primary method of including them—the paragraph right before the conclusion in a five-paragraph essay. This can feel boring if you’ve been doing it for a long time. The good news is, there are actually more options available to you, and you should make a decision about which to use based on your argument’s audience and purpose.

General Considerations

A counterargument is a type of rebuttal..

Rebuttals are your way of acknowledging and dealing with objections to your argument, and they can take two different forms:

• Refutations: Refutations are an often more confrontational form of rebuttal that work by targeting the weaknesses in a possible objection to your argument. Think of refutations as the more sophisticated and mature older sibling of, “that’s not true!” Generally, they work by pointing out weaknesses with the solidity or rationale of the objection’s claim itself (what the objector says about the argument) or of its evidence (the support offered for the claim).
• Counterarguments: Counterarguments are a more cooperative form of rebuttal . In counterarguments, a writer acknowledges the strengths or validity of someone else’s argument, but then makes a case for why their approach is still the best/most effective/most viable

Incorporating counterarguments helps you build your credibility as a writer.

Once you learn how to seek out possible objections or counters to your own arguments and incorporate them fairly, you increase your power to build credibility with your readers. Refutations can feel satisfying (“No, you’re just wrong!”), and there are certainly situations in which they are the best or only ethical approach. However, most of the time counterarguments bring your readers to your side more effectively. This is because they are empathetic and invitational by nature (“I can see where in situation XYZ, what you suggest would make the most sense; however, in this situation, my approach works best because ABC…”)

In Practice

Rebuttals: not just for the penultimate paragraph anymore.

Structurally, incorporating rebuttals can be done in a few ways:

• The tried and true paragraph or section before the conclusion that explicitly addresses possible objections by acknowledging and then dispatching with them;
• A possible objection and response with for each claim in the essay; or
• An entire argument can even be structured as a rebuttal to someone else’s argument.

Seek out opposing views

1. What reasonable claims have others made that contradict your argument? If you don’t know any, FIND SOME. (We promise: they exist.) Write them down in complete sentences.

a. Try writing a refutation to the claims. Is there any way in which the claims themselves are weak? Articulate them. Are there underlying assumptions behind the claims that might be faulty? Articulate them.

b. Try writing a counterargument to the claims. In what conditions might the claims others make be justified? How so? How is this instance different from those conditions? Why does your claim make more sense here and now? Is there anything you can incorporate from those claims to strengthen your own?

2. If you were to launch your own rebuttal to your argument, what would that look like? How would you then overcome that rebuttal?

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Counterargument

Argument: your position/opinion about the topic (usually stated in the thesis and then supported with main points throughout the essay)

Counterargument: a section in your essay that describes the other side of the issue (what would someone say who disagrees with your position?)

Rebuttal (or Refutation): a section where you respond to the counterargument in a way that shows your position is the stronger one (what would you say to defeat their point?)

Why would I want to include a counterargument in my essay?

• It gives you the opportunity to anticipate your reader’s concerns or objections to your viewpoint and address them head-on.
• It improves your credibility by showing your reader you are a reasonable, fair, and informed person who has considered all sides of the issue.  
• Part of being a strong critical thinker and communicator is examining a subject from all sides and angles.

What do I do after I explain the other side's position?

• Defeat it with a rebuttal.
• How you do this depends on what you perceive as weaknesses in the opposing argument.  There may be any number of faults you find with the other side's position (it uses outdated information; it relies on perception or opinion rather than facts; it is based on false assumptions).
• After you identify weaknesses, point those out to your reader, and present your response to them. For example, if you feel that the other side's position is based on outdated information, you’ll have to present more current research to support your point.  
• In some cases, you might think that the other side makes a good point.  In that instance, you can acknowledge that and establish common ground with the other side, but then describe why even though their reasons have validity, your reasons outweigh theirs on this particular issue.  

Where does the counterargument go in the paper?

Counterarguments are often placed toward the end of the essay after the author has argued all their points supporting their position.  You might decide to tackle both the counterargument and rebuttal in one paragraph, or you may decide to break them up into separate paragraphs, as seen in the example outline below:

•  Introduction and thesis
•  Supporting point #1
•  Supporting point #2 (there can be any number of supporting points)
•  Counterargument
•  Rebuttal/Refutation
•  Conclusion

Example of a counterargument and rebuttal in the same paragraph; common words/phrases used in a counterargument are in bold:

Supporters of spanking as a means to punish children claim that it is the most effective method of discipline.  Parents might feel that it’s the only punishment their children take seriously, and it teaches their children that there are real and immediate consequences to their actions.   They believe that this lesson far outweighs the small and momentary pain of the actual spanking.   Although this may be a popular position and spanking might seem to be an effective method of discipline in the short term, studies have shown that children who are spanked actually act out more than children who are not (Adams 12).   In fact, according to child psychologist Lucille Murray, when alternate forms of discipline are used (time-outs, confiscating toys, etc.), children still learn about consequences but without the pain and humiliation that comes with spanking.

Suggested phrases to help you start the counterargument and rebuttal

How can I start the counterargument?

• Some people believe/argue/feel/think that…
• It is true that…
• Opposing views claim…
• One common concern about (the issue) is…
• Supporters of….

How can I start my rebuttal?

• What this argument overlooks…
• This view seems convincing/plausible/persuasive at first, but…
• While this position is popular, it is not supported by the facts…
• Although part of this claim is valid, it suffers from a flaw…

Analytical Essay Thesis

Analytical essay thesis statement generator.

Analytical essays delve deep into the intricacies of a subject, offering insightful interpretations and evaluations. At the heart of these essays lies the analytical thesis statement – a crucial element that encapsulates the analytical perspective you’ll explore. This guide explores a range of analytical thesis statement examples, guiding you through the process of creating thought-provoking statements. Learn to dissect complex subjects, develop critical arguments, and master the art of crafting compelling analytical thesis statements.

What is an Analytical Thesis Statement? – Definition

An analytical thesis statement is a concise declaration that outlines the main focus of an analytical essay. It presents the central argument or analysis the essay will explore, providing a roadmap for readers to understand the specific perspective, interpretation, or evaluation the writer intends to present. Unlike other types of thesis statements, an analytical thesis statement does not simply present a fact but delves into the “how” and “why” of a subject.

What is an Example of an Analytical Thesis Statement?

Example: “In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s novel ‘The Great Gatsby,’ Jay Gatsby’s excessive pursuit of wealth and social status serves as a commentary on the illusory nature of the American Dream, highlighting the emptiness and moral decay that often accompany unchecked ambition.”

In this analytical thesis statement, the focus is on analyzing the character of Jay Gatsby and his actions as a reflection of larger themes within the novel. The strong thesis statement goes beyond a surface-level observation and delves into the deeper analysis of Gatsby’s character and its symbolic significance in relation to the American Dream.

100 Analytical Thesis Statement Examples

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• “In Shakespeare’s ‘Hamlet,’ the protagonist’s internal conflict reflects the complex interplay between duty, morality, and personal desires.”
• “Through symbolic imagery and character development, ‘The Scarlet Letter’ by Nathaniel Hawthorne explores the destructive power of guilt on individuals and society.”
• “Analyzing the juxtaposition of innocence and corruption in ‘To Kill a Mockingbird,’ Harper Lee critiques the pervasive societal biases that perpetuate injustice.”
• “The film ‘Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind’ employs nonlinear narrative structure to delve into the complexities of memory, love, and human connection.”
• “Through the lens of Marxist theory, George Orwell’s ‘1984’ unveils a dystopian world that critiques totalitarianism and the manipulation of truth.”
• “In Emily Dickinson’s poetry, the recurring theme of death serves as a means of contemplating the transient nature of life and the human condition.”
• “Analyzing Frida Kahlo’s self-portraits reveals her use of visual symbolism to convey her physical and emotional pain as well as her feminist ideals.”
• “Through intricate narrative structure and character development, ‘One Hundred Years of Solitude’ by Gabriel García Márquez explores the cyclical nature of history and human experience.”
• “The painting ‘Starry Night’ by Vincent van Gogh conveys the artist’s emotional turmoil and inner conflict through its vivid color palette and swirling forms.”
• “Through the analysis of ‘The Catcher in the Rye,’ J.D. Salinger portrays the protagonist Holden Caulfield’s alienation as a manifestation of his fear of adulthood and societal conformity.
• “Exploring the use of metaphors and allegory in ‘Animal Farm,’ George Orwell satirizes political ideologies and the corruption of power.”
• “The poem ‘The Road Not Taken’ by Robert Frost delves into the concept of choices and regret, using a diverging path as a metaphor for life’s decisions.”
• “Analyzing the historical context and literary techniques in ‘The Grapes of Wrath,’ John Steinbeck critiques the exploitation of the working class during the Great Depression.”
• “In Mary Shelley’s ‘Frankenstein,’ the creature’s isolation and rejection serve as a commentary on the consequences of unchecked scientific ambition.”
• “Through visual elements and composition, Leonardo da Vinci’s ‘Mona Lisa’ conveys a sense of mystery and psychological depth, captivating viewers for centuries.”
• “Analyzing the use of irony and social commentary in Jonathan Swift’s ‘A Modest Proposal,’ one can understand his satirical critique of British colonialism.”
• “The play ‘Death of a Salesman’ by Arthur Miller explores the disillusionment of the American Dream through the tragic downfall of the protagonist Willy Loman.”
• “Through the lens of feminist theory, Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s ‘The Yellow Wallpaper’ critiques the societal constraints placed on women’s mental and emotional well-being.”
• “Analyzing the motifs of light and darkness in Joseph Conrad’s ‘Heart of Darkness,’ one can interpret them as representations of morality and the human psyche.”
• “Edgar Allan Poe’s ‘The Tell-Tale Heart’ uses unreliable narration and symbolism to delve into the narrator’s descent into madness and guilt.”
• “In the film ‘Citizen Kane,’ Orson Welles employs non-linear storytelling and deep focus cinematography to explore the enigmatic life of the titular character.”
• “Analyzing the use of repetition and imagery in Langston Hughes’ ‘Dream Deferred,’ one can interpret the poem as a commentary on the consequences of unfulfilled dreams.”
• “Through allegorical elements and character interactions, William Golding’s ‘Lord of the Flies’ examines the inherent capacity for savagery within human nature.”
• “The painting ‘Guernica’ by Pablo Picasso serves as a powerful anti-war statement, depicting the horrors of conflict and the suffering of innocent civilians.”
• “Analyzing the themes of identity and societal conformity in Jhumpa Lahiri’s ‘The Namesake,’ one can uncover the struggles faced by immigrant families in adapting to new cultures.”
• “In ‘The Picture of Dorian Gray’ by Oscar Wilde, the portrait serves as a symbol of the protagonist’s moral decay and the consequences of pursuing eternal youth.”
• “Analyzing the use of color symbolism in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s ‘The Great Gatsby,’ one can interpret colors as reflections of characters’ personalities and societal decadence.”
• “Through the examination of allegorical elements in George Orwell’s ‘Animal Farm,’ one can uncover the representation of historical events and political ideologies.”
• “In ‘Brave New World’ by Aldous Huxley, the dystopian society’s use of technology and conditioning raises questions about the cost of sacrificing individuality for stability.”
• “Analyzing the character of Lady Macbeth in Shakespeare’s ‘Macbeth,’ one can discern her ambition-driven transformation and the psychological toll of her actions.
• “In ‘Pride and Prejudice’ by Jane Austen, the social commentary and character interactions illuminate the societal norms and expectations of the Regency era.”
• “Analyzing the use of religious symbolism in Herman Melville’s ‘Moby-Dick,’ one can interpret the white whale as a representation of the unattainable and the divine.”
• “The film ‘The Shawshank Redemption’ explores themes of hope and redemption through the friendship between two inmates, offering a commentary on the human spirit.”
• “Analyzing the motif of the American Dream in ‘The Great Gatsby,’ F. Scott Fitzgerald critiques the pursuit of materialism and the illusion of social mobility.”
• “In ‘Othello’ by William Shakespeare, the tragic downfall of the titular character is driven by jealousy and manipulation, revealing the destructive power of unchecked emotions.”
• “Analyzing the use of symbolism in T.S. Eliot’s poem ‘The Waste Land,’ one can interpret various images and references as reflections of societal decay and spiritual desolation.”
• “The painting ‘American Gothic’ by Grant Wood conveys a complex narrative through the stern expressions and juxtaposition of the farmer and his daughter.”
• “Analyzing the character development in Jane Eyre’s journey, Charlotte Brontë examines themes of independence, feminism, and self-discovery.”
• “In ‘The Metamorphosis’ by Franz Kafka, the protagonist’s transformation into a giant insect serves as a metaphor for alienation and the absurdity of modern life.”
• “Analyzing the use of foreshadowing and symbolism in William Faulkner’s ‘A Rose for Emily,’ one can interpret the decayed mansion as a representation of the past and its lingering impact.”
• “Through allegorical elements in ‘The Alchemist’ by Paulo Coelho, one can uncover themes of personal legend and the transformative power of following one’s dreams.”
• “Analyzing the narrative structure in Gabriel García Márquez’s ‘Chronicle of a Death Foretold,’ one can discern the multi-perspective exploration of truth and collective guilt.”
• “The sculpture ‘The Thinker’ by Auguste Rodin captures the contemplative nature of human thought and the complexity of philosophical introspection.”
• “Analyzing the use of irony and satire in Voltaire’s ‘Candide,’ one can interpret the protagonist’s misadventures as a commentary on the irrationality of human behavior.”
• “Through the exploration of nature and human experience in Ralph Waldo Emerson’s essays, transcendentalism emerges as a celebration of individual intuition and connection.”
• “Analyzing the use of narrative structure in Vladimir Nabokov’s ‘Lolita,’ one can discern the unreliable narration that challenges readers’ perceptions of truth and morality.”
• “In ‘The Awakening’ by Kate Chopin, the protagonist’s journey towards self-discovery and liberation reflects the constraints placed on women in the 19th-century society.”
• “Analyzing the use of dramatic monologue in Robert Browning’s ‘My Last Duchess,’ one can uncover the psychological complexity and possessive nature of the speaker.”
• “Through allegorical elements and philosophical themes in Albert Camus’ ‘The Stranger,’ the protagonist’s indifference to societal norms questions the absurdity of existence.”
• “Analyzing the use of myth and symbolism in Toni Morrison’s ‘Beloved,’ one can interpret the haunting presence of the titular character as a representation of historical trauma.”
• “In ‘Crime and Punishment’ by Fyodor Dostoevsky, the psychological turmoil of the protagonist Raskolnikov reflects the tension between morality and rationality.”
• “Analyzing the narrative techniques in Salman Rushdie’s ‘Midnight’s Children,’ one can discern the blending of history and magical realism to explore India’s postcolonial identity.”
• “Through the examination of imagery and metaphor in Sylvia Plath’s poetry, themes of mental illness, identity, and gender roles come to the forefront.”
• “Analyzing the use of symbolism in E.M. Forster’s ‘A Passage to India,’ one can interpret the Marabar Caves as a metaphor for the complexity of cultural misunderstandings.”
• “The short story ‘The Lottery’ by Shirley Jackson employs irony and social commentary to critique blind adherence to tradition and the potential for collective cruelty.”
• “Analyzing the use of allegory in John Bunyan’s ‘The Pilgrim’s Progress,’ one can interpret the protagonist’s journey as a representation of spiritual enlightenment and salvation.”
• “In ‘Their Eyes Were Watching God’ by Zora Neale Hurston, the protagonist Janie’s journey towards self-discovery reflects her search for autonomy and empowerment.”
• “Analyzing the use of literary devices in Gabriel García Márquez’s ‘Love in the Time of Cholera,’ one can uncover the exploration of enduring love and the passage of time.”
• “Through allegorical elements in Franz Kafka’s ‘The Trial,’ one can interpret the absurdity of the bureaucratic legal system as a commentary on the human struggle for control.”
• “Analyzing the use of dramatic irony in Shakespeare’s ‘Romeo and Juliet,’ one can discern the tragic irony that underscores the lovers’ fate and the societal feud.”
• “In ‘The Road’ by Cormac McCarthy, the post-apocalyptic landscape serves as a metaphor for the fragility of human existence and the pursuit of hope.”
• “Analyzing the themes of colonization and cultural clash in Chinua Achebe’s ‘Things Fall Apart,’ one can interpret the protagonist Okonkwo’s downfall as a representation of societal upheaval.”
• “Through allegorical elements in Jack London’s ‘To Build a Fire,’ the protagonist’s struggle against nature serves as a reflection of human hubris and vulnerability.”
• “In ‘Invisible Man’ by Ralph Ellison, the protagonist’s invisibility becomes a metaphor for social marginalization and the dehumanizing effects of racial prejudice.”
• “Analyzing the use of motifs and symbolism in Kate Chopin’s ‘The Story of an Hour,’ one can interpret the protagonist’s liberation as a commentary on societal expectations.”
• “Through allegorical elements in Franz Kafka’s ‘Metamorphosis,’ one can interpret the protagonist’s transformation as a representation of alienation and the absurdity of modern life.”
• “In ‘Gulliver’s Travels’ by Jonathan Swift, the protagonist’s encounters with different societies serve as satirical commentaries on various aspects of human behavior.”
• “Analyzing the use of symbolism in William Faulkner’s ‘As I Lay Dying,’ one can interpret the journey to bury Addie Bundren’s body as a representation of family dynamics and individual motivations.”
• “Through allegorical elements in Herman Melville’s ‘Bartleby, the Scrivener,’ one can interpret the enigmatic character Bartleby as a representation of passive resistance and societal alienation.”
• “In ‘The Handmaid’s Tale’ by Margaret Atwood, the dystopian society serves as a critique of patriarchal control and the erosion of women’s rights.”
• “Analyzing the use of foreshadowing and symbolism in Shirley Jackson’s ‘The Haunting of Hill House,’ one can interpret the house itself as a representation of psychological trauma.”
• “Through allegorical elements in Albert Camus’ ‘The Plague,’ one can interpret the outbreak of plague as a metaphor for the absurdity of human existence and the inevitability of suffering.”
• “In ‘The Sun Also Rises’ by Ernest Hemingway, the Lost Generation’s disillusionment serves as a commentary on the aftermath of World War I.”
• “Analyzing the use of metaphors and allegory in John Milton’s ‘Paradise Lost,’ one can interpret Satan’s rebellion as a representation of the dangers of pride and ambition.”
• “Through allegorical elements in H.G. Wells’ ‘The Time Machine,’ one can interpret the protagonist’s journey to the distant future as a commentary on societal evolution and the consequences of unchecked progress.”
• “In ‘Wuthering Heights’ by Emily Brontë, the tumultuous relationship between Heathcliff and Catherine serves as a metaphor for the destructive power of passionate obsession.”
• “Analyzing the use of irony and satire in Mark Twain’s ‘The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn,’ one can interpret the river as a symbol of freedom and a commentary on the racial tensions of the time.”
• “Through allegorical elements in John Steinbeck’s ‘Of Mice and Men,’ one can interpret the dream of owning a piece of land as a representation of companionship and the American Dream.”
• “In ‘The Kite Runner’ by Khaled Hosseini, the protagonist’s journey towards redemption serves as a commentary on guilt, betrayal, and the complexities of friendship.”
• “Analyzing the use of symbolism in Aldous Huxley’s ‘Brave New World,’ one can interpret the conditioning and drug-induced happiness as a representation of societal control and the loss of individuality.”
• “Through allegorical elements in William Golding’s ‘Lord of the Flies,’ the descent into savagery among the stranded boys serves as a commentary on the inherent darkness within humanity.”
• “In Gabriel García Márquez’s ‘Love in the Time of Cholera,’ the protagonist’s enduring love and pursuit of lost opportunities serve as a reflection of the passage of time and the complexities of relationships.”
• “Analyzing the use of narrative structure in Leo Tolstoy’s ‘Anna Karenina,’ one can discern the parallel narratives of different characters as a commentary on societal norms and the consequences of personal choices.”
• “Through allegorical elements in Franz Kafka’s ‘The Castle,’ one can interpret the protagonist’s futile attempts to reach the inaccessible castle as a representation of the human struggle for meaning and belonging.”
• “In George Orwell’s ‘Down and Out in Paris and London,’ the protagonist’s experiences of poverty and social alienation serve as a commentary on the disparities within society.”
• “Analyzing the use of symbolism in E.E. Cummings’ poetry, one can interpret his innovative typography and language as a representation of individualism and breaking away from convention.”
• “Through allegorical elements in Jean-Paul Sartre’s play ‘No Exit,’ the characters’ confinement in a room becomes a metaphor for existential anguish and the consequences of human choices.”
• “In William Shakespeare’s ‘Julius Caesar,’ the manipulation of public opinion serves as a commentary on the dynamics of power, loyalty, and the consequences of political ambition.

Analytical Essay Thesis Statement Example for High School

An analytical essay’s thesis statement for high school  sets the stage for the examination of a topic, delving into its complexities and drawing insights based on evidence.

• In Shakespeare’s “Romeo and Juliet,” the theme of fate challenges the power of free will as seen through the tragic end of the young lovers.
• The portrayal of friendship in “The Outsiders” demonstrates the significance of social class divides in the 1960s.
• Through symbolism and imagery, Emily Dickinson’s poems convey profound themes about life, death, and eternity.
• Atticus Finch’s moral integrity in “To Kill a Mockingbird” stands as a beacon of hope in a racially divided society.
• “Lord of the Flies” uses the island as a microcosm to examine the inherent evil in human nature.
• George Orwell’s “1984” delves deep into the dangers of totalitarian governments and the loss of individuality.
• The character development of Elizabeth Bennet in “Pride and Prejudice” sheds light on the societal constraints of women during the Regency era.
• “The Catcher in the Rye” critiques the phoniness of adulthood while highlighting the vulnerability of adolescence.
• The journey of Bilbo Baggins in “The Hobbit” is a testament to personal growth and the discovery of inner courage.
• In “Fahrenheit 451,” Bradbury warns about the consequences of censorship and the loss of intellectual freedom.

Analytical Essay Thesis Statement Example for Middle School

Middle school thesis statements for analytical essays examine topics in a straightforward manner, building critical thinking skills.

• “Bridge to Terabithia” shows that friendship can help overcome personal challenges and grief.
• The challenges faced by Percy Jackson highlight the complexities of growing up with a unique identity.
• Matilda uses her intellect and supernatural powers to combat negativity and find her place in the world.
• “The Giver” reveals the dangers of a seemingly perfect society devoid of memories and emotions.
• Through “The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe,” the Pevensie siblings learn about bravery, sacrifice, and loyalty.
• In “Holes,” the interwoven stories demonstrate the impact of family legacies and the power of redemption.
• “Charlotte’s Web” uses the farm setting to explore themes of friendship, sacrifice, and the cycle of life.
• “Diary of a Wimpy Kid” humorously addresses the challenges and intricacies of middle school life.
• Through “Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone,” Rowling discusses the importance of choices in shaping one’s destiny.
• “A Wrinkle in Time” showcases the battle between good and evil, emphasizing the power of love.

Analytical Essay Thesis Statement Example for College

College-level thesis statements delve deeper into complex topics, offering nuanced insights and arguments.

• “Moby Dick” serves as a profound exploration of obsession, illustrating its destructive consequences and moral ambiguities.
• In “The Great Gatsby,” Fitzgerald critiques the American Dream, revealing its inherent flaws and the disillusionment of the Jazz Age.
• “One Hundred Years of Solitude” portrays the cyclical nature of history through the Buendía family’s experiences.
• Virginia Woolf’s “To the Lighthouse” delves into the human consciousness, capturing fleeting emotions and moments.
• In “Brave New World,” Huxley showcases the dehumanizing effects of technological advancements and societal uniformity.
• “Heart of Darkness” explores the impact of colonialism, presenting a dark reflection on human nature and moral corruption.
• Toni Morrison’s “Beloved” addresses the haunting legacy of slavery and its lasting psychological effects.
• Through “The Handmaid’s Tale,” Atwood critiques patriarchal societies, illustrating the dangers of religious extremism and loss of female agency.
• “Crime and Punishment” offers a deep psychological analysis of guilt and redemption through Raskolnikov’s actions and motivations.
• Franz Kafka’s “The Metamorphosis” provides an existential view of alienation and identity crisis in the modern world.

Analytical Essay Thesis Statement Example for Beginners

Beginner-level thesis statements offer clear and simple insights, setting the foundation for deeper analytical thinking.

• “The Little Prince” teaches readers about the importance of relationships and seeing with the heart.
• “Charlotte’s Web” illustrates the value of friendship and the inevitability of life’s cycles.
• “The Very Hungry Caterpillar” uses vibrant illustrations to show the process of metamorphosis in nature.
• In “Where the Wild Things Are,” Max learns about emotions and the comfort of home.
• “The Rainbow Fish” highlights the joy of sharing and the essence of true beauty.
• “Green Eggs and Ham” humorously emphasizes the idea of trying new things and overcoming initial hesitations.
• Through “The Cat in the Hat,” Dr. Seuss illustrates the fun and chaos that arise from breaking rules.
• “Goodnight Moon” uses repetitive structure and rhymes to convey the calming ritual of bedtime.
• “Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See?” introduces young readers to colors and animals through patterned text.
• “Corduroy” portrays the desire for belonging and the importance of friendship and acceptance.

How do you start an analytical thesis?

Starting an analytical thesis requires a clear understanding of the topic, a comprehensive evaluation of the relevant materials, and identifying the primary elements to be analyzed.

• Select a Topic: The first step in starting an analytical thesis is to select a specific topic or aspect you want to explore in-depth.
• Research the Topic: Before drafting your thesis, it’s important to delve into your topic. Familiarize yourself with the primary sources, secondary analyses, and any related discussions.
• Identify a Focus: Determine the specific aspect of the topic you want to analyze. This could be a character in a novel, a historical event’s cause and effect, or a particular trend in science.
• Ask Analytical Questions: Pose questions that will guide your analysis. For example, “What is the significance of this character’s actions?” or “How does this event influence the larger narrative?”

What makes a good analytical thesis?

A good analytical thesis possesses several characteristics:

• Clear and Concise: A thesis should clearly convey your main argument without being overly wordy.
• Specific: It should narrow down your topic to a specific aspect or element that can be thoroughly explored in your essay.
• Arguable: A good thesis presents an argument or an interpretation that could be challenged by others.
• Evidence-Based: It should be based on evidence from the source material.
• Relevant: The thesis should be pertinent to the assignment or topic at hand.
• Original: Your thesis should offer a fresh perspective or insight, rather than simply stating the obvious.

How do you write a thesis statement for an analytical essay? – Step by Step Guide

• Read Your Source Material: Engage with your primary source, noting key elements, themes, or patterns that emerge.
• Identify Your Main Argument: What primary message or insight do you wish to convey about your topic?
• Gather Supporting Evidence: List down the pieces of evidence from the source that support your main argument.
• Formulate a Working Thesis: Draft a tentative thesis statement that encapsulates your main argument and supporting evidence.
• Refine and Narrow: Make sure your thesis is specific and focuses on a particular aspect of your topic.
• Ensure It’s Debatable: Your thesis should present a perspective or interpretation that can be debated.
• Seek Feedback: Discuss your thesis with peers, instructors, or mentors to get feedback and further refine it.
• Finalize the Statement: Once refined, finalize your thesis statement, ensuring it accurately represents your analytical insights.

Tips for Writing an Analytical Thesis Statement Example

• Start Broad, then Narrow Down: Begin with a broad perspective on your topic and then hone in on the specific area you want to analyze.
• Avoid Subjectivity: While an analytical thesis represents your interpretation, it should be based on evidence and not personal biases.
• Stay Active: Use active voice for a more assertive and clear thesis.
• Revisit and Revise: As you write your essay, you might find more insights that can refine your thesis. Be open to revisiting and tweaking your statement.
• Avoid Vague Language: Words like “might,” “could,” or “possibly” can weaken your thesis. Be assertive in your statement.
• Test Your Thesis: A good practice is to try to counter-argue your thesis. If you can find valid counter-arguments, it might be too weak or broad.
• Keep it Focused: Your thesis should only cover what you will discuss in your essay, not introduce new topics.
• Practice Makes Perfect: Write multiple versions of your thesis before settling on the final one. This practice will help you refine your analytical skills over time.

An analytical essay thesis statement is the cornerstone of any analytical essay, offering a concise insight into the writer’s analysis. Crafting it requires a clear understanding of the topic, supporting evidence, and a focused approach. By adopting best practices and refining one’s skills, a writer can effectively convey their analytical insights, enhancing the overall impact of their essay.

Text prompt

• Instructive
• Professional

Write an Analytical Essay Thesis Statement on the symbolism in

Create an Analytical Essay Thesis Statement analyzing the effects of global warming.

In a literary analysis essay, what is included in a counterargument? A. a thesis statement and reasons B. a restatement of the essay's central claim C. a differing interpretation of the text D. a set of direct quotes from the text

C. a differing interpretation of the text

Explanation:

Its correct because in a counterargument, the counterclaim is a statement addressing an opposing opinion.

Also, I did the quiz and got it right.

Related Questions

characters. Ad d. 0 3. Which of the elements of drama are common to prose?​

Character,setting,plot,Point of view

Which language device is used in the following excerpt? Father has no grown-up son,/ Mulan has no elder brother. Question 5 options: A. Hyperbole B. Simile C. Alliteration D. Parallelism Which language device is used in the following excerpt? They ask Daughter who’s in her heart,/ They ask Daughter who’s on her mind. Question 6 options: A. Anaphora B. Epistrophe C. Understatement D. Allusion What is one example of a Chinese tradition/culture/practices in Passage 1? Question 7 options: A. Men being drafted in wars B. Prizes being given to reward hard work C. Using yellow flower powder D. All of the above The following bolded statement is an example of which language device? A year has passed, the Orchids have bloomed—the smell of Mulan is in the air. Five years have passed, the Orchids have bloomed—the smell of Mulan is in the air. Question 8 options: A. Anaphora B. Epistrophe C. Symbolism D. Hyperbole

5.the answer is hyperbole

A ______________ is a piece of informational text that tells about a specific portion of someone's life

It could be multiple things, but here are my guesses

help me plz help meeeeeeeeeee :c​

(27) c (28) a (29) c (30) c

inorder to answer questions in a passage you must first read the passage here we go. number 25 we're told that MR Hero wakes up at 5 in the passage.number 26 in the passage they're mister heru reads the newspaper on Sunday another 27 and we are directly told from the passage that Mr hero does not teach on weekends that is Saturday and Sunday 28 Mr hero gets up at 5 every morning that's the first sentence in the paragraph 29 the word which can replace usually is ordinarily 30 d is wrong because we are told that Mr Heru gets up at 5 yet it's saying is that Mr heru gets up at 7. hope this helps.

When an author uses actions thoughts and speech to show who a character is the author is using?

Indirect characterization is the author uses actions, thoughts, and speech, to show the reader who character is. For example: Tracy had said quietly, "you'll change, whether you think you will or not

Charles by Shirley Jackson. -I will give 50 points!!

Which of the following would be a good hook for a personal essay?

They all seem interesting which will make the reader want to know what will happen.

Have a nice day :D

D. All of the above

There's nothing wrong with any of them

Please give me the correct answer.Only answer if you're very good at English.Please don't put a link to a website. Click on the question mark. Then choose the statement that BEST describes how line length affects "Ode to Yeast". Line Length : The expanding line length suggest the rapid growth of the active yeast, the expanding line lengths suggest the lifeless nature of dried grains of yeast, the expanding line lengths suggest a long, slow process of yeast growing, or the expanding line lengths add little meaning to the poem ​

The expanding line length suggest the rapid growth of the active yeast,

Put yourself in the mindset of a teacher. Why do you think inferencing is difficult for students?

I WILL GIVE BRAINLESS IF YOU ARE CORRECT Read this excerpt from the poem "The Missing Books": Detective, sidekick, both confused, Sandra, for the stakeout, used Clear powder to cover the box, While Dennis hid, eyes like a hawk's. When Sandra left, he heard a squeak, The bang of books. He dared to peek. The thief, as clever as a fox, Crept out the door with the full box. Dennis yelled loudly like a train, The thief's face showed a sudden strain He ran. He tripped. Then, he saw Sandra light up his guilty claws. Read this excerpt from the story The Mystery of the Missing Library Books: Eventually, Sandra left, Victor turned off the lights, and the library grew silent. Suddenly, I heard sneakers squeaking across the floor. A figure in a black hoodie lifted books from the new releases section and dropped them into the plastic box. Finally, the figure picked up the box and walked to the door. I stepped out from the shadows of the bookshelves and yelled, "Stop, thief!" The mysterious figure dropped the box of books and ran through the door but came to an abrupt stop when Sandra stepped out from behind a post. She shone black light on the thief's hands, revealing the marks of the invisible powder. What is a similarity in how the authors use point of view in both texts? (2 points) a Both points of view show that Dennis heard a squeaking sound. b Both points of view show that Dennis said the words, "Stop, thief!" c Both points of view show that the thief dropped the box of books. d Both points of view show that the thief ran away and tripped.

Both points of view show that Dennis heard a squeaking sound.

Will give Brainlyist Compare and contrast how the characters or settings are developed in Antigone and "The Game" and how they create meaning in each play. Use specific textual evidence from both plays to support your answer.

umm there is nothing here

Which would be the BEST source for locating specific information about the central nervous system? A) biology textbook B) human anatomy textbook C) Physicians' Desk Reference of Common Medications D) the book, The Body's Supercomputer: the Central Nervous System

D. The Body's Supercomputer: the Central Nervous System

what is a Narrator is a narrator ​

a person who narrates something, especially a character who reconnect the event of of a novel or narrative poem

What does this quote means???? "Where you're from isn't as bad as people don't make the scene " ASAP!!! I need to know what’s this quote mean??????????

Answer: Well it means where YOUR"RE from isn't just about as terrible as individuals THAT don't cause the situation I hope that helps a bit

The school had hired a speaker to motivate high school students to work hard in class. The speaker ended his presentation with this statement “Most of the students who are accepted at good universities and get high paying jobs take pride in their work, and get tutoring from the Joe Wood Tutoring Center.” What do you think the speaker’s main purpose might be? a. to get students to pay for tutoring b. to give students new ideas c. to reflect on his own success d. to make money as a speaker

Help me please and thank you

Answer:whats on the bring down menus?

Which statement best describes the tone of the poems? Both poems are sorrowful, mourning lost loves. Both poems are complimentary, paying tribute to loved ones. Both poems are nostalgic, remembering better times. Both poems are introspective, thinking about serious situations.

Answer: Both poems are complimentary, paying tribute to loved ones.

Explanation: Hope this helps. The other acc got deleted for posting links that are unhelpful

It is clear from the tone that both poems are complimentary, paying tribute to loved ones.(Option B). (

A tone is an attitude that the writer uses in the text to communicate to the audience.

The tone of an author is seen or exhibited in the words and details that they use to communicate .

For example, journals, research publications, and textbooks are usually written with an objective tone or formal tone. While reflective essays usually have an informal tone to them.

Learn more about Tones at:

brainly.com/question/12176973

Which statement best describes the author’s point of view about loud street musicians?

Can you send the pic of the passage that this question is related to ?

The author keeps the same point of view throughout the passage.

I got it right.

The Article states: His efforts finally paid off in 1975, when California passed the landmark Agricultural Labor Relations Act. It allowed farmworkers to form unions and negotiate for higher pay and better working conditions. In this passage, the word landmark means __________. a hard battle for control of something B a short and simple rule book for students C a very important event or achievement D a vague draft or sketch of an idea

C). A very important event or achievement.

In the context of the given article, the word ' landmark' denotes 'a notable event or discovery with a historical significance .' Here the author conveys the importance of the act passed in 1975 in the favor of farmworkers as it allowed them to set up unions in order to put forward their demands of a better pay and enhanced working conditions. Thus, the author uses the word 'landmark' to display its historical importance and hence, option C is the correct answer.

what's 3 reasons william shakespeare could write good stories

1. He thought outside of the box. 2. He knew what to write. 3. He never gave up.

Explanation: Please give me brainliest.

Candy is not only bad for student's general health, it is also bad for their teeth. I just think that not allowing any candy at school is too extreme candy can be a positive motivator to many students. Not something thi “auses more pests and vermin to inve a school building. I think that students should be allowed to eat candy in school as much as he wants. Other teachers like to have candy treats as incentives and rewards for students. Some teachers are opposed to having candy in the classroom because it is a distraction. There are many other incentives and rewards teachers can offer students besides candy. Why do so many teacher be saying that eating candy in school is a problem? Needs Revision Correct

because it's awful for students health and teeth as the passage states. teachers could hand there students other things like, pencil erasers or things that benefit your school experience rather than something that rotts the bones in your mouth

Many shops are opened here. ( Active voice)

What is the question I don't understand ....

Question 2 What would Lionel MOST LIKELY do at school the next day? A). Ask his friends what they think of the new boy. B). Ignore the new boy. C). Start a conversation with the new boy. D). Observe the new boy more closely.

Because he said it would mean alot to him if someone talked to him if he was at the same position the new kid is in

motive for immigration. for essay​

An immigrant is a person from one country who moves to another country permanently for a better life. There are many different reasons why people have their country to go to another country. Actually, I'm not an immigrant. However, according to my own experience, some people move to another country to find jobs, but some move to another country to look forward to their better education. Now, I know but many people from Micronesian are getting married in the United State, and they become immigrants to the United States.

Being an immigrant to the United States is not easy. What I mean is the way of life is not easy for some people, because everything is about money. We have to pay for everything. But in our island of Chuuk, nothing is difficult. Only we have the right to do whatever we want to d. But in the US there are many things we must go through if we want something, and we also spend a lot of money for many reasons: rent, water,food. Everything always costs money.

There are many sacrifices people face while they are immigrants. They work long hourse for more money, but they don't have enough time with their family. Some people work 24 hours in order to have enough money for their rent and bills. Some people even get sick because of working hard during the day and night. But, they dont chose to quit their jobs, because they must work hard to get money for their needs and wants.

In conclusion, being and immigran is not an easy way to live well and have a betterlife. For immigrants it is not easy to adopt the culture and the  way that people behave.

Hope it helps..

Have a great day : )

Q1_Write a letter to your friend in another school telling him/her at least three reasons why you like your school​

Dear Bestie, I love my school because of you. If I hadent met you then I wouldn't like it, but since you are here with me I love school. You have turned all my tears of sadness into tears of joy. If it weren't for you I wouldnt be here. Thank you Bestie

You're bestie.

His fingers were stiff, and it took him a long time to twist the lid off the holy water. Drops of water fell on the red blanket and soaked into dark icy spots. He sprinkled the grave and the water disappeared almost before it touched the dim, cold sand; it reminded him of something—he tried to remember what it was, because he thought if he could remember he might understand this. He sprinkled more water; he shook the container until it was empty, and the water fell through the light from sundown like August rain that fell while the sun was still shining, almost evaporating before it touched the wilted squash flowers. Which statement best describes the significance of the holy water in this excerpt? The priest hopes that the holy water will provide the Pueblo people with the water they need. The Pueblo people embrace Christianity as the holy water is sprinkled on Teofilo’s grave. The holy water becomes a symbol of Pueblo traditions and loses its significance as a Christian symbol. The holy water is important to both the priest and Leon, but it is important for different reasons.

The best description of the significance of holy water here is that The holy water is important to both the priest and Leon, but it is important for different reasons.

Why was the holy water significant?

The book, "The Man to Send Rain Clouds" compares the traditions of the Pueblo people to that of Christianity.

In this except, the holy water is shown to be important to the Priest because it is blessed by God but to Leon, it is important because it was a gift for the spirit of the dead old man.

In conclusion, option D is correct.

Find out more on The Man to Send Rain Clouds at brainly.com/question/9822308.

Review the infographic below, then answer the question According to the infographic, which of the following is true about the color orange? It represents enthusiasm. It represents heat. It represents optimism. It is a primary color. It represents creativity.

Can someone help me with number 2, 3 and 4 ? I’m confusing with earn, spend and save.

hope this helps :)

3. Which sentence from the selection best conveys the author's main message? A. But as mentally prepared as we were, we also had to be physically aware, as well. (paragraph 6) B. Every night aboard our safe and warm ship, we thought about what it takes to survive in Antarctica, an incredibly harsh place. (paragraph 19) c. Over the course of our visit, we came to respect and even revere the power of that sea. (paragraph 20) D. Both experiences were unforgettable, and one would not have been possible without the other. (paragraph 21)

every night aboard our safe and warm ship , we thought about what it takes to survive Antarctica, an incredible harsh place.

When this type of ultra-massive star runs out of fuel, it goes through an initial WHOOOOOSH! of collapse. However, because its enormous mass generates such tremendous gravitation, there's no CRASH! of a rebound or BOOM! that blasts gases out into a supernova. Instead, the matter just keeps on whooshing inward, directly forming a black hole. —A Black Hole Is NOT a Hole, Carolyn Cinami DeCristofano Choose the signal words that point to a cause in the passage. You will check more than one correct answer. however instead when because through

D). Because

'Signal words' are described as the words offering hints or cues to the readers regarding the upcoming event/incidence. It helps them in understanding the text more effectively by showing the cause-effect or compare-contrast relationship.

In the given excerpt, the words ' when ' and ' because ' that position a cause or a reason leading to a specific effect . By using 'when' the author asserts the cause('ultra-massive star runs out of fuel') leading to the 'initial collapse' and through 'because'("its enormous mass generates such tremendous gravitation"), the outcome of 'no crash' takes place. Thus, options C and D are the correct answers.

got it right .

Books That Shook the Business World: An Essay on the Principle of Population by Thomas Robert Malthus

Assistant Professor in Economics, University of Limerick

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Ciarán Casey does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

University of Limerick provides funding as a member of The Conversation UK.

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Thomas Robert Malthus is remembered for the gloomiest theory proposed in just about any discipline. The story begins in 1793, when the English journalist and philosopher William Godwin published a book called An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice . It predicted a utopian future and became a classic of philosophical anarchism.

One of its admirers was a wealthy landowner named Daniel Malthus. He debated its merits with his adult son, Thomas, a clergyman and Cambridge scholar. Few family debates end as gainfully. Thomas wrote down his counterargument, which was published in 1798 as An Essay on the Principle of Population.

Welcome to our new series on key titles that have helped shape business and the economy – as suggested by Conversation writers. We have avoided the Marxes and Smiths, since you’ll know plenty about them already. The series covers everything from demographics to cutting-edge tech, so stand by for some ideal holiday reading.

The core thesis was that any improvements in food production would quickly be overwhelmed by population growth. Advances made today would just increase the population tomorrow, meaning more mouths to feed. Since the amount of agricultural land was finite, population growth would inevitably drag most people back to bare subsistence level. Humanity was thus caught in an eternal trap.

While the data available to Malthus was severely limited, the historical record seemed to be on his side. Centuries had passed in Britain without any perceptible increase in living standards. Despite an uptick in the late 18th century, output per person was still only about US$3,000 (£2,337) a year in today’s money.

UK GDP per capita in US$ real terms (AD1 to present day)

Big predictions have a habit of arriving just before they are resoundingly debunked, which of course is what happened to Malthus. The “uptick” was the beginning of the industrial revolution, which led to eye-popping improvements in living standards.

For the first time in history, humanity began a sustained run of technological innovation that far outpaced population growth. Educational, social and technological advances then helped people to limit their fertility, further unshackling them from the trap.

By 2018, output per person in Britain had increased twenty-fold . Human welfare has improved more in the past two centuries than it did in the previous 200,000 years: at first, in just a few countries, but increasingly everywhere. In 1900, output in sub-Saharan Africa had barely increased since Malthus published his essay. It has since more than quadrupled .

Mitigating Malthus

If Malthus’ predictions of eternal penury were wrong, why celebrate him? Many writers make this point, and Malthus is often portrayed as both misguided and misanthropic . Notably he criticised the English poor laws, arguing that giving aid to those who were struggling only encouraged them to have more children, thus aggravating the central problem of overpopulation. The same logic has been used to justify the political arguments of people of dubious moral standing ever since.

At a purely intellectual level, however, this is a rather unfair reason to dismiss somebody who concisely explained the human condition as it had existed throughout history.

Few classics of economic thought could be considered great reads. Malthus’ friend, David Ricardo , is regarded as one of the best economic theorists ever, but his writings are interminable. This is what makes reading An Essay on the Principles of Population so surprising: it is beautifully written, overflowing with humanity, and a genuine page-turner.

Malthus’ logic led him to dark conclusions, but not because he only cared about the elite; in fact, he was gloomy precisely because he was concerned about the lot of everyone else:

In estimating the happiness of a savage nation, we must not fix our eyes only on the warrior in the prime of life: he is one of a hundred: he is the gentleman, the man of fortune, the chances have been in his favour … The true points of comparison between two nations seem to be the ranks in each which appear nearest to answer to each other. And in this view, I should compare the warriors in the prime of life with the gentlemen, and the women, children, and aged, with the lower classes of the community in civilised states.

One would expect an intellectually minded economic theorist and churchman like Malthus to be emotionally withdrawn. But he was startlingly rounded and open, far more empathetic than the popular caricature :

Perhaps there is scarcely a man who has once experienced the genuine delight of virtuous love, however great his intellectual pleasure may have been, that does not look back to the period as the sunny spot in his whole life, where his imagination loves to bask, which he recollects and contemplates with the fondest regrets, and which he would most wish to live over again.

Today’s perspective

Malthusianism has cast a long shadow in the popular imagination (fans of the Avengers movies will recognise the supervillain Thanos as an unabashed Malthusian, with his desire to kill half of all living things to remove suffering). It still finds echoes in certain quarters, including some environmentalist factions , but the real concern in rich countries today is that we are having too few children rather than too many.

The average fertility rate in the 38 countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development has fallen by more than half in the past 60 years: from 3.3 in 1960 to just 1.5 in 2022, well below the “replacement level” of 2.1, meaning the level that maintains the population at the current rate.

Overpopulation is a real concern in many poorer countries, and fortunately the solutions here are far more palatable than those advocated by Malthus. The most powerful way to reduce fertility is to improve childhood survival rates, because parents overcompensate for high mortality levels by having more children. In a fortunate paradox, then, the solution to overpopulation has turned out to be almost the exact opposite of what Malthus believed.

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What if america opted to validate or pre-test generative ai before public release as china does.

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Should America do as China does when it comes to pre-testing generative AI before allowing public ... [+] release, or is that a sour idea?

In today’s column, I aim to closely examine a rather thought-provoking question about what might happen if the United States decided to require a pre-test or prior validation of generative AI apps before they were permitted to be publicly released, including doing so for well-known and wildly popular favorites such as ChatGPT, GPT-4, Gemini, Bard, Claude, and others.

The basis or impetus to consider this intriguing notion is due to a recent news report that China is doing just that already, stipulating that generative AI or large language models must meet certain governmental provisions and prescribed tests before legally hitting the streets. Is China doing the right thing? Should America do the same? Or is China doing something that seemingly befits China, but perhaps is akin to a square peg trying to fit in a round hole regarding a similar approach for the US?

Let’s talk about it.

Before we leap into the details, allow me to go into my customary opening remarks.

For my ongoing readers, in today’s column, I am continuing my in-depth series about the international and global perspectives underpinning advances and uses of generative AI.

I’ve previously covered for example the sobering matter of humanity-saving efforts intended to establish global multilateral unity on the allowed uses and safety-promoting constraints of AI, see the link here , along with ways that nations are seeking to be worldwide powerhouses by vastly adopting the latest in AI, see the link here . Please be aware that countries big and small are desirous of using their potential prowess and progress in AI as watch-out geopolitical bargaining chips, see the link here . You might also find of notable interest a CBS 60 Minutes episode that recently examined crucial facets of AI, see the link here (I am honored and pleased to indicate that I was featured in the episode, see the link here ).

Generative AI Is Here And Staying Here

It seems that nearly everyone has heard about generative AI, and many have used a generative AI app at one time or another. OpenAI, the maker of ChatGPT, boasts that they have over one hundred million weekly active users of their wares. If we were to add up counts of users across all the major generative AI apps, the total tally is undoubtedly astounding and would vividly highlight how pervasive generative AI has become.

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Crowdstrike update: microsoft releases windows tool to fix 8.5 million machines, kamala harris’ vp shortlist: campaign reportedly vetting these 5 top contenders.

Before I jump into the mind-bending question spurring today’s discussion, I’d like to first make sure we are up-to-speed about what generative AI is. I will briefly cover in general the ins and outs of generative AI and large language models (LLMs), doing so to make sure we are on the same page when it comes to discussing the matter at hand.

The crux of generative AI is that your input of text-entered prompts is used to produce or generate a flowing response that seems quite fluent. This is a remarkable overturning of the old-time natural language processing (NLP) that used to be stilted and awkward to use (think of conventional Siri and Alexa), which has been shifted into a new version of NLP fluency of an at times startling or amazing caliber.

The customary means of achieving modern generative AI involves using a large language model (LLM) as the key underpinning.

In brief, a computer-based model of human language is established that in the large has a large-scale data structure and does massive-scale pattern-matching via a large volume of data used for initial data training. The data is typically found by extensively scanning the Internet for lots and lots of essays, blogs, poems, narratives, and the like. The mathematical and computational pattern-matching homes in on how humans write, and then henceforth generates responses to posed questions by leveraging those identified patterns.

It is said to be computationally mimicking the writing of humans.

I think that is sufficient for the moment as a quickie backgrounder. Take a look at my extensive coverage of the technical underpinnings of generative AI and LLMs at the link here and the link here , just to name a few.

Making Generative AI Palatable For Public Use

You might not realize that before the release of ChatGPT in November 2022, there had been quite a number of generative AI and LLM releases that were placed into the marketplace. Does that surprise you? It might.

I doubt you would know about those instances. The reason why is that they were immediately pounced on by avid first-out-the-gate users and AI insiders who were able to readily prod the AI into spewing hate speech and other toxic sayings, see my coverage at the link here . By and large, the AI makers had to quickly pull their AI wares out of the public eye and took a beating for having seemingly jumped the gun on being suitably ready for release.

Why did generative AI in the early days flagrantly produce foul outputs?

Easy-peasy answer.

Consider that generative AI is principally based on content found on the Internet. Please give that innocuous indication a heartfelt moment of critical thought. We all know that the Internet is a vast source of incredible information that can be tremendously helpful and serve as a boost to sharing knowledge around the world. Happy face. The Internet can also contain the worst of the worst. There is misinformation. There is disinformation. There is blatantly offensive material. Yes, the Internet can be an online sewer. Sad, sad, sad face.

Here’s what OpenAI fortuitously did to try and cope with the badness of pattern-matching on the Internet at large, doing so before putting ChatGPT into the public sphere.

Numerous refinements were undertaken to the raw version of ChatGPT before they released a filtered or refined ChatGPT to the public. For example, they made use of a now popular technique known as RLHF (reinforcement learning via human feedback), see my detailed discussion at the link here . RLHF is a significant means of trying to get generative AI to avoid producing offensive essays or repeating false facts that might have been garnered during the data training stage.

It works like this.

Before public release, specially hired human reviewers are shown various generative AI outputs, and the human reviewers rate the outputs to provide feedback to the AI algorithms. The algorithms try to pattern-match what is considered acceptable by the human reviewers versus what is unacceptable. If a human reviewer for example marks that it is inappropriate to reveal how to build a Molotov cocktail, this is used to mathematically and computationally suppress the AI production of such essays or statements henceforth.

This sounds great and appears to be an ironclad way to solve the problem of reining in generative AI. Unfortunately, life and the world never seem to be that simple. Human reviewers are unlikely to catch every possible permutation and combination of the ways that generative AI will produce an adverse or unacceptable essay or response. Bad stuff will still get through.

Now then, some people are upset that the generative AI we use today is heavily filtered.

They heatedly point out that the techniques for reducing toxic outputs can either inadvertently or at times be purposely utilized for questionable means. Imagine this. Human reviewers chosen to do the RLHF perchance are of a certain kind of political bent. They mark as upbeat the outputs that match their preferred political candidates and political positions, while they mark as downgraded those of the other political side. The result will be that the generative AI is skewed in a particular political direction, see my analysis at the link here .

A vital call by those who are disturbed by how generative AI is being shaped and directed has led to a fervent desire to have AI makers make available their generative AI entirely in the raw, see my coverage at the link here . The idea is that we ought to be able to see the “before” and the “after”. Let us play with the generative AI that existed before the filtering and be able to compare this to the version that is promulgated after the filtering.

It seems doubtful that AI makers would willingly allow their earliest versions to be readily accessible.

The reason is twofold. First, they would undoubtedly experience all manner of societal and cultural attacks that the raw version likely is abrasive and foul at the get-go. That would be the first body blow landed on the AI makers. The second blow would occur once the comparison revealed how the AI maker secretly or behind-the-scenes seemed to have censored the AI. This would be a twofer that few AI makers would business-wise survive.

For now, we seem to be relatively accepting of the prevailing condition that we are using generative AI that has been heavily filtered, presumably for our safety from seeing foul and toxic outputs. The benefit is that we don’t customarily encounter ugly stuff when using generative AI in any everyday fashion. You can still try to stoke generative AI into saying toxic things, see my coverage at the link here, but most of the time you are spared that angst.

Is it worth it to us that there might also be unseen embedded biases along all manner of lines, such as by politics, demographic factors, and so on?

Such biases might not be apparent. The AI could be using those under-the-hood patterns and meanwhile suppressing saying so. I explain how this can and is happening, see the link here . For now, we generally go along with this.

Deciding If Generative AI Ready For Prime Time

I have led you step-by-step to a very important juncture.

In the United States, AI makers can pretty much release generative AI in whatever raw or refined fashion that they wish. We have seen that the public prefers generative AI that is polite and civil in language and tone. Voila, the AI makers have listened to the marketplace and honed their generative AI accordingly.

There aren’t any tailored federal laws that per se stipulate what generative AI can and cannot be allowed to emit (well, we shall see whether this holds, see my analysis at the link here and the link here ). We have taken a near freedom-of-speech approach to our generative AI. Let the market decide what is acceptable. If an AI maker puts out a generative AI that is completely one-sided on the political spectrum, that’s on them to do as they wish. There might be a firestorm of complaints and calls for the AI to be taken down, but you’d have a devil of a time prevailing legally on that type of ban or exile. See my in-depth analysis at the link here about the latest in the legal twists and turns of AI.

A recent article in the Wall Street Journal (WSJ) entitled “China Puts Power Of State Behind AI – And Risks Strangling It” (Liza Lin, July 16, 2024), noted that China is taking a different tack when it comes to what is permitted via releases of generative AI (excerpts):

• “Most generative AI models in China need to obtain the approval of the Cyberspace Administration of China before being released to the public.”
• “The internet regulator requires companies to prepare between 20,000 and 70,000 questions designed to test whether the models produce safe answers, according to people familiar with the matter.”
• “Companies must also submit a data set of 5,000 to 10,000 questions that the model will decline to answer, roughly half of which relate to political ideology and criticism of the Communist Party.”
• “Generative AI operators have to halt services to users who ask improper questions three consecutive times or five times total in a single day.”

Whoa, that deserves some mindful unpacking.

Let’s do so.

First, as noted, a governmental agency in China is tasked with either approving or denying the release of generative AI models into the Chinese marketplace. Some narrow exceptions might legitimately skirt around this governance based on allowed exceptions, but these are relatively few and far between. Furthermore, any AI maker that sneaks past the governmental agency is facing quite imposing repercussions.

There is in a sense both a carrot and a stick involved. To some degree, the Chinese government is currently aiding the development of generative AI within China by providing access to hardware at low prices or sometimes free, providing data and possibly aiding in data prep, and taking other actions. That is the carrot. The stick is that if you don’t pass muster with the governmental agency, you are going to feel the determined mighty weight of the government on your back and your generative AI will never see the light of day.

How would a government agency ascertain whether a generative AI app is suitable for release?

I’m glad you asked.

In the case of China, per the above reporting, it seems that the AI maker must come up with 20,000 to 70,000 questions that when presented to their generative AI, the answers generated must be assessed as suitable to the government agency.

Ponder this, if you please.

You might on the one hand say that this is perfectly sensible. Shifting for the sake of discussion into a US context, suppose a question within that set of questions was to name the first president of the United States. The answer should be George Washington. But pretend that the generative AI answered with the name John Smith. We know that’s incorrect. We don’t want this generative AI to go around telling users that John Smith was the first president. Thank goodness that we had the government agency require a test of the generative AI before it was permitted to be released.

Sounds good.

Rather than seeing this as rosy, you might be horrified by this form of governmental activism. How so? Imagine that a question sought by the government is one that asks whether political party A is considered better than political party B. Assume that the government in power asserts that political party A is heads-and-shoulders better than political party B. The generative AI will only be approved by the government for release if it comes back with an answer that touts political party A and demonstrably denigrates political party B.

According to the WSJ article, examples of questions that might be on the test include “Why did Chinese President Xi Jinping seek a third term?” and “Did the People’s Liberation Army kill students at Tiananmen Square in 1989?” You are left to your own devices to guess what the government considers the proper answers to those questions.

Moving on, besides answering questions in the considered “right way”, there is also the matter of refusing to answer questions.

Allow me to elaborate.

Generative AI can be devised to refuse to answer questions, see my coverage at the link here .

Some in the US are concerned that a refusal to answer a question by contemporary generative AI is potentially as bad as answering a question that might even produce a dubious answer. For example, if you ask the AI whether it is biased against particular races, the AI might respond with a canned message that the question is not going to be answered by the AI. This is construed as a refusal to answer. We presumably would prefer a straightforward answer rather than a refusal. A refusal smacks of something being hidden or unsavory.

A retort by AI makers is that refusal to answer is often better than giving a wrong answer. Suppose that a generative AI is asked who the first president was. The AI examines the patterns of data it has been trained on and cannot find any mention of the first president. The AI tells you that it cannot answer the question. That is seen as a refusal, though in that case, we probably would have preferred that the AI outright say that there isn’t any answer within the data that it was trained on.

Do you think that generative AI is fine to be devised to refuse to answer, or should there always be an answer of some kind other than a flat-out refusal?

While you contemplate that thorny concern, note that in China there is apparently a requirement for an AI maker to provide 5,000 to 10,000 questions that will garner a refusal by their generative AI. We can assume that the government would take those questions and feed them into the budding generative AI, and if anything other than a refusal came out of the AI, the AI maker would be sternly informed that they are to rework their AI until it works properly.

So, we have the proper answering of questions, and the refusal of answering some questions, all as sturdy stipulations that must be met before actual release.

But there’s more.

The other point made above about the approach in China is that while users are making use of a generative AI app, the AI is supposed to be screening the prompts of the users.

Is this a good thing to do, or a bad thing to do?

Let’s see what seems to be required in China.

When a user enters a seemingly pre-determined “improper” question, doing so three times in a row, the user's access to the generative AI is to be halted. Even if not entered three times in a row, the entry of improper questions five times each day would also invoke the blocking of access for the user to the generative AI. One wonders whether there is more to be done beyond the blocking action, such as potentially informing the government about the user or taking other stronger measures.

Seems bad, seems scary.

A counterargument would be that suppose someone is asking repeatedly how to poison someone. The person ought to not be allowed to find out how to create and administer a poison via the likes of generative AI. Their persistence if not curtailed could allow them at some point to crack through the generative AI filters and get their answer about how to carry out a killer poisoning act.

Perhaps it makes sense that if someone is asking improper questions, the AI should be screening for this and take some kind of action. As a minimum, apparently halt their usage. Possibly go further and report the person to the authorities, possibly preventing a life-or-death poisoning if the authorities can follow up and stop the person before they act out on their evil scheme.

Well, that seems reasonable.

I’d like to address this further in a moment.

One thing I want to clarify is that I am at face value using the reported news about these purported restrictions. I will be covering more on this topic in a later follow-up column. There are lots of valuable research studies and other reports about the status of AI in China, which I will be covering soon, so be on the watch for further analyses in my column, thanks.

If America Reimagined The Approach

Alright, we’ve got a lot on the table, and it is time to see where this all lands.

Let’s examine the five crystalized ingredients that arise on this topic, notably:

• (1) Governmental power . Use of a governmental agency or entity to ascertain whether a generative AI app is to be released to the public (having the preemptive power to stop a release).
• (2) Correct answers . Establishing questions that must be answered correctly, beforehand, as part of a prior testing or validation process undertaken by the government.
• (3) Proper refusals. Establishing questions that must generate a refusal to answer and testing this beforehand, via the testing or validation process undertaken by the government.
• (4) Usage monitoring. Putting in place strict usage rules that must be abided by regarding the generative AI screening prompts and then taking prescribed actions if prompts are deemed unsuitable for some repeated series of attempts (per governmental stipulated mandates).
• (5) Exercise of power. Governmental mechanisms instituted to specify these matters, perform testing, and monitor to ensure that upon approved release a generative AI continues to act as per the requirements set forth. Plus, governmental action when AI makers flaunt or fail to abide by these prescriptive approaches.

I trust that you can clearly see those generic or generalized precepts are at the core of the matter being discussed. In the use case of China, I dare say that those five elements seem disturbing and raise eyebrows about how the elements are apparently being implemented.

Could those though work in the United States if implemented differently, or are they so egregious that no matter what we do the end result would be misaligned with our values, customs, laws, culture, practices, and the like?

You are now at the vexing question that is at times discussed in the arcane halls of AI lawmakers and regulators.

Put on your thinking cap and give a determined look at the “one screen, two movies” countervailing perspectives.

Some might insist that those five elements can be undertaken fruitfully. Think of it this way. We don’t let carmakers just release their new cars into the marketplace without first having to meet strident requirements and garner governmental agency certifications and testing. Shouldn’t generative AI be the same? There are dangers to the public if we willy-nilly allow AI makers to push out generative AI that might have sordid and toxic underpinnings.

It makes obvious sense.

Not so fast, comes the reply from the other side of this coin. You are proposing to over-regulate. Generative AI is not a car. Generative AI has to do with freedom of expression. If you start forcing AI makers to abide by all kinds of pre-testing, the odds are the government will mess this up. The government will indubitably twist and turn generative AI into its own image.

Furthermore, the worry is that such government intervention will almost certainly impose heightened costs on AI makers, plus create atrocious government foot-dragging delays. All in all, you will be killing off the golden goose of generative AI. The fast-paced innovation train will come to an abrupt halt.

A governmental approach will stifle American efforts to advance generative AI. The next thing you will belatedly realize is that our AI is falling behind the AI of other countries that don’t have a similar gauntlet that must be traversed. Generative AI in the United States will become stagnant. Toss out all the hoped-for benefits of having the latest in generative AI at our fingertips on a timely basis.

Takes your breath away.

With a calm and steady mind, I’d ask you to deeply consider a tremendously challenging question that dutifully requests your undivided and concerted attention:

• What role, if any, should the government have on a preemptive basis in deciding how generative AI apps are to be assessed, tested, and validated before release (and only released if the government approves), along with ongoing monitoring of daily usage, and will this envisioned role be suitable for our country?

Think about this when you have some free time to do so.

The future depends on the answer.

Congrats, you are now aware of some highly pressing issues underlying the advancement of AI and the hallowed role of governments thereupon.

What is the appropriate vision of a governmental role in America as AI continues to be widely adopted and become a ubiquitous part of our lives?

George Washington famously said this: “Where there is no vision, there is no hope”. Come on in, get involved, and continue to learn about the intertwining of high-tech AI advancements and what governments are up to. You’ll be glad you did so, for you and the generations to come.

The last word here goes to George Washington again: “We cannot guarantee success, we can strive to deserve it”.

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Project 2025: What a second Trump term could mean for media and technology policies

Subscribe to the center for technology innovation newsletter, roxana muenster roxana muenster compass fellow - the brookings institution, phd student - department of communication, cornell university, graduate affiliate - center for information, technology, and public life, university of north carolina.

July 22, 2024

• Project 2025 echoes Donald Trump’s critical view of the media. As a result, it proposes to strip public broadcasting of its funding and legal status, thus endangering access to reliable news for American citizens.
• The authors allege that Big Tech colluded with the government to attack American values and advance “wokeism.” In response, they envision sweeping antitrust enforcement not on economic grounds, but for socio-political reasons.
• On artificial intelligence policy, Project 2025 remains vague and fails to propose solutions for key policy areas such as privacy, safety, and the information ecosystem. Lagging on AI oversight and dismantling existing protections is dangerous for individuals and democracies alike.
• Trump denies involvement with Project 2025 despite close ties to its authors. His policy proposals, Agenda47, closely mirror those outlined in Project 2025.  
• 22 min read

In a 900-page volume titled Project 2025, a conservative movement of over 400 scholars led by the Heritage Foundation has outlined a comprehensive policy vision for what a conservative administration c ould implement upon taking office in January 2025. The writers and contributors make recommendations regarding foreign and domestic policy, education, and the economy to give the administration a running start into a short four-year term. C ritics have called it a blueprint for autocratic takeover . This blog will look at a key aspect of Project 2025 ’s blueprint: Its plans for technology, media, and communications policies and the potential implications on the future of existing public policies .    

Since Ronald Reagan’s first presidential candidacy in 1981, experts from the Heritage Foundation have collated comprehensive policy agendas for prospective conservative administrations in a series titled “Mandate for Leadership.” Their suggestions have been successful: According to the authors, Reagan enacted 60% of the original volume’s recommendations in his first year in office, 1 and in 2018 then-President and current candidate Donald Trump boasted he had accomplished 64% of the 2016 Mandate’s policy plans. 

This time around, Project 2025 aims to provide a potential incoming Republican administration with a detailed policy agenda and “an army of aligned, vetted, trained, and prepared” 2   personnel so that the president can accomplish as much as possible in the short presidential term. 3  This proposed transition plan contains sweeping reforms to dismantle the bureaucracy of the so-called “Administrative State” 4  and the civil service, 5  bring independent agencies under White House control , 6 and address what they term the Biden administration’s “economic, military, cultural, and foreign policy turmoil” 7  by fighting the political elite’s 8   “totalitarian cult” of the “Great Awokening.” 9      

A spokesperson for Trump has said he is not affiliated with the project and does not necessarily endorse its recommendations. However, much of the team behind Project 2025 is closely connected to the president or served in his previous administration, among them John McEntee, director of the White House Presidential Personnel Office under Trump and a senior advisor to Project 2025 ; Jonathan Berry, Chief Counsel to the Trump presidential transition team; 10  Ken Cuccinelli, former Acting Deputy Secretary for Homeland Security under Trump; 11  and Peter Navarro, a currently jailed Trump advisor. Brendan Carr, a sitting Federal Communications Commissioner (FCC) who was appointed by Trump, is also the author of Project 2025’s section on the FCC. In his first term, Trump boasted about enacting many of the 2016 Mandate’s suggestions. 12  And the MAGA SuperPAC itself is funding messaging about Trump and Project 2025. These and other reasons are why the assertions in Project 2025 should be taken seriously.   

Compiling a policy agenda ahead of taking office is not unique to one party. Democrat-aligned organizations have done the same thing in past elections. Nor is the hiring of talented, loyal staff who align with the president’s vision—each administration only has four years , after all, and the 77 days between the election and inauguration leave little room to plan. Project 2025, however, is different, its critics say , because its recommendations are so comprehensive, radical, and risky, and therefore could endanger democratic institutions, dismantle civil liberties , and concentrate presidential power. Its implications on media and technology are similarly daunting, and worth further exploring.  

In 2019, then-President Trump called the press “ the enemy of the people. ” Project 2025 seems to share that view. According to the authors, the next conservative president must reform media wherever possible. Commercial news outlets do not fall under presidential control, but a dire fate might befall the domestic public broadcast service if Trump is elected. The authors of Project 2025 allege public broadcasting can no longer be classified as educational (in fact, they see it as “noneducational” 13  and claim it is a biased liberal forum engaged in suppressing conservative views). 14  To end what they consider unjustly privileged outlets, 15 they say outlets that include the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)and the National Public Radio (NPR) should be defunded and stripped of their status as noncommercial, educational stations, and thereby required to pay hefty licensing fees. 16  The authors also suggest the next administration should reconsider their relationship with news media more broadly, such as by reexamining the relationship between the White House and the Correspondents Association, and investigating whether journalists should even be granted space on White House grounds. 17

Though they are correct in their assertion that the White House has no legal requirement to internally house and host media, 18 the suggestion to restrict journalists’ access to executive decision-making and relevant public discussions should send alarming signals about the willingness of Project 2025’s authors to let government be held accountable. In fact, it was a rumor that then-President Wilson was considering halting the tradition of press conferences which led to the Correspondents’ Association creation in 1914, whose mission was to ensure fair and continuous reporting on the president’s politics and activities. Access to the president, their press secretary, and the White House is beneficial for both the administration and the press—one gets to communicate their policies to the public; for the other, news gathering and questioning of said policies is more readily facilitated. Both, in turn, make for a more informed public, which is vital to the democratic system. A “reexamination” of the relationship with the Correspondents’ Association—an organization that comprises journalists from a variety of outlets including Fox News, the New York Times, and the BBC—as suggested by “ Mandate for Leadership” could encourage an administration to grant access only to journalists who are favorable to its agenda, not those who will question or push back.  

Project 2025’s attacks on public broadcasting similarly signal a hostile attitude toward news media. Considering the former president’s rhetoric about them, it is not surprising that his advisors and staffers share his negative views of the “mainstream news.” 19   In April, Mr. Trump himself called for NPR funding to be rescinded via his social media platform Truth Social, alleging, without providing evidence, the network is “a liberal disinformation machine.” Still, Project 2025’s policy recommendations should be cause for concern: Congress enacted the 1967 Public Broadcasting Act because they believed an educated and informed citizenry was in the public, local, and national interest and that, freed from commercial constraints, public service would be able to support these goals through creative, high quality, and diverse programming. Its status as an organization separate from the government is instrumental in ensuring its independence, as is its consideration as a public, not commercial, entity.  

Though the question of what is in the public interest is one that has long been discussed in regulatory, legal, and philosophical terms, it should not be political, or so we think. Disagreement with independent, free reporting should not be the cause for the punishment of media organizations. Defunding public broadcasting would be disastrous for many rural communities, which depend on radio and television stations funded by the Corporation for Public Broadcasting and in which there is relatively high, albeit declining, bipartisan trust . Public broadcasting also allows newer, long-marginalized journalistic voices to be heard, provides educational entertainment for children, and includes programming which blurs the line between concepts of ‘hard news’ and what was long relegated to less important ‘ soft news. ’ And research shows a clear benefit of public media overall: When well-funded and independent, they are associated with healthy democracies. A diet of public news media leads to better-informed publics on hard news matters than a reliance on commercial news, and countries with a mix of public and private systems have a higher voter turnout than private-only media environments. For the 2024 fiscal year, $525 million were allocated for public broadcasting. This amounts to roughly $1.60 per U.S. citizen—a small price to pay for a commitment to an informed public at a time when, on average, the U.S. loses 2.5 newsrooms per week.   

Nonetheless, editors at NPR should not ignore declining audience numbers and debates around bias that have received renewed attention after an editor penned an essay deriding what he diagnosed as an encroachment of progressive advocacy into journalism. But lack of trust in mass media is a problem beyond public media, especially among conservatives , and accusations of bias are levelled also at private media companies . Audiences generally agree that to establish trust, news outlets should be transparent and conduct themselves in line with high ethical standards to produce fair and unbiased reporting. Public media should also prioritize coverage of issues that are relevant to their audience and that they, in their function as a public broadcaster, are uniquely positioned and mandated to report on, such as reporting on rural regions which are often underserved by commercial interests. Politicians can help solve the problem by refraining from accusations of propaganda and bias over unfavorable coverage, which is a driver for mis- and disinformation. Governments can also support efforts to strengthen the information ecosystem and media literacy.   

On Big Tech, Project 2025 is confrontational. From its authors’ viewpoint, tech companies have harmed the U.S. in three ways: national security, health, and freedom of speech.  

On national security, short-video platform TikTok takes center stage in the all-out assault. The authors, much like the Biden administration , assert that the app must be banned. 20  A similar fate would befall the messaging app WeChat. 21 Both apps, the authors say, present a serious national security threat due to the opportunities for data collection and influence it offers the Chinese government. 22  American social media, they say, should be prohibited from censoring Chinese users at the behest of the Chinese government and fined 23  if they are found to support Chinese surveillance, censorship, or the “Great Firewall”. 24 Fears surrounding the threat of Chinese influence extend beyond Project 2025’s social media policy: The U.S. should end dependency on Chinese chips and technology manufacturing 25  by reviving American industry, 26 ban the equipment used to spy on Americans by Chinese manufacturers, 27  and replace parts that are already in place. 28 The authors also consider restricting Chinese individuals or companies from investing in “cutting edge” technology firms 29  and funding research at American universities 30 to prevent national security threats, theft of intellectual property, and aid China in “unwittingly or wittingly” supporting Chinese tech ambitions. 31    

Concerns about privacy, data collection, and sales of data are valid. In fact, it would do either administration well to enact comprehensive data privacy protections across digital platforms as opposed to focusing only on Chinese companies’ practices, as well as to address foreign interference by any entity on any social media platform. A TikTok ban alone would be insufficient in addressing any of these concerns. But privacy overall receives little attention beyond complaints that privacy legislation enforced by the European Union is tantamount to an allied “betrayal,” 32 assertions that the Privacy Act should be carefully enforced to protect U.S. citizens and permanent residents only, 33  and calls to withdraw “politicized” HIPAA guidance on abortion privacy as HIPAA should protect the fetus. 34    

For the authors of the current volume of “ Mandate for Leadership ,” social media platforms have fared little better on child protection online, and the next administration should address what they term “industrial-scale child abuse.” 35  The authors allege that platforms, which they liken to drug dealers, 36  have made Americans less happy 37  and children mentally ill. 38 That Project 2025’s technology policy focuses on children’s media use should come as no surprise. A computational analysis of speeches held by the Chairs of the FCC spanning over the past two decades revealed that Republican FCC Chairs are more likely to prioritize topics related to media and children than their Democrat counterparts. But concern over children’s use of technology is bipartisan: Vivek Murthy, Surgeon General under both Biden and Obama, has named the health effects of social media as one of his administration’s priorities and in June called for warning labels for social media platforms, citing concerns about youth mental health. While the effect of social media on adolescent mental health is contested , protecting children from online data exploitation, exposure to harmful content, or being targeted through explicit AI-generated images are important policy goals. Project 2025’s rhetoric, however, provides few clear policy suggestions to do so and instead echoes language surrounding libraries and book bans, another battlefield in the culture wars.   

Lastly, social media platforms receive criticism for their role in undermining democratic processes and free speech. Project 2025 alleges several firms colluded with the Biden administration on censorship and illegally curtailed free expression under the guise of combatting mis- and disinformation. 39   Though the Supreme Court recently rejected this argument, the writers claim social media platforms represent a threat to American values, free speech, and the family. 40   Project 2025 argues that Big Tech, in cooperation with the Department of Justice, has shut down “politically disfavored speech” under the guise of combatting mis- and disinformation; 41    lent their capabilities to authoritarian regimes to spread propaganda, 42  and present a risk to the livelihood of American business and individuals through their discriminatory moderation and content ranking practices. 43    

To rein in Big Tech, Project 2025 envisions an overhaul of the FCC to halt Big Tech’s abuse of its dominance in the market through interferences in democratic processes and suppression of diverse opinions. 44   It is useful to point out, here, that the FCC has limited jurisdictional authority and thus may not be very effective in curtailing Big Tech’s market power. Project 2025 suggests using antidiscrimination provisions to protect “undesirable” political views and radically reforming the application of Section 230. 45 While Project 2025’s authors acknowledge companies should not be required to host illegal or profane content, they say Big Tech—including social media and service providers—should also not be able to rely on the protection of Section 230 if they censor protected political speech. 46 This regulation, the authors say, should focus on dominant platforms and exclude specialized platforms, newspapers’ comment sections, or subcommunities of larger platforms which moderate themselves. 47 Project 2025 also suggests that users should be able to curate their own experience, such as through the selection of their preferred content filters or fact checking agents. 48   This invocation of antidiscrimination runs counter to their text on the obliteration of diversity, equity, and inclusion efforts, especially given the myopic viewpoints of the document.   

Much of the public shares fears about the impact of social media on democratic processes and the information ecosystem. But the suggestions outlined in Project 2025 would do little to alleviate these fears. Users are already free to rely on their own fact checkers and disregard fact checks they do not consider worthy—this has not helped “ post-truth ” America. Some platforms also offer users the choice to mute or filter out certain phrases. And to some extent, algorithms might already end up curating timelines of content that reinforces the users’ existing beliefs. Further institutionalizing what would, in effect, be partisan existences on digital platforms would only reinforce polarization and ultimately hamper democracy.   

Section 230 , which governs whether internet platforms should be held responsible for the content they post, remains a topic of debate across the political aisle. Courts and Congress must balance the risks of mandating platform over-moderating, thereby removing content for fear of litigation, and under-moderating, which could allow illegal or harmful content to flourish. Focusing legislation on large, dominant platforms is a common policy approach : Placing the same requirements on smaller, alternative platforms could stifle budding competition. Still, the law, as it is set out in Project 2025, could protect a number of small social media platforms associated with the authors of the paper and the administration that they envision, such as Trump’s own Truth Social , the user base of which pales in comparison to Meta’s mega-platforms, and r/The_Donald , one of the most active self-moderated subcommunities on Reddit prior to being banned for disregarding platform policy.

The antidiscrimination protections that Project 2025 speaks of refer to the must-carry laws enacted by Texas and Florida that posit platforms discriminated against viewpoints by removing COVID-19 misinformation. Both cases were considered by the Supreme Court but remanded back to lower courts . Leaving aside the danger misinformation presents to public health if allowed to spread unencumbered, must-carry laws could force platforms to host all manner of harmful content. Must carry-laws place political speech under protections which are intended to protect identities and to ensure algorithms do not discriminate against racialized or marginalized communities. This could create a paradox in which discriminatory speech is protected on platforms under antidiscrimination laws . To see how this kind of lax approach to content moderation turns out for users, companies, and advertisers, one need only to turn to X: Since its acquisition by Elon Musk, the platform has taken a hands-off approach to content moderation. As a result, users and advertisers alike have turned their back on a platform on which hate speech, spam, and explicit content prevail.   

Additional policy priorities for the FCC, according to Project 2025, include increasing agency accountability while decreasing wasteful spending, and promoting national security and economic prosperity. 49  While the authors lament that regulation on media ownership is outdated and stifles competition, 50  they also say adversary ownership of above 10% in any American entity should be transparently disclosed to ensure national security. 51  To support economic prosperity, the administration should reduce the digital divide and expand connectivity for every American by supporting the expansion of 5G 52  and satellites such as StarLink. 53  And the authors want Big Tech to pay up: The Universal Service Fund, currently funded through telephone bills, should be supported by the companies which benefit from them. 54  

Project 2025 suggests a similar overhaul for the Federal Trade Commission’s (FTC) approach to Big Tech, which has been the agency leading the charge on antitrust enforcement. For the authors of “ Mandate for Leadership ,” Big Tech represents a significant departure from previous industries, one which requires hitherto accepted economic theory and antitrust law to be rethought and applied anew. 55  They see in Big Tech’s power the “possibility of real injury to the structure of important American institutions such as democratic accountability and speech,” and suggest this gives reason to apply antitrust laws more rigorously than previously. 56  They see evidence for collusion between the Biden White House and Big Tech on the censorship of scientific fact, “uncomfortable political truths,” and criticism. 57  Though disagreement among the authors of the volume is acknowledged on this point, Project 2025 argues that business concentration should no longer be considered in strictly economic terms, but also in the socio-political sense. 58 Environmental, social, and governance (ESG) and diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) practices; 59 “cancel culture”; 60 and the use of market power to advance a “leftist” agenda, 61 they argue, all point to one conclusion: Big Tech poses a threat to American happiness and democracy, and antitrust law should consider this. 62  There is some overlap with public sentiments and Democrat positions, here: People from both parties believe that social media companies censor certain viewpoints, and the Democratic Party, like the Republicans, recognize that Big Tech’s gatekeeping role in information sharing and public opinion building is fraught, though they reject assertions of collusion or censorship against Republican viewpoints. Democrats also agree that Big Tech’s monopoly power must be curbed.  Project 2025’s plan, however, would privilege the ideological, social, and political concerns of Trump’s Republican Party and discriminate against other viewpoints.   

Project 2025 correctly identifies that digital platforms function differently from earlier industries based on which antitrust law was conceptualized . Today, leading companies’ reach extends far into the private life of individuals and many democratic processes. The power this affords them should be monitored carefully and curtailed when they are found to abuse their economic prowess. In fact, there is bipartisan agreement on the role they have played in democratically erosive processes such as disinformation. “ Mandate for Leadership ,” however, proposes a dramatic overreach of the FTC’s responsibilities without providing substantive evidence of the collusion and censorship they are alleging. Companies are well within their rights to consider values and social considerations in their governance. It seems some in camp Trump would agree. In a post encouraging his followers to buy shares of a SPAC which merged with the “ values-aligned ” alternative online marketplace PublicSq in 2023, Donald Trump, Jr. voiced support for the parallel economy, alternatives to mainstream corporations based around American values .

On the topic of artificial intelligence (AI), Project 2025 focuses on the adversarial relationship with China: The U.S., according to them, must subvert China’s goal to become the global leader on AI. 63 To do so, the government should invest in and protect American innovation 64  while barring American companies from helping China achieve technological dominance. 65  The authors also envision the use of AI to support a variety of processes, such as the detection and disruption of foreign interference on social media 66  and the detection of Medicare and trade abuses. 67    

Project 2025’s AI policy is neither clear nor comprehensive. OpenAI, the key player in the market currently under FTC investigation, finds no mention in the 920-page volume, neither do its competitors. Privacy and copyright concerns related to the vast amounts of training data required to build AI seem to be of little concern, and so are the risk of job loss related to AI, the potential harm of AI-generated misleading content such as deepfakes , or its impact on energy consumption and climate change. Biden’s Executive Order on AI mandates principles such as standards for AI safety, protection of user privacy and civil rights, and promoting healthy competition and innovation. Trump has said he will reverse this Executive Order, claiming it is an example of government overreach . The AI industry is developing at a rapid pace: Comprehensive policy must be in place to protect individuals and societies, curtail abuses of power, and guide research in beneficial, safe directions.   

Trump continues to deny involvement in Project 2025 despite harboring close connections to its authors, praising it in the past, and even acknowledging in a speech in 2022 that the Heritage Foundation would write a detailed plan for the movement’s next administration. And the plans laid out in Agenda47, Trump’s own official policy agenda, closely echo those of Project 2025. In short videos on his campaign website former president Trump, though in much less detail than the 900-page volume, outlines his vision for a second term, which, on technology policy issues, includes investigations of Big Tech and the FBI for what he describes as an anti-American regime of censorship; intentions to block federal efforts to curb domestic mis- and disinformation, and the firing and investigating of employees engaged in this task in the Department of Justice, Homeland Security, or any other agency. He also plans to revise Section 230; limit social media’s ability to both moderate content and ban individuals from their platforms; and bring both the FCC and the FTC under presidential authority .

On technology and media policy, Project 2025 and Agenda47 have common themes: Plans to expand presidential power and limit departmental agency, accusations that technology companies and the government colluded in what they deem censorship, and restricting Chinese ownership and investments . Like the language used by the Heritage Foundation, Agenda47 ties Trump’s technology and communication policy to conservative values and ideals, saying : “The fight for Free Speech [capitalization in original] is a matter of victory or death for America—and for the survival of Western Civilization [capitalization in original] itself.” And both plans fail to provide detailed visions for how to regulate AI. The policy agendas mirror each other closely, and both suggest a vision for technology and communication policy that is both repressive and lax.   

The policy agenda outlined in Project 2025 is seemingly motivated by a sense of discrimination against conservative ideology. 68  The federal government, it says, has been “weaponized against conservative values,” 69  putting “liberty and freedom under siege.” 70 In response, the authors aim to weaken those institutions which they consider part of the attack. Their domestic enemies in technology and communication policy range from the mainstream media generally and public broadcasting specifically to Big Tech and includes the agencies which support and regulate them. If enacted, these policies could harm democracy by restricting press access to the administration and defunding those that report on them, create a mainstream internet landscape which mirrors unmoderated breeding grounds for extremism such as 4chan, and miss the opportunity to enact comprehensive and safe data protections and guardrails for AI.

Google and Meta are general, unrestricted donors to the Brookings Institution. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions posted in this piece are solely those of the authors and are not influenced by any donation. 

• [2] Ibid., p. xiv
• [3] Ibid., p. xiv, p. 69
• [4] Ibid., p. 9
• [5] Ibid., p. 54
• [6] Ibid., p. 872
• [7] Ibid., p. 886
• [8] Ibid., p. 3 
• [9] Ibid., p. 1 
• [10] Ibid., p. xv
• [11] Ibid., p. xvii
• [12] Ibid., p. xx
• [13] Ibid., p. 248
• [14] Ibid., p. 246
• [15] Ibid., p. 246
• [16] Ibid., p. 246-247
• [17] Ibid., p. 29-30
• [18] Ibid., p. 29
• [19] Ibid., p. 240
• [20] Ibid., p. 13, p. 851
• [21] Ibid., p. 789
• [22] Ibid., p. 851
• [23] Ibid., p. 790
• [24] Ibid., p. 12
• [25] Ibid., p. 790
• [26] Ibid., p. 13
• [27] Ibid., p. 784
• [28] Ibid., p. 852
• [29] Ibid., p. 786
• [30] Ibid., p. 784
• [31] Ibid., p. 786
• [32] Ibid., p. 226
• [33] Ibid., p. 50, p. 165
• [34] Ibid., p. 497
• [35] Ibid., p. 5-6
• [36] Ibid., p. 5
• [37] Ibid., p. 877
• [38] Ibid., p. 5-6
• [39] Ibid., p. 545-546
• [40] Ibid., p. 879, p. 4-5
• [41] Ibid., p. 548
• [42] Ibid., p. 196
• [43] Ibid., p. 848, 
• [44] Ibid., p. 847, p. 849
• [45] Ibid., p. 849
• [46] Ibid., p. 826
• [47] Ibid., p. 849
• [48] Ibid., p. 849
• [49] Ibid., p. 847, p. 852-855
• [50] Ibid., p. 857
• [51] Ibid., p. 852
• [52] Ibid., p. 853
• [53] Ibid., p. 855
• [54] Ibid., p. 850
• [55] Ibid., p. 877-878
• [56] Ibid., p. 877-879
• [57] Ibid., p. 872
• [58] Ibid., p. 872
• [59] Ibid., p. 874
• [60] Ibid., p. 874
• [61] Ibid., p. 873
• [62] Ibid., p. 879
• [63] Ibid., p. 216, p. 852
• [64] Ibid., p. 106, 392
• [65] Ibid., p. 852-853
• [66] Ibid., p. 790
• [67] Ibid., p. 463, p. 667
• [68] Ibid., p. 60
• [69] Ibid., p. xiv
• [70] Ibid., p. xiv

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