research abstract is a summary of which report

Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper

Definition and Purpose of Abstracts

An abstract is a short summary of your (published or unpublished) research paper, usually about a paragraph (c. 6-7 sentences, 150-250 words) long. A well-written abstract serves multiple purposes:

• an abstract lets readers get the gist or essence of your paper or article quickly, in order to decide whether to read the full paper;
• an abstract prepares readers to follow the detailed information, analyses, and arguments in your full paper;
• and, later, an abstract helps readers remember key points from your paper.

It’s also worth remembering that search engines and bibliographic databases use abstracts, as well as the title, to identify key terms for indexing your published paper. So what you include in your abstract and in your title are crucial for helping other researchers find your paper or article.

If you are writing an abstract for a course paper, your professor may give you specific guidelines for what to include and how to organize your abstract. Similarly, academic journals often have specific requirements for abstracts. So in addition to following the advice on this page, you should be sure to look for and follow any guidelines from the course or journal you’re writing for.

The Contents of an Abstract

Abstracts contain most of the following kinds of information in brief form. The body of your paper will, of course, develop and explain these ideas much more fully. As you will see in the samples below, the proportion of your abstract that you devote to each kind of information—and the sequence of that information—will vary, depending on the nature and genre of the paper that you are summarizing in your abstract. And in some cases, some of this information is implied, rather than stated explicitly. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , which is widely used in the social sciences, gives specific guidelines for what to include in the abstract for different kinds of papers—for empirical studies, literature reviews or meta-analyses, theoretical papers, methodological papers, and case studies.

Here are the typical kinds of information found in most abstracts:

• the context or background information for your research; the general topic under study; the specific topic of your research
• the central questions or statement of the problem your research addresses
• what’s already known about this question, what previous research has done or shown
• the main reason(s) , the exigency, the rationale , the goals for your research—Why is it important to address these questions? Are you, for example, examining a new topic? Why is that topic worth examining? Are you filling a gap in previous research? Applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data? Resolving a dispute within the literature in your field? . . .
• your research and/or analytical methods
• your main findings , results , or arguments
• the significance or implications of your findings or arguments.

Your abstract should be intelligible on its own, without a reader’s having to read your entire paper. And in an abstract, you usually do not cite references—most of your abstract will describe what you have studied in your research and what you have found and what you argue in your paper. In the body of your paper, you will cite the specific literature that informs your research.

When to Write Your Abstract

Although you might be tempted to write your abstract first because it will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s a good idea to wait to write your abstract until after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

What follows are some sample abstracts in published papers or articles, all written by faculty at UW-Madison who come from a variety of disciplines. We have annotated these samples to help you see the work that these authors are doing within their abstracts.

Choosing Verb Tenses within Your Abstract

The social science sample (Sample 1) below uses the present tense to describe general facts and interpretations that have been and are currently true, including the prevailing explanation for the social phenomenon under study. That abstract also uses the present tense to describe the methods, the findings, the arguments, and the implications of the findings from their new research study. The authors use the past tense to describe previous research.

The humanities sample (Sample 2) below uses the past tense to describe completed events in the past (the texts created in the pulp fiction industry in the 1970s and 80s) and uses the present tense to describe what is happening in those texts, to explain the significance or meaning of those texts, and to describe the arguments presented in the article.

The science samples (Samples 3 and 4) below use the past tense to describe what previous research studies have done and the research the authors have conducted, the methods they have followed, and what they have found. In their rationale or justification for their research (what remains to be done), they use the present tense. They also use the present tense to introduce their study (in Sample 3, “Here we report . . .”) and to explain the significance of their study (In Sample 3, This reprogramming . . . “provides a scalable cell source for. . .”).

Sample Abstract 1

From the social sciences.

Reporting new findings about the reasons for increasing economic homogamy among spouses

Gonalons-Pons, Pilar, and Christine R. Schwartz. “Trends in Economic Homogamy: Changes in Assortative Mating or the Division of Labor in Marriage?” Demography , vol. 54, no. 3, 2017, pp. 985-1005.

Sample Abstract 2

From the humanities.

Analyzing underground pulp fiction publications in Tanzania, this article makes an argument about the cultural significance of those publications

Emily Callaci. “Street Textuality: Socialism, Masculinity, and Urban Belonging in Tanzania’s Pulp Fiction Publishing Industry, 1975-1985.” Comparative Studies in Society and History , vol. 59, no. 1, 2017, pp. 183-210.

Sample Abstract/Summary 3

From the sciences.

Reporting a new method for reprogramming adult mouse fibroblasts into induced cardiac progenitor cells

Lalit, Pratik A., Max R. Salick, Daryl O. Nelson, Jayne M. Squirrell, Christina M. Shafer, Neel G. Patel, Imaan Saeed, Eric G. Schmuck, Yogananda S. Markandeya, Rachel Wong, Martin R. Lea, Kevin W. Eliceiri, Timothy A. Hacker, Wendy C. Crone, Michael Kyba, Daniel J. Garry, Ron Stewart, James A. Thomson, Karen M. Downs, Gary E. Lyons, and Timothy J. Kamp. “Lineage Reprogramming of Fibroblasts into Proliferative Induced Cardiac Progenitor Cells by Defined Factors.” Cell Stem Cell , vol. 18, 2016, pp. 354-367.

Sample Abstract 4, a Structured Abstract

Reporting results about the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis, from a rigorously controlled study

Note: This journal requires authors to organize their abstract into four specific sections, with strict word limits. Because the headings for this structured abstract are self-explanatory, we have chosen not to add annotations to this sample abstract.

Wald, Ellen R., David Nash, and Jens Eickhoff. “Effectiveness of Amoxicillin/Clavulanate Potassium in the Treatment of Acute Bacterial Sinusitis in Children.” Pediatrics , vol. 124, no. 1, 2009, pp. 9-15.

“OBJECTIVE: The role of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis (ABS) in children is controversial. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of high-dose amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate in the treatment of children diagnosed with ABS.

METHODS : This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Children 1 to 10 years of age with a clinical presentation compatible with ABS were eligible for participation. Patients were stratified according to age (<6 or ≥6 years) and clinical severity and randomly assigned to receive either amoxicillin (90 mg/kg) with potassium clavulanate (6.4 mg/kg) or placebo. A symptom survey was performed on days 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 20, and 30. Patients were examined on day 14. Children’s conditions were rated as cured, improved, or failed according to scoring rules.

RESULTS: Two thousand one hundred thirty-five children with respiratory complaints were screened for enrollment; 139 (6.5%) had ABS. Fifty-eight patients were enrolled, and 56 were randomly assigned. The mean age was 6630 months. Fifty (89%) patients presented with persistent symptoms, and 6 (11%) presented with nonpersistent symptoms. In 24 (43%) children, the illness was classified as mild, whereas in the remaining 32 (57%) children it was severe. Of the 28 children who received the antibiotic, 14 (50%) were cured, 4 (14%) were improved, 4(14%) experienced treatment failure, and 6 (21%) withdrew. Of the 28children who received placebo, 4 (14%) were cured, 5 (18%) improved, and 19 (68%) experienced treatment failure. Children receiving the antibiotic were more likely to be cured (50% vs 14%) and less likely to have treatment failure (14% vs 68%) than children receiving the placebo.

CONCLUSIONS : ABS is a common complication of viral upper respiratory infections. Amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate results in significantly more cures and fewer failures than placebo, according to parental report of time to resolution.” (9)

Some Excellent Advice about Writing Abstracts for Basic Science Research Papers, by Professor Adriano Aguzzi from the Institute of Neuropathology at the University of Zurich:

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How to Write an Abstract (With Examples)

Sarah Oakley

Table of Contents

What is an abstract in a paper, how long should an abstract be, 5 steps for writing an abstract, examples of an abstract, how prowritingaid can help you write an abstract.

If you are writing a scientific research paper or a book proposal, you need to know how to write an abstract, which summarizes the contents of the paper or book.

When researchers are looking for peer-reviewed papers to use in their studies, the first place they will check is the abstract to see if it applies to their work. Therefore, your abstract is one of the most important parts of your entire paper.

In this article, we’ll explain what an abstract is, what it should include, and how to write one.

An abstract is a concise summary of the details within a report. Some abstracts give more details than others, but the main things you’ll be talking about are why you conducted the research, what you did, and what the results show.

When a reader is deciding whether to read your paper completely, they will first look at the abstract. You need to be concise in your abstract and give the reader the most important information so they can determine if they want to read the whole paper.

Remember that an abstract is the last thing you’ll want to write for the research paper because it directly references parts of the report. If you haven’t written the report, you won’t know what to include in your abstract.

If you are writing a paper for a journal or an assignment, the publication or academic institution might have specific formatting rules for how long your abstract should be. However, if they don’t, most abstracts are between 150 and 300 words long.

A short word count means your writing has to be precise and without filler words or phrases. Once you’ve written a first draft, you can always use an editing tool, such as ProWritingAid, to identify areas where you can reduce words and increase readability.

If your abstract is over the word limit, and you’ve edited it but still can’t figure out how to reduce it further, your abstract might include some things that aren’t needed. Here’s a list of three elements you can remove from your abstract:

Discussion : You don’t need to go into detail about the findings of your research because your reader will find your discussion within the paper.

Definition of terms : Your readers are interested the field you are writing about, so they are likely to understand the terms you are using. If not, they can always look them up. Your readers do not expect you to give a definition of terms in your abstract.

References and citations : You can mention there have been studies that support or have inspired your research, but you do not need to give details as the reader will find them in your bibliography.

Good writing = better grades

ProWritingAid will help you improve the style, strength, and clarity of all your assignments.

If you’ve never written an abstract before, and you’re wondering how to write an abstract, we’ve got some steps for you to follow. It’s best to start with planning your abstract, so we’ve outlined the details you need to include in your plan before you write.

Remember to consider your audience when you’re planning and writing your abstract. They are likely to skim read your abstract, so you want to be sure your abstract delivers all the information they’re expecting to see at key points.

1. What Should an Abstract Include?

Abstracts have a lot of information to cover in a short number of words, so it’s important to know what to include. There are three elements that need to be present in your abstract:

Your context is the background for where your research sits within your field of study. You should briefly mention any previous scientific papers or experiments that have led to your hypothesis and how research develops in those studies.

Your hypothesis is your prediction of what your study will show. As you are writing your abstract after you have conducted your research, you should still include your hypothesis in your abstract because it shows the motivation for your paper.

Throughout your abstract, you also need to include keywords and phrases that will help researchers to find your article in the databases they’re searching. Make sure the keywords are specific to your field of study and the subject you’re reporting on, otherwise your article might not reach the relevant audience.

2. Can You Use First Person in an Abstract?

You might think that first person is too informal for a research paper, but it’s not. Historically, writers of academic reports avoided writing in first person to uphold the formality standards of the time. However, first person is more accepted in research papers in modern times.

If you’re still unsure whether to write in first person for your abstract, refer to any style guide rules imposed by the journal you’re writing for or your teachers if you are writing an assignment.

3. Abstract Structure

Some scientific journals have strict rules on how to structure an abstract, so it’s best to check those first. If you don’t have any style rules to follow, try using the IMRaD structure, which stands for Introduction, Methodology, Results, and Discussion.

Following the IMRaD structure, start with an introduction. The amount of background information you should include depends on your specific research area. Adding a broad overview gives you less room to include other details. Remember to include your hypothesis in this section.

The next part of your abstract should cover your methodology. Try to include the following details if they apply to your study:

What type of research was conducted?

How were the test subjects sampled?

What were the sample sizes?

What was done to each group?

How long was the experiment?

How was data recorded and interpreted?

Following the methodology, include a sentence or two about the results, which is where your reader will determine if your research supports or contradicts their own investigations.

The results are also where most people will want to find out what your outcomes were, even if they are just mildly interested in your research area. You should be specific about all the details but as concise as possible.

The last few sentences are your conclusion. It needs to explain how your findings affect the context and whether your hypothesis was correct. Include the primary take-home message, additional findings of importance, and perspective. Also explain whether there is scope for further research into the subject of your report.

Your conclusion should be honest and give the reader the ultimate message that your research shows. Readers trust the conclusion, so make sure you’re not fabricating the results of your research. Some readers won’t read your entire paper, but this section will tell them if it’s worth them referencing it in their own study.

4. How to Start an Abstract

The first line of your abstract should give your reader the context of your report by providing background information. You can use this sentence to imply the motivation for your research.

You don’t need to use a hook phrase or device in your first sentence to grab the reader’s attention. Your reader will look to establish relevance quickly, so readability and clarity are more important than trying to persuade the reader to read on.

5. How to Format an Abstract

Most abstracts use the same formatting rules, which help the reader identify the abstract so they know where to look for it.

Here’s a list of formatting guidelines for writing an abstract:

Stick to one paragraph

Use block formatting with no indentation at the beginning

Put your abstract straight after the title and acknowledgements pages

Use present or past tense, not future tense

There are two primary types of abstract you could write for your paper—descriptive and informative.

An informative abstract is the most common, and they follow the structure mentioned previously. They are longer than descriptive abstracts because they cover more details.

Descriptive abstracts differ from informative abstracts, as they don’t include as much discussion or detail. The word count for a descriptive abstract is between 50 and 150 words.

Here is an example of an informative abstract:

A growing trend exists for authors to employ a more informal writing style that uses “we” in academic writing to acknowledge one’s stance and engagement. However, few studies have compared the ways in which the first-person pronoun “we” is used in the abstracts and conclusions of empirical papers. To address this lacuna in the literature, this study conducted a systematic corpus analysis of the use of “we” in the abstracts and conclusions of 400 articles collected from eight leading electrical and electronic (EE) engineering journals. The abstracts and conclusions were extracted to form two subcorpora, and an integrated framework was applied to analyze and seek to explain how we-clusters and we-collocations were employed. Results revealed whether authors’ use of first-person pronouns partially depends on a journal policy. The trend of using “we” showed that a yearly increase occurred in the frequency of “we” in EE journal papers, as well as the existence of three “we-use” types in the article conclusions and abstracts: exclusive, inclusive, and ambiguous. Other possible “we-use” alternatives such as “I” and other personal pronouns were used very rarely—if at all—in either section. These findings also suggest that the present tense was used more in article abstracts, but the present perfect tense was the most preferred tense in article conclusions. Both research and pedagogical implications are proffered and critically discussed.

Wang, S., Tseng, W.-T., & Johanson, R. (2021). To We or Not to We: Corpus-Based Research on First-Person Pronoun Use in Abstracts and Conclusions. SAGE Open, 11(2).

Here is an example of a descriptive abstract:

From the 1850s to the present, considerable criminological attention has focused on the development of theoretically-significant systems for classifying crime. This article reviews and attempts to evaluate a number of these efforts, and we conclude that further work on this basic task is needed. The latter part of the article explicates a conceptual foundation for a crime pattern classification system, and offers a preliminary taxonomy of crime.

Farr, K. A., & Gibbons, D. C. (1990). Observations on the Development of Crime Categories. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 34(3), 223–237.

If you want to ensure your abstract is grammatically correct and easy to read, you can use ProWritingAid to edit it. The software integrates with Microsoft Word, Google Docs, and most web browsers, so you can make the most of it wherever you’re writing your paper.

Before you edit with ProWritingAid, make sure the suggestions you are seeing are relevant for your document by changing the document type to “Abstract” within the Academic writing style section.

You can use the Readability report to check your abstract for places to improve the clarity of your writing. Some suggestions might show you where to remove words, which is great if you’re over your word count.

We hope the five steps and examples we’ve provided help you write a great abstract for your research paper.

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• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 3. The Abstract
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 300 words or less, the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that includes: 1) the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated; 2) the basic design of the study; 3) major findings or trends found as a result of your analysis; and, 4) a brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions.

Writing an Abstract. The Writing Center. Clarion University, 2009; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century . Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010;

Importance of a Good Abstract

Sometimes your professor will ask you to include an abstract, or general summary of your work, with your research paper. The abstract allows you to elaborate upon each major aspect of the paper and helps readers decide whether they want to read the rest of the paper. Therefore, enough key information [e.g., summary results, observations, trends, etc.] must be included to make the abstract useful to someone who may want to examine your work.

How do you know when you have enough information in your abstract? A simple rule-of-thumb is to imagine that you are another researcher doing a similar study. Then ask yourself: if your abstract was the only part of the paper you could access, would you be happy with the amount of information presented there? Does it tell the whole story about your study? If the answer is "no" then the abstract likely needs to be revised.

Farkas, David K. “A Scheme for Understanding and Writing Summaries.” Technical Communication 67 (August 2020): 45-60;  How to Write a Research Abstract. Office of Undergraduate Research. University of Kentucky; Staiger, David L. “What Today’s Students Need to Know about Writing Abstracts.” International Journal of Business Communication January 3 (1966): 29-33; Swales, John M. and Christine B. Feak. Abstracts and the Writing of Abstracts . Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2009.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Types of Abstracts

To begin, you need to determine which type of abstract you should include with your paper. There are four general types.

Critical Abstract A critical abstract provides, in addition to describing main findings and information, a judgment or comment about the study’s validity, reliability, or completeness. The researcher evaluates the paper and often compares it with other works on the same subject. Critical abstracts are generally 400-500 words in length due to the additional interpretive commentary. These types of abstracts are used infrequently.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarized. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less. Informative Abstract The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Highlight Abstract A highlight abstract is specifically written to attract the reader’s attention to the study. No pretense is made of there being either a balanced or complete picture of the paper and, in fact, incomplete and leading remarks may be used to spark the reader’s interest. In that a highlight abstract cannot stand independent of its associated article, it is not a true abstract and, therefore, rarely used in academic writing.

II.  Writing Style

Use the active voice when possible , but note that much of your abstract may require passive sentence constructions. Regardless, write your abstract using concise, but complete, sentences. Get to the point quickly and always use the past tense because you are reporting on a study that has been completed.

Abstracts should be formatted as a single paragraph in a block format and with no paragraph indentations. In most cases, the abstract page immediately follows the title page. Do not number the page. Rules set forth in writing manual vary but, in general, you should center the word "Abstract" at the top of the page with double spacing between the heading and the abstract. The final sentences of an abstract concisely summarize your study’s conclusions, implications, or applications to practice and, if appropriate, can be followed by a statement about the need for additional research revealed from the findings.

Composing Your Abstract

Although it is the first section of your paper, the abstract should be written last since it will summarize the contents of your entire paper. A good strategy to begin composing your abstract is to take whole sentences or key phrases from each section of the paper and put them in a sequence that summarizes the contents. Then revise or add connecting phrases or words to make the narrative flow clearly and smoothly. Note that statistical findings should be reported parenthetically [i.e., written in parentheses].

Before handing in your final paper, check to make sure that the information in the abstract completely agrees with what you have written in the paper. Think of the abstract as a sequential set of complete sentences describing the most crucial information using the fewest necessary words. The abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

• A catchy introductory phrase, provocative quote, or other device to grab the reader's attention,
• Lengthy background or contextual information,
• Redundant phrases, unnecessary adverbs and adjectives, and repetitive information;
• Acronyms or abbreviations,
• References to other literature [say something like, "current research shows that..." or "studies have indicated..."],
• Using ellipticals [i.e., ending with "..."] or incomplete sentences,
• Jargon or terms that may be confusing to the reader,
• Citations to other works, and
• Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or references to them.

Abstract. Writing Center. University of Kansas; Abstract. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Abstracts. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Borko, Harold and Seymour Chatman. "Criteria for Acceptable Abstracts: A Survey of Abstracters' Instructions." American Documentation 14 (April 1963): 149-160; Abstracts. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Hartley, James and Lucy Betts. "Common Weaknesses in Traditional Abstracts in the Social Sciences." Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 60 (October 2009): 2010-2018; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-first Century. Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing, 2010; Procter, Margaret. The Abstract. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Riordan, Laura. “Mastering the Art of Abstracts.” The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 115 (January 2015 ): 41-47; Writing Report Abstracts. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing Abstracts. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Koltay, Tibor. Abstracts and Abstracting: A Genre and Set of Skills for the Twenty-First Century . Oxford, UK: 2010; Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper. The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Writing Tip

Never Cite Just the Abstract!

Citing to just a journal article's abstract does not confirm for the reader that you have conducted a thorough or reliable review of the literature. If the full-text is not available, go to the USC Libraries main page and enter the title of the article [NOT the title of the journal]. If the Libraries have a subscription to the journal, the article should appear with a link to the full-text or to the journal publisher page where you can get the article. If the article does not appear, try searching Google Scholar using the link on the USC Libraries main page. If you still can't find the article after doing this, contact a librarian or you can request it from our free i nterlibrary loan and document delivery service .

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What this handout is about

This handout provides definitions and examples of the two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. It also provides guidelines for constructing an abstract and general tips for you to keep in mind when drafting. Finally, it includes a few examples of abstracts broken down into their component parts.

What is an abstract?

An abstract is a self-contained, short, and powerful statement that describes a larger work. Components vary according to discipline. An abstract of a social science or scientific work may contain the scope, purpose, results, and contents of the work. An abstract of a humanities work may contain the thesis, background, and conclusion of the larger work. An abstract is not a review, nor does it evaluate the work being abstracted. While it contains key words found in the larger work, the abstract is an original document rather than an excerpted passage.

Why write an abstract?

You may write an abstract for various reasons. The two most important are selection and indexing. Abstracts allow readers who may be interested in a longer work to quickly decide whether it is worth their time to read it. Also, many online databases use abstracts to index larger works. Therefore, abstracts should contain keywords and phrases that allow for easy searching.

Say you are beginning a research project on how Brazilian newspapers helped Brazil’s ultra-liberal president Luiz Ignácio da Silva wrest power from the traditional, conservative power base. A good first place to start your research is to search Dissertation Abstracts International for all dissertations that deal with the interaction between newspapers and politics. “Newspapers and politics” returned 569 hits. A more selective search of “newspapers and Brazil” returned 22 hits. That is still a fair number of dissertations. Titles can sometimes help winnow the field, but many titles are not very descriptive. For example, one dissertation is titled “Rhetoric and Riot in Rio de Janeiro.” It is unclear from the title what this dissertation has to do with newspapers in Brazil. One option would be to download or order the entire dissertation on the chance that it might speak specifically to the topic. A better option is to read the abstract. In this case, the abstract reveals the main focus of the dissertation:

This dissertation examines the role of newspaper editors in the political turmoil and strife that characterized late First Empire Rio de Janeiro (1827-1831). Newspaper editors and their journals helped change the political culture of late First Empire Rio de Janeiro by involving the people in the discussion of state. This change in political culture is apparent in Emperor Pedro I’s gradual loss of control over the mechanisms of power. As the newspapers became more numerous and powerful, the Emperor lost his legitimacy in the eyes of the people. To explore the role of the newspapers in the political events of the late First Empire, this dissertation analyzes all available newspapers published in Rio de Janeiro from 1827 to 1831. Newspapers and their editors were leading forces in the effort to remove power from the hands of the ruling elite and place it under the control of the people. In the process, newspapers helped change how politics operated in the constitutional monarchy of Brazil.

From this abstract you now know that although the dissertation has nothing to do with modern Brazilian politics, it does cover the role of newspapers in changing traditional mechanisms of power. After reading the abstract, you can make an informed judgment about whether the dissertation would be worthwhile to read.

Besides selection, the other main purpose of the abstract is for indexing. Most article databases in the online catalog of the library enable you to search abstracts. This allows for quick retrieval by users and limits the extraneous items recalled by a “full-text” search. However, for an abstract to be useful in an online retrieval system, it must incorporate the key terms that a potential researcher would use to search. For example, if you search Dissertation Abstracts International using the keywords “France” “revolution” and “politics,” the search engine would search through all the abstracts in the database that included those three words. Without an abstract, the search engine would be forced to search titles, which, as we have seen, may not be fruitful, or else search the full text. It’s likely that a lot more than 60 dissertations have been written with those three words somewhere in the body of the entire work. By incorporating keywords into the abstract, the author emphasizes the central topics of the work and gives prospective readers enough information to make an informed judgment about the applicability of the work.

When do people write abstracts?

• when submitting articles to journals, especially online journals
• when applying for research grants
• when writing a book proposal
• when completing the Ph.D. dissertation or M.A. thesis
• when writing a proposal for a conference paper
• when writing a proposal for a book chapter

Most often, the author of the entire work (or prospective work) writes the abstract. However, there are professional abstracting services that hire writers to draft abstracts of other people’s work. In a work with multiple authors, the first author usually writes the abstract. Undergraduates are sometimes asked to draft abstracts of books/articles for classmates who have not read the larger work.

Types of abstracts

There are two types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. They have different aims, so as a consequence they have different components and styles. There is also a third type called critical, but it is rarely used. If you want to find out more about writing a critique or a review of a work, see the UNC Writing Center handout on writing a literature review . If you are unsure which type of abstract you should write, ask your instructor (if the abstract is for a class) or read other abstracts in your field or in the journal where you are submitting your article.

Descriptive abstracts

A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract describes the work being abstracted. Some people consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short—100 words or less.

Informative abstracts

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the writer presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the complete article/paper/book. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract (purpose, methods, scope) but also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is rarely more than 10% of the length of the entire work. In the case of a longer work, it may be much less.

Here are examples of a descriptive and an informative abstract of this handout on abstracts . Descriptive abstract:

The two most common abstract types—descriptive and informative—are described and examples of each are provided.

Informative abstract:

Abstracts present the essential elements of a longer work in a short and powerful statement. The purpose of an abstract is to provide prospective readers the opportunity to judge the relevance of the longer work to their projects. Abstracts also include the key terms found in the longer work and the purpose and methods of the research. Authors abstract various longer works, including book proposals, dissertations, and online journal articles. There are two main types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. A descriptive abstract briefly describes the longer work, while an informative abstract presents all the main arguments and important results. This handout provides examples of various types of abstracts and instructions on how to construct one.

Which type should I use?

Your best bet in this case is to ask your instructor or refer to the instructions provided by the publisher. You can also make a guess based on the length allowed; i.e., 100-120 words = descriptive; 250+ words = informative.

How do I write an abstract?

The format of your abstract will depend on the work being abstracted. An abstract of a scientific research paper will contain elements not found in an abstract of a literature article, and vice versa. However, all abstracts share several mandatory components, and there are also some optional parts that you can decide to include or not. When preparing to draft your abstract, keep the following key process elements in mind:

• Reason for writing: What is the importance of the research? Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?
• Problem: What problem does this work attempt to solve? What is the scope of the project? What is the main argument/thesis/claim?
• Methodology: An abstract of a scientific work may include specific models or approaches used in the larger study. Other abstracts may describe the types of evidence used in the research.
• Results: Again, an abstract of a scientific work may include specific data that indicates the results of the project. Other abstracts may discuss the findings in a more general way.
• Implications: What changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work? How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic?

(This list of elements is adapted with permission from Philip Koopman, “How to Write an Abstract.” )

All abstracts include:

• A full citation of the source, preceding the abstract.
• The most important information first.
• The same type and style of language found in the original, including technical language.
• Key words and phrases that quickly identify the content and focus of the work.
• Clear, concise, and powerful language.

Abstracts may include:

• The thesis of the work, usually in the first sentence.
• Background information that places the work in the larger body of literature.
• The same chronological structure as the original work.

How not to write an abstract:

• Do not refer extensively to other works.
• Do not add information not contained in the original work.
• Do not define terms.

If you are abstracting your own writing

When abstracting your own work, it may be difficult to condense a piece of writing that you have agonized over for weeks (or months, or even years) into a 250-word statement. There are some tricks that you could use to make it easier, however.

Reverse outlining:

This technique is commonly used when you are having trouble organizing your own writing. The process involves writing down the main idea of each paragraph on a separate piece of paper– see our short video . For the purposes of writing an abstract, try grouping the main ideas of each section of the paper into a single sentence. Practice grouping ideas using webbing or color coding .

For a scientific paper, you may have sections titled Purpose, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Each one of these sections will be longer than one paragraph, but each is grouped around a central idea. Use reverse outlining to discover the central idea in each section and then distill these ideas into one statement.

Cut and paste:

To create a first draft of an abstract of your own work, you can read through the entire paper and cut and paste sentences that capture key passages. This technique is useful for social science research with findings that cannot be encapsulated by neat numbers or concrete results. A well-written humanities draft will have a clear and direct thesis statement and informative topic sentences for paragraphs or sections. Isolate these sentences in a separate document and work on revising them into a unified paragraph.

If you are abstracting someone else’s writing

When abstracting something you have not written, you cannot summarize key ideas just by cutting and pasting. Instead, you must determine what a prospective reader would want to know about the work. There are a few techniques that will help you in this process:

Identify key terms:

Search through the entire document for key terms that identify the purpose, scope, and methods of the work. Pay close attention to the Introduction (or Purpose) and the Conclusion (or Discussion). These sections should contain all the main ideas and key terms in the paper. When writing the abstract, be sure to incorporate the key terms.

Highlight key phrases and sentences:

Instead of cutting and pasting the actual words, try highlighting sentences or phrases that appear to be central to the work. Then, in a separate document, rewrite the sentences and phrases in your own words.

Don’t look back:

After reading the entire work, put it aside and write a paragraph about the work without referring to it. In the first draft, you may not remember all the key terms or the results, but you will remember what the main point of the work was. Remember not to include any information you did not get from the work being abstracted.

Revise, revise, revise

No matter what type of abstract you are writing, or whether you are abstracting your own work or someone else’s, the most important step in writing an abstract is to revise early and often. When revising, delete all extraneous words and incorporate meaningful and powerful words. The idea is to be as clear and complete as possible in the shortest possible amount of space. The Word Count feature of Microsoft Word can help you keep track of how long your abstract is and help you hit your target length.

Example 1: Humanities abstract

Kenneth Tait Andrews, “‘Freedom is a constant struggle’: The dynamics and consequences of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement, 1960-1984” Ph.D. State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1997 DAI-A 59/02, p. 620, Aug 1998

This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so. The time period studied includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports. This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Now let’s break down this abstract into its component parts to see how the author has distilled his entire dissertation into a ~200 word abstract.

What the dissertation does This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so.

How the dissertation does it The time period studied in this dissertation includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies.

What materials are used Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports.

Conclusion This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to movement demands and the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.

Keywords social movements Civil Rights Movement Mississippi voting rights desegregation

Example 2: Science Abstract

Luis Lehner, “Gravitational radiation from black hole spacetimes” Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 1998 DAI-B 59/06, p. 2797, Dec 1998

The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search for and analysis of detected signals. The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm. This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

This science abstract covers much of the same ground as the humanities one, but it asks slightly different questions.

Why do this study The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search and analysis of the detected signals.

What the study does The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm.

Results This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.

Keywords gravitational radiation (GR) spacetimes black holes

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Belcher, Wendy Laura. 2009. Writing Your Journal Article in Twelve Weeks: A Guide to Academic Publishing Success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Press.

Koopman, Philip. 1997. “How to Write an Abstract.” Carnegie Mellon University. October 1997. http://users.ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/essays/abstract.html .

Lancaster, F.W. 2003. Indexing And Abstracting in Theory and Practice , 3rd ed. London: Facet Publishing.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Writing for Publication: Abstracts

An abstract is "a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the paper" (American Psychological Association [APA], 2020, p. 38). This summary is intended to share the topic, argument, and conclusions of a research study or course paper, similar to the text on the back cover of a book. When submitting your work for publication, an abstract is often the first piece of your writing a reviewer will encounter. An abstract may not be required for course papers.

Read on for more tips on making a good first impression with a successful abstract.

An abstract is a single paragraph preceded by the heading " Abstract ," centered and in bold font. The abstract does not begin with an indented line. APA (2020) recommends that abstracts should generally be less than 250 words, though many journals have their own word limits; it is always a good idea to check journal-specific requirements before submitting. The Writing Center's APA templates are great resources for visual examples of abstracts.

Abstracts use the present tense to describe currently applicable results (e.g., "Results indicate...") and the past tense to describe research steps (e.g., "The survey measured..."), and they do not typically include citations.

Key terms are sometimes included at the end of the abstract and should be chosen by considering the words or phrases that a reader might use to search for your article.

An abstract should include information such as

• The problem or central argument of your article
• A brief exposition of research design, methods, and procedures.
• A brief summary of your findings
• A brief summary of the implications of the research on practice and theory

It is also appropriate, depending on the type of article you are writing, to include information such as:

• Participant number and type
• Study eligibility criteria
• Limitations of your study
• Implications of your study's conclusions or areas for additional research

Your abstract should avoid unnecessary wordiness and focus on quickly and concisely summarizing the major points of your work. An abstract is not an introduction; you are not trying to capture the reader's attention with timeliness or to orient the reader to the entire background of your study. When readers finish reading your abstract, they should have a strong sense of your article's purpose, approach, and conclusions. The Walden Office of Research and Doctoral Services has additional  tutorial material on abstracts .

Clinical or Empirical Study Abstract Exemplar

In the following abstract, the article's problem is stated in red , the approach and design are in blue , and the results are in green .

End-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients have a high cardiovascular mortality rate. Precise estimates of the prevalence, risk factors and prognosis of different manifestations of cardiac disease are unavailable. In this study a prospective cohort of 433 ESRD patients was followed from the start of ESRD therapy for a mean of 41 months. Baseline clinical assessment and echocardiography were performed on all patients.  The major outcome measure was death while on dialysis therapy. Clinical manifestations of cardiovascular disease were highly prevalent at the start of ESRD therapy: 14% had coronary artery disease, 19% angina pectoris, 31% cardiac failure, 7% dysrhythmia and 8% peripheral vascular disease. On echocardiography 15% had systolic dysfunction, 32% left ventricular dilatation and 74% left ventricular hypertrophy. The overall median survival time was 50 months. Age, diabetes mellitus, cardiac failure, peripheral vascular disease and systolic dysfunction independently predicted death in all time frames. Coronary artery disease was associated with a worse prognosis in patients with cardiac failure at baseline. High left ventricular cavity volume and mass index were independently associated with death after two years. The independent associations of the different echocardiographic abnormalities were: systolic dysfunction--older age and coronary artery disease; left ventricular dilatation--male gender, anemia, hypocalcemia and hyperphosphatemia; left ventricular hypertrophy--older age, female gender, wide arterial pulse pressure, low blood urea and hypoalbuminemia. We conclude that clinical and echocardiographic cardiovascular disease are already present in a very high proportion of patients starting ESRD therapy and are independent mortality factors.

Foley, R. N., Parfrey, P. S., Harnett, J. D., Kent, G. M., Martin, C. J., Murray, D. C., & Barre, P. E. (1995). Clinical and echocardiographic disease in patients starting end-stage renal disease therapy. Kidney International , 47 , 186–192. https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.1995.22

Literature Review Abstract Exemplar

In the following abstract, the purpose and scope of the literature review are in red , the specific span of topics is in blue , and the implications for further research are in green .

This paper provides a review of research into the relationships between psychological types, as measured by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), and managerial attributes, behaviors and effectiveness. The literature review includes an examination of the psychometric properties of the MBTI and the contributions and limitations of research on psychological types. Next, key findings are discussed and used to advance propositions that relate psychological type to diverse topics such as risk tolerance, problem solving, information systems design, conflict management and leadership. We conclude with a research agenda that advocates: (a) the exploration of potential psychometric refinements of the MBTI, (b) more rigorous research designs, and (c) a broadening of the scope of managerial research into type.

Gardner, W. L., & Martinko, M. J. (1996). Using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator to study managers: A literature review and research agenda. Journal of Management, 22 (1), 45–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639602200103

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• How to Write an Abstract | Steps & Examples

How to Write an Abstract | Steps & Examples

Published on 1 March 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 10 October 2022 by Eoghan Ryan.

An abstract is a short summary of a longer work (such as a dissertation or research paper ). The abstract concisely reports the aims and outcomes of your research, so that readers know exactly what your paper is about.

Although the structure may vary slightly depending on your discipline, your abstract should describe the purpose of your work, the methods you’ve used, and the conclusions you’ve drawn.

One common way to structure your abstract is to use the IMRaD structure. This stands for:

• Introduction

Abstracts are usually around 100–300 words, but there’s often a strict word limit, so make sure to check the relevant requirements.

In a dissertation or thesis , include the abstract on a separate page, after the title page and acknowledgements but before the table of contents .

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Table of contents

Abstract example, when to write an abstract, step 1: introduction, step 2: methods, step 3: results, step 4: discussion, tips for writing an abstract, frequently asked questions about abstracts.

Hover over the different parts of the abstract to see how it is constructed.

This paper examines the role of silent movies as a mode of shared experience in the UK during the early twentieth century. At this time, high immigration rates resulted in a significant percentage of non-English-speaking citizens. These immigrants faced numerous economic and social obstacles, including exclusion from public entertainment and modes of discourse (newspapers, theater, radio).

Incorporating evidence from reviews, personal correspondence, and diaries, this study demonstrates that silent films were an affordable and inclusive source of entertainment. It argues for the accessible economic and representational nature of early cinema. These concerns are particularly evident in the low price of admission and in the democratic nature of the actors’ exaggerated gestures, which allowed the plots and action to be easily grasped by a diverse audience despite language barriers.

Keywords: silent movies, immigration, public discourse, entertainment, early cinema, language barriers.

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You will almost always have to include an abstract when:

• Completing a thesis or dissertation
• Submitting a research paper to an academic journal
• Writing a book proposal
• Applying for research grants

It’s easiest to write your abstract last, because it’s a summary of the work you’ve already done. Your abstract should:

• Be a self-contained text, not an excerpt from your paper
• Be fully understandable on its own
• Reflect the structure of your larger work

Start by clearly defining the purpose of your research. What practical or theoretical problem does the research respond to, or what research question did you aim to answer?

You can include some brief context on the social or academic relevance of your topic, but don’t go into detailed background information. If your abstract uses specialised terms that would be unfamiliar to the average academic reader or that have various different meanings, give a concise definition.

After identifying the problem, state the objective of your research. Use verbs like “investigate,” “test,” “analyse,” or “evaluate” to describe exactly what you set out to do.

This part of the abstract can be written in the present or past simple tense  but should never refer to the future, as the research is already complete.

• This study will investigate the relationship between coffee consumption and productivity.
• This study investigates the relationship between coffee consumption and productivity.

Next, indicate the research methods that you used to answer your question. This part should be a straightforward description of what you did in one or two sentences. It is usually written in the past simple tense, as it refers to completed actions.

• Structured interviews will be conducted with 25 participants.
• Structured interviews were conducted with 25 participants.

Don’t evaluate validity or obstacles here — the goal is not to give an account of the methodology’s strengths and weaknesses, but to give the reader a quick insight into the overall approach and procedures you used.

Next, summarise the main research results . This part of the abstract can be in the present or past simple tense.

• Our analysis has shown a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.
• Our analysis shows a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.
• Our analysis showed a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.

Depending on how long and complex your research is, you may not be able to include all results here. Try to highlight only the most important findings that will allow the reader to understand your conclusions.

Finally, you should discuss the main conclusions of your research : what is your answer to the problem or question? The reader should finish with a clear understanding of the central point that your research has proved or argued. Conclusions are usually written in the present simple tense.

• We concluded that coffee consumption increases productivity.
• We conclude that coffee consumption increases productivity.

If there are important limitations to your research (for example, related to your sample size or methods), you should mention them briefly in the abstract. This allows the reader to accurately assess the credibility and generalisability of your research.

If your aim was to solve a practical problem, your discussion might include recommendations for implementation. If relevant, you can briefly make suggestions for further research.

If your paper will be published, you might have to add a list of keywords at the end of the abstract. These keywords should reference the most important elements of the research to help potential readers find your paper during their own literature searches.

Be aware that some publication manuals, such as APA Style , have specific formatting requirements for these keywords.

It can be a real challenge to condense your whole work into just a couple of hundred words, but the abstract will be the first (and sometimes only) part that people read, so it’s important to get it right. These strategies can help you get started.

Read other abstracts

The best way to learn the conventions of writing an abstract in your discipline is to read other people’s. You probably already read lots of journal article abstracts while conducting your literature review —try using them as a framework for structure and style.

You can also find lots of dissertation abstract examples in thesis and dissertation databases .

Reverse outline

Not all abstracts will contain precisely the same elements. For longer works, you can write your abstract through a process of reverse outlining.

For each chapter or section, list keywords and draft one to two sentences that summarise the central point or argument. This will give you a framework of your abstract’s structure. Next, revise the sentences to make connections and show how the argument develops.

Write clearly and concisely

A good abstract is short but impactful, so make sure every word counts. Each sentence should clearly communicate one main point.

To keep your abstract or summary short and clear:

• Avoid passive sentences: Passive constructions are often unnecessarily long. You can easily make them shorter and clearer by using the active voice.
• Avoid long sentences: Substitute longer expressions for concise expressions or single words (e.g., “In order to” for “To”).
• Avoid obscure jargon: The abstract should be understandable to readers who are not familiar with your topic.
• Avoid repetition and filler words: Replace nouns with pronouns when possible and eliminate unnecessary words.
• Avoid detailed descriptions: An abstract is not expected to provide detailed definitions, background information, or discussions of other scholars’ work. Instead, include this information in the body of your thesis or paper.

If you’re struggling to edit down to the required length, you can get help from expert editors with Scribbr’s professional proofreading services .

Check your formatting

If you are writing a thesis or dissertation or submitting to a journal, there are often specific formatting requirements for the abstract—make sure to check the guidelines and format your work correctly. For APA research papers you can follow the APA abstract format .

Checklist: Abstract

The word count is within the required length, or a maximum of one page.

The abstract appears after the title page and acknowledgements and before the table of contents .

I have clearly stated my research problem and objectives.

I have briefly described my methodology .

I have summarized the most important results .

I have stated my main conclusions .

I have mentioned any important limitations and recommendations.

The abstract can be understood by someone without prior knowledge of the topic.

You've written a great abstract! Use the other checklists to continue improving your thesis or dissertation.

An abstract is a concise summary of an academic text (such as a journal article or dissertation ). It serves two main purposes:

• To help potential readers determine the relevance of your paper for their own research.
• To communicate your key findings to those who don’t have time to read the whole paper.

Abstracts are often indexed along with keywords on academic databases, so they make your work more easily findable. Since the abstract is the first thing any reader sees, it’s important that it clearly and accurately summarises the contents of your paper.

An abstract for a thesis or dissertation is usually around 150–300 words. There’s often a strict word limit, so make sure to check your university’s requirements.

The abstract is the very last thing you write. You should only write it after your research is complete, so that you can accurately summarize the entirety of your thesis or paper.

Avoid citing sources in your abstract . There are two reasons for this:

• The abstract should focus on your original research, not on the work of others.
• The abstract should be self-contained and fully understandable without reference to other sources.

There are some circumstances where you might need to mention other sources in an abstract: for example, if your research responds directly to another study or focuses on the work of a single theorist. In general, though, don’t include citations unless absolutely necessary.

The abstract appears on its own page, after the title page and acknowledgements but before the table of contents .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

McCombes, S. (2022, October 10). How to Write an Abstract | Steps & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 27 May 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/thesis-dissertation/abstract/

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Home » Research Paper Abstract – Writing Guide and Examples

Research Paper Abstract – Writing Guide and Examples

Table of Contents

Research Paper Abstract

Research Paper Abstract is a brief summary of a research pape r that describes the study’s purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions . It is often the first section of the paper that readers encounter, and its purpose is to provide a concise and accurate overview of the paper’s content. The typical length of an abstract is usually around 150-250 words, and it should be written in a concise and clear manner.

Research Paper Abstract Structure

The structure of a research paper abstract usually includes the following elements:

• Background or Introduction: Briefly describe the problem or research question that the study addresses.
• Methods : Explain the methodology used to conduct the study, including the participants, materials, and procedures.
• Results : Summarize the main findings of the study, including statistical analyses and key outcomes.
• Conclusions : Discuss the implications of the study’s findings and their significance for the field, as well as any limitations or future directions for research.
• Keywords : List a few keywords that describe the main topics or themes of the research.

How to Write Research Paper Abstract

Here are the steps to follow when writing a research paper abstract:

• Start by reading your paper: Before you write an abstract, you should have a complete understanding of your paper. Read through the paper carefully, making sure you understand the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions.
• Identify the key components : Identify the key components of your paper, such as the research question, methods used, results obtained, and conclusion reached.
• Write a draft: Write a draft of your abstract, using concise and clear language. Make sure to include all the important information, but keep it short and to the point. A good rule of thumb is to keep your abstract between 150-250 words.
• Use clear and concise language : Use clear and concise language to explain the purpose of your study, the methods used, the results obtained, and the conclusions drawn.
• Emphasize your findings: Emphasize your findings in the abstract, highlighting the key results and the significance of your study.
• Revise and edit: Once you have a draft, revise and edit it to ensure that it is clear, concise, and free from errors.
• Check the formatting: Finally, check the formatting of your abstract to make sure it meets the requirements of the journal or conference where you plan to submit it.

Research Paper Abstract Examples

Research Paper Abstract Examples could be following:

Title : “The Effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Treating Anxiety Disorders: A Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This meta-analysis examines the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in treating anxiety disorders. Through the analysis of 20 randomized controlled trials, we found that CBT is a highly effective treatment for anxiety disorders, with large effect sizes across a range of anxiety disorders, including generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and social anxiety disorder. Our findings support the use of CBT as a first-line treatment for anxiety disorders and highlight the importance of further research to identify the mechanisms underlying its effectiveness.

Title : “Exploring the Role of Parental Involvement in Children’s Education: A Qualitative Study”

Abstract : This qualitative study explores the role of parental involvement in children’s education. Through in-depth interviews with 20 parents of children in elementary school, we found that parental involvement takes many forms, including volunteering in the classroom, helping with homework, and communicating with teachers. We also found that parental involvement is influenced by a range of factors, including parent and child characteristics, school culture, and socio-economic status. Our findings suggest that schools and educators should prioritize building strong partnerships with parents to support children’s academic success.

Title : “The Impact of Exercise on Cognitive Function in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis”

Abstract : This paper presents a systematic review and meta-analysis of the existing literature on the impact of exercise on cognitive function in older adults. Through the analysis of 25 randomized controlled trials, we found that exercise is associated with significant improvements in cognitive function, particularly in the domains of executive function and attention. Our findings highlight the potential of exercise as a non-pharmacological intervention to support cognitive health in older adults.

When to Write Research Paper Abstract

The abstract of a research paper should typically be written after you have completed the main body of the paper. This is because the abstract is intended to provide a brief summary of the key points and findings of the research, and you can’t do that until you have completed the research and written about it in detail.

Once you have completed your research paper, you can begin writing your abstract. It is important to remember that the abstract should be a concise summary of your research paper, and should be written in a way that is easy to understand for readers who may not have expertise in your specific area of research.

Purpose of Research Paper Abstract

The purpose of a research paper abstract is to provide a concise summary of the key points and findings of a research paper. It is typically a brief paragraph or two that appears at the beginning of the paper, before the introduction, and is intended to give readers a quick overview of the paper’s content.

The abstract should include a brief statement of the research problem, the methods used to investigate the problem, the key results and findings, and the main conclusions and implications of the research. It should be written in a clear and concise manner, avoiding jargon and technical language, and should be understandable to a broad audience.

The abstract serves as a way to quickly and easily communicate the main points of a research paper to potential readers, such as academics, researchers, and students, who may be looking for information on a particular topic. It can also help researchers determine whether a paper is relevant to their own research interests and whether they should read the full paper.

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What Exactly is an Abstract, and How Do I Write One?

An abstract is a short summary of your completed research. It is intended to describe your work without going into great detail. Abstracts should be self-contained and concise, explaining your work as briefly and clearly as possible. Different disciplines call for slightly different approaches to abstracts, as will be illustrated by the examples below, so it would be wise to study some abstracts from your own field before you begin to write one.

General Considerations

Probably the most important function of an abstract is to help a reader decide if he or she is interested in reading your entire publication. For instance, imagine that you’re an undergraduate student sitting in the library late on a Friday night. You’re tired, bored, and sick of looking up articles about the history of celery. The last thing you want to do is reading an entire article only to discover it contributes nothing to your argument. A good abstract can solve this problem by indicating to the reader if the work is likely to be meaningful to his or her particular research project. Additionally, abstracts are used to help libraries catalogue publications based on the keywords that appear in them.

An effective abstract will contain several key features:

• Motivation/problem statement: Why is your research/argument important? What practical, scientific, theoretical or artistic gap is your project filling?
• Methods/procedure/approach: What did you actually do to get your results? (e.g. analyzed 3 novels, completed a series of 5 oil paintings, interviewed 17 students)
• Results/findings/product: As a result of completing the above procedure, what did you learn/invent/create?
• Conclusion/implications: What are the larger implications of your findings, especially for the problem/gap identified previously? Why is this research valuable?

In Practice

Let’s take a look at some sample abstracts, and see where these components show up. To give you an idea of how the author meets these “requirements” of abstract writing, the various features have been color-coded to correspond with the numbers listed above. The general format of an abstract is largely predictable, with some discipline-based differences. One type of abstract not discussed here is the “Descriptive Abstract,” which only summarizes and explains existing research, rather than informing the reader of a new perspective. As you can imagine, such an abstract would omit certain components of our four-colored model.

SAMPLE ABSTRACTS

ABSTRACT #1: History / Social Science

"Their War": The Perspective of the South Vietnamese Military in Their Own Words Author: Julie Pham

Despite the vast research by Americans on the Vietnam War, little is known about the perspective of South Vietnamese military, officially called the Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces (RVNAF). The overall image that emerges from the literature is negative: lazy, corrupt, unpatriotic, apathetic soldiers with poor fighting spirits. This study recovers some of the South Vietnamese military perspective for an American audience through qualititative interviews with 40 RVNAF veterans now living in San José, Sacramento, and Seattle, home to three of the top five largest Vietnamese American communities in the nation. An analysis of these interviews yields the veterans' own explanations that complicate and sometimes even challenge three widely held assumptions about the South Vietnamese military: 1) the RVNAF was rife with corruption at the top ranks, hurting the morale of the lower ranks; 2) racial relations between the South Vietnamese military and the Americans were tense and hostile; and 3) the RVNAF was apathetic in defending South Vietnam from communism. The stories add nuance to our understanding of who the South Vietnamese were in the Vietnam War. This study is part of a growing body of research on non-American perspectives of the war. In using a largely untapped source of Vietnamese history—oral histories with Vietnamese immigrants—this project will contribute to future research on similar topics.

That was a fairly basic abstract that allows us to examine its individual parts more thoroughly.

Motivation/problem statement: The author identifies that previous research has been done about the Vietnam War, but that it has failed to address the specific topic of South Vietnam’s military. This is good because it shows how the author’s research fits into the bigger picture. It isn’t a bad thing to be critical of other research, but be respectful from an academic standpoint (i.e. “Previous researchers are stupid and don’t know what they’re talking about” sounds kind of unprofessional).

Methods/procedure/approach: The author does a good job of explaining how she performed her research, without giving unnecessary detail. Noting that she conducted qualitative interviews with 40 subjects is significant, but she wisely does not explicitly state the kinds of questions asked during the interview, which would be excessive.

Results/findings/product: The results make good use of numbering to clearly indicate what was ascertained from the research—particularly useful, as people often just scan abstracts for the results of an experiment.

Conclusion/implications: Since this paper is historical in nature, its findings may be hard to extrapolate to modern-day phenomena, but the author identifies the importance of her work as part of a growing body of research, which merits further investigation. This strategy functions to encourage future research on the topic.

ABSTRACT #2: Natural Science “A Lysimeter Study of Grass Cover and Water Table Depth Effects on Pesticide Residues in Drainage Water” Authors: A. Liaghat, S.O. Prasher

A study was undertaken to investigate the effect of soil and grass cover, when integrated with water table management (subsurface drainage and controlled drainage), in reducing herbicide residues in agricultural drainage water. Twelve PVC lysimeters, 1 m long and 450 mm diameter, were packed with a sandy soil and used to study the following four treatments: subsurface drainage, controlled drainage, grass (sod) cover, and bare soil. Contaminated water containing atrazine, metolachlor, and metribuzin residues was applied to the lysimeters and samples of drain effluent were collected. Significant reductions in pesticide concentrations were found in all treatments. In the first year, herbicide levels were reduced significantly (1% level), from an average of 250 mg/L to less than 10 mg/L . In the second year, polluted water of 50 mg/L, which is considered more realistic and reasonable in natural drainage waters, was applied to the lysimeters and herbicide residues in the drainage waters were reduced to less than 1 mg/L. The subsurface drainage lysimeters covered with grass proved to be the most effective treatment system.

Motivation/problem statement: Once again, we see that the problem—more like subject of study —is stated first in the abstract. This is normal for abstracts, in that you want to include the most important information first. The results may seem like the most important part of the abstract, but without mentioning the subject, the results won’t make much sense to readers. Notice that the abstract makes no references to other research, which is fine. It is not obligatory to cite other publications in an abstract, and in fact, doing so might distract your reader from YOUR experiment. Either way, it is likely that other sources will surface in your paper’s discussion/conclusion.

Methods/procedure/approach: Notice that the authors include pertinent numbers and figures in describing their methods. An extended description of the methods would probably include a long list of numerical values and conditions for each experimental trial, so it is important to include only the most important values in your abstract—ones that might make your study unique. Additionally, we see that a methodological description appears in two different parts of the abstract. This is fine. It may work better to explain your experiment by more closely connecting each method to its result. One last point: the author doesn’t take time to define—or give any background information about—“atrazine,” “metalachlor,” “lysimeter,” or “metribuzin.” This may be because other ecologists know what these are, but even if that’s not the case, you shouldn’t take time to define terms in your abstract.

Results/findings/product: Similar to the methods component of the abstract, you want to condense your findings to include only the major result of the experiment. Again, this study focused on two major trials, so both trials and both major results are listed. A particularly important word to consider when sharing results in an abstract is “significant.” In statistics, “significant” means roughly that your results were not due to chance. In your paper, your results may be hundreds of words long, and involve dozens of tables and graphs, but ultimately, your reader only wants to know: “What was the main result, and was that result significant?” So, try to answer both these questions in the abstract.

Conclusion/implications: This abstract’s conclusion sounds more like a result: “…lysimeters covered with grass were found to be the most effective treatment system.” This may seem incomplete, since it does not explain how this system could/should/would be applied to other situations, but that’s okay. There is plenty of space for addressing those issues in the body of the paper.

ABSTRACT #3: Philosophy / Literature [Note: Many papers don’t precisely follow the previous format, since they do not involve an experiment and its methods. Nonetheless, they typically rely on a similar structure.]

“Participatory Legitimation: A Reply to Arash Abizadeh” Author: Eric Schmidt, Louisiana State University, 2011

Arash Abizadeh’s argument against unilateral border control relies on his unbounded demos thesis, which is supported negatively by arguing that the ‘bounded demos thesis’ is incoherent. The incoherency arises for two reasons: (1) Democratic principles cannot be brought to bear on matters (border control) logically prior to the constitution of a group, and (2), the civic definition of citizens and non-citizens creates an ‘externality problem’ because the act of definition is an exercise of coercive power over all persons. The bounded demos thesis is rejected because the “will of the people” fails to legitimate democratic political order because there can be no pre-political political will of the people. However, I argue that “the will of the people” can be made manifest under a robust understanding of participatory legitimation, which exists concurrently with the political state, and thus defines both its borders and citizens as bounded , rescuing the bounded demos thesis and compromising the rest of Abizadeh’s article.

This paper may not make any sense to someone not studying philosophy, or not having read the text being critiqued. However, we can still see where the author separates the different components of the abstract, even if we don’t understand the terminology used.

Motivation/problem statement: The problem is not really a problem, but rather another person’s belief on a subject matter. For that reason, the author takes time to carefully explain the exact theory that he will be arguing against.

Methods/procedure/approach: [Note that there is no traditional “Methods” component of this abstract.] Reviews like this are purely critical and don’t necessarily involve performing experiments as in the other abstracts we have seen. Still, a paper like this may incorporate ideas from other sources, much like our traditional definition of experimental research.

Results/findings/product: In a paper like this, the “findings” tend to resemble what you have concluded about something, which will largely be based on your own opinion, supported by various examples. For that reason, the finding of this paper is: “The ‘will of the people,’ actually corresponds to a ‘bounded demos thesis.’” Even though we aren’t sure what the terms mean, we can plainly see that the finding (argument) is in support of “bounded,” rather than “unbounded.”

Conclusion/implications: If our finding is that “bounded” is correct, then what should we conclude? [In this case, the conclusion is simply that the initial author, A.A., is wrong.] Some critical papers attempt to broaden the conclusion to show something outside the scope of the paper. For example, if A.A. believes his “unbounded demos thesis” to be correct (when he is actually mistaken), what does this say about him? About his philosophy? About society as a whole? Maybe people who agree with him are more likely to vote Democrat, more likely to approve of certain immigration policies, more likely to own Labrador retrievers as pets, etc.

Applying These Skills

Now that you know the general layout of an abstract, here are some tips to keep in mind as you write your own:

1. The abstract stands alone

• An abstract shouldn’t be considered “part” of a paper—it should be able to stand independently and still tell the reader something significant.

2. Keep it short

• A general rule of abstract length is 200-300 words, or about 1/10th of the entire paper.

3. Don’t add new information

• If something doesn’t appear in your actual paper, then don’t put it in the abstract.

4. Be consistent with voice, tone, and style

• Try to write the abstract in the same style as your paper (i.e. If you’re not using contractions in your paper, the do not use them in your abstract).

5. Be concise

• Try to shorten your sentences as often as possible. If you can say something clearly in five words rather than ten, then do it.

6. Break up its components

• If allowed, subdivide the components of your abstract with bolded headings for “Background,” “Methods,” etc.

7. The abstract should be part of your writing process

• Consider writing your abstract after you finish your entire paper.
• There’s nothing wrong with copying and pasting important sentences and phrases from your paper … provided that they’re your own words.
• Write multiple drafts, and keep revising. An abstract is very important to your publication (or assignment) and should be treated as such.

"Abstracts." The Writing Center. The University of North Carolina, n.d. Web. 1 Jun 2011. http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/abstracts.html "Abstracts." The Writing Center. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, n.d. Web. 1 Jun 2011. http://www.rpi.edu/web/writingcenter/abstracts.html

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How to Write an Abstract?

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• First Online: 24 October 2021

Cite this chapter

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• Samiran Nundy 4 ,
• Atul Kakar 5 &
• Zulfiqar A. Bhutta 6  

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An abstract is a crisp, short, powerful, and self-contained summary of a research manuscript used to help the reader swiftly determine the paper’s purpose. Although the abstract is the first paragraph of the manuscript it should be written last when all the other sections have been addressed.

Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose. — Zora Neale Hurston, American Author, Anthropologist and Filmmaker (1891–1960)

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Writing the Abstract

Abstract and Keywords

Additional Commentaries

1 what is an abstract.

An abstract is usually a standalone document that informs the reader about the details of the manuscript to follow. It is like a trailer to a movie, if the trailer is good, it stimulates the audience to watch the movie. The abstract should be written from scratch and not ‘cut –and-pasted’ [ 1 ].

2 What is the History of the Abstract?

An abstract, in the form of a single paragraph, was first published in the Canadian Medical Association Journal in 1960 with the idea that the readers may not have enough time to go through the whole paper, and the first abstract with a defined structure was published in 1991 [ 2 ]. The idea sold and now most original articles and reviews are required to have a structured abstract. The abstract attracts the reader to read the full manuscript [ 3 ].

3 What are the Qualities of a Good Abstract?

The quality of information in an abstract can be summarized by four ‘C’s. It should be:

C: Condensed

C: Critical

4 What are the Types of Abstract?

Before writing the abstract, you need to check with the journal website about which type of abstract it requires, with its length and style in the ‘Instructions to Authors’ section.

The abstract types can be divided into:

Descriptive: Usually written for psychology, social science, and humanities papers. It is about 50–100 words long. No conclusions can be drawn from this abstract as it describes the major points in the paper.

Informative: The majority of abstracts for science-related manuscripts are informative and are surrogates for the research done. They are single paragraphs that provide the reader an overview of the research paper and are about 100–150 words in length. Conclusions can be drawn from the abstracts and in the recommendations written in the last line.

Critical: This type of abstract is lengthy and about 400–500 words. In this, the authors’ own research is discussed for reliability, judgement, and validation. A comparison is also made with similar studies done earlier.

Highlighting: This is rarely used in scientific writing. The style of the abstract is to attract more readers. It is not a balanced or complete overview of the article with which it is published.

Structured: A structured abstract contains information under subheadings like background, aims, material and methods, results, conclusion, and recommendations (Fig. 15.1 ). Most leading journals now carry these.

Example of a structured abstract (with permission editor CMRP)

5 What is the Purpose of an Abstract?

An abstract is written to educate the reader about the study that follows and provide an overview of the science behind it. If written well it also attracts more readers to the article. It also helps the article getting indexed. The fate of a paper both before and after publication often depends upon its abstract. Most readers decide if a paper is worth reading on the basis of the abstract. Additionally, the selection of papers in systematic reviews is often dependent upon the abstract.

6 What are the Steps of Writing an Abstract?

An abstract should be written last after all the other sections of an article have been addressed. A poor abstract may turn off the reader and they may cause indexing errors as well. The abstract should state the purpose of the study, the methodology used, and summarize the results and important conclusions. It is usually written in the IMRAD format and is called a structured abstract [ 4 , 5 ].

I: The introduction in the opening line should state the problem you are addressing.

M: Methodology—what method was chosen to finish the experiment?

R: Results—state the important findings of your study.

D: Discussion—discuss why your study is important.

Mention the following information:

Important results with the statistical information ( p values, confidence intervals, standard/mean deviation).

Arrange all information in a chronological order.

Do not repeat any information.

The last line should state the recommendations from your study.

The abstract should be written in the past tense.

7 What are the Things to Be Avoided While Writing an Abstract?

Cut and paste information from the main text

Hold back important information

Use abbreviations

Tables or Figures

Generalized statements

Arguments about the study

8 What are Key Words?

These are important words that are repeated throughout the manuscript and which help in the indexing of a paper. Depending upon the journal 3–10 key words may be required which are indexed with the help of MESH (Medical Subject Heading).

9 How is an Abstract Written for a Conference Different from a Journal Paper?

The basic concept for writing abstracts is the same. However, in a conference abstract occasionally a table or figure is allowed. A word limit is important in both of them. Many of the abstracts which are presented in conferences are never published in fact one study found that only 27% of the abstracts presented in conferences were published in the next five years [ 6 ].

Table 15.1 gives a template for writing an abstract.

10 What are the Important Recommendations of the International Committees of Medical Journal of Editors?

The recommendations are [ 7 ]:

An abstract is required for original articles, metanalysis, and systematic reviews.

A structured abstract is preferred.

The abstract should mention the purpose of the scientific study, how the procedure was carried out, the analysis used, and principal conclusion.

Clinical trials should be reported according to the CONSORT guidelines.

The trials should also mention the funding and the trial number.

The abstract should be accurate as many readers have access only to the abstract.

11 Conclusions

An Abstract should be written last after all the other sections of the manuscript have been completed and with due care and attention to the details.

It should be structured and written in the IMRAD format.

For many readers, the abstract attracts them to go through the complete content of the article.

The abstract is usually followed by key words that help to index the paper.

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Preparing a manuscript for submission to a medical journal. Available on http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/manuscript-preparation/preparing-for-submission.html . Accessed 10 May 2020.

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Samiran Nundy

Department of Internal Medicine, Sir Ganga Ram Hospital, New Delhi, India

Institute for Global Health and Development, The Aga Khan University, South Central Asia, East Africa and United Kingdom, Karachi, Pakistan

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Nundy, S., Kakar, A., Bhutta, Z.A. (2022). How to Write an Abstract?. In: How to Practice Academic Medicine and Publish from Developing Countries?. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5248-6_15

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How to Write an Abstract APA Format

Saul Mcleod, PhD

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BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

An APA abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of an article, research paper, dissertation, or report.

It is written in accordance with the guidelines of the American Psychological Association (APA), which is a widely used format in social and behavioral sciences. 

An APA abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of between 150–250 words, the major aspects of a research paper or dissertation in a prescribed sequence that includes:

• The rationale: the overall purpose of the study, providing a clear context for the research undertaken.
• Information regarding the method and participants: including materials/instruments, design, procedure, and data analysis.
• Main findings or trends: effectively highlighting the key outcomes of the hypotheses.
• Interpretations and conclusion(s): solidify the implications of the research.
• Keywords related to the study: assist the paper’s discoverability in academic databases.

The abstract should stand alone, be “self-contained,” and make sense to the reader in isolation from the main article.

The purpose of the abstract is to give the reader a quick overview of the essential information before reading the entire article. The abstract is placed on its own page, directly after the title page and before the main body of the paper.

Although the abstract will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s good practice to write your abstract after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

Note : This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), released in October 2019.

Structure of the Abstract

[NOTE: DO NOT separate the components of the abstract – it should be written as a single paragraph. This section is separated to illustrate the abstract’s structure.]

1) The Rationale

One or two sentences describing the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you investigated. You are basically justifying why this study was conducted.

• What is the importance of the research?
• Why would a reader be interested in the larger work?
• For example, are you filling a gap in previous research or applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data?
• Women who are diagnosed with breast cancer can experience an array of psychosocial difficulties; however, social support, particularly from a spouse, has been shown to have a protective function during this time. This study examined the ways in which a woman’s daily mood, pain, and fatigue, and her spouse’s marital satisfaction predict the woman’s report of partner support in the context of breast cancer.
• The current nursing shortage, high hospital nurse job dissatisfaction, and reports of uneven quality of hospital care are not uniquely American phenomena.
• Students with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) are more likely to exhibit behavioral difficulties than their typically developing peers. The aim of this study was to identify specific risk factors that influence variability in behavior difficulties among individuals with SEND.

2) The Method

Information regarding the participants (number, and population). One or two sentences outlining the method, explaining what was done and how. The method is described in the present tense.

• Pretest data from a larger intervention study and multilevel modeling were used to examine the effects of women’s daily mood, pain, and fatigue and average levels of mood, pain, and fatigue on women’s report of social support received from her partner, as well as how the effects of mood interacted with partners’ marital satisfaction.
• This paper presents reports from 43,000 nurses from more than 700 hospitals in the United States, Canada, England, Scotland, and Germany in 1998–1999.
• The study sample comprised 4,228 students with SEND, aged 5–15, drawn from 305 primary and secondary schools across England. Explanatory variables were measured at the individual and school levels at baseline, along with a teacher-reported measure of behavior difficulties (assessed at baseline and the 18-month follow-up).

3) The Results

One or two sentences indicating the main findings or trends found as a result of your analysis. The results are described in the present or past tense.

• Results show that on days in which women reported higher levels of negative or positive mood, as well as on days they reported more pain and fatigue, they reported receiving more support. Women who, on average, reported higher levels of positive mood tended to report receiving more support than those who, on average, reported lower positive mood. However, average levels of negative mood were not associated with support. Higher average levels of fatigue but not pain were associated with higher support. Finally, women whose husbands reported higher levels of marital satisfaction reported receiving more partner support, but husbands’ marital satisfaction did not moderate the effect of women’s mood on support.
• Nurses in countries with distinctly different healthcare systems report similar shortcomings in their work environments and the quality of hospital care. While the competence of and relation between nurses and physicians appear satisfactory, core problems in work design and workforce management threaten the provision of care.
• Hierarchical linear modeling of data revealed that differences between schools accounted for between 13% (secondary) and 15.4% (primary) of the total variance in the development of students’ behavior difficulties, with the remainder attributable to individual differences. Statistically significant risk markers for these problems across both phases of education were being male, eligibility for free school meals, being identified as a bully, and lower academic achievement. Additional risk markers specific to each phase of education at the individual and school levels are also acknowledged.

4) The Conclusion / Implications

A brief summary of your conclusions and implications of the results, described in the present tense. Explain the results and why the study is important to the reader.

• For example, what changes should be implemented as a result of the findings of the work?
• How does this work add to the body of knowledge on the topic?

Implications of these findings are discussed relative to assisting couples during this difficult time in their lives.

• Resolving these issues, which are amenable to managerial intervention, is essential to preserving patient safety and care of consistently high quality.
• Behavior difficulties are affected by risks across multiple ecological levels. Addressing any one of these potential influences is therefore likely to contribute to the reduction in the problems displayed.

The above examples of abstracts are from the following papers:

Aiken, L. H., Clarke, S. P., Sloane, D. M., Sochalski, J. A., Busse, R., Clarke, H., … & Shamian, J. (2001). Nurses’ reports on hospital care in five countries . Health affairs, 20(3) , 43-53.

Boeding, S. E., Pukay-Martin, N. D., Baucom, D. H., Porter, L. S., Kirby, J. S., Gremore, T. M., & Keefe, F. J. (2014). Couples and breast cancer: Women’s mood and partners’ marital satisfaction predicting support perception . Journal of Family Psychology, 28(5) , 675.

Oldfield, J., Humphrey, N., & Hebron, J. (2017). Risk factors in the development of behavior difficulties among students with special educational needs and disabilities: A multilevel analysis . British journal of educational psychology, 87(2) , 146-169.

5) Keywords

APA style suggests including a list of keywords at the end of the abstract. This is particularly common in academic articles and helps other researchers find your work in databases.

Keywords in an abstract should be selected to help other researchers find your work when searching an online database. These keywords should effectively represent the main topics of your study. Here are some tips for choosing keywords:

Core Concepts: Identify the most important ideas or concepts in your paper. These often include your main research topic, the methods you’ve used, or the theories you’re discussing.

Specificity: Your keywords should be specific to your research. For example, suppose your paper is about the effects of climate change on bird migration patterns in a specific region. In that case, your keywords might include “climate change,” “bird migration,” and the region’s name.

Consistency with Paper: Make sure your keywords are consistent with the terms you’ve used in your paper. For example, if you use the term “adolescent” rather than “teen” in your paper, choose “adolescent” as your keyword, not “teen.”

Jargon and Acronyms: Avoid using too much-specialized jargon or acronyms in your keywords, as these might not be understood or used by all researchers in your field.

Synonyms: Consider including synonyms of your keywords to capture as many relevant searches as possible. For example, if your paper discusses “post-traumatic stress disorder,” you might include “PTSD” as a keyword.

Remember, keywords are a tool for others to find your work, so think about what terms other researchers might use when searching for papers on your topic.

The Abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

Lengthy background or contextual information: The abstract should focus on your research and findings, not general topic background.

Undefined jargon, abbreviations,  or acronyms: The abstract should be accessible to a wide audience, so avoid highly specialized terms without defining them.

Citations: Abstracts typically do not include citations, as they summarize original research.

Incomplete sentences or bulleted lists: The abstract should be a single, coherent paragraph written in complete sentences.

New information not covered in the paper: The abstract should only summarize the paper’s content.

Subjective comments or value judgments: Stick to objective descriptions of your research.

Excessive details on methods or procedures: Keep descriptions of methods brief and focused on main steps.

Speculative or inconclusive statements: The abstract should state the research’s clear findings, not hypotheses or possible interpretations.

• Any illustration, figure, table, or references to them . All visual aids, data, or extensive details should be included in the main body of your paper, not in the abstract. 
• Elliptical or incomplete sentences should be avoided in an abstract . The use of ellipses (…), which could indicate incomplete thoughts or omitted text, is not appropriate in an abstract.

APA Style for Abstracts

An APA abstract must be formatted as follows:

Include the running head aligned to the left at the top of the page (professional papers only) and page number. Note, student papers do not require a running head. On the first line, center the heading “Abstract” and bold (do not underlined or italicize). Do not indent the single abstract paragraph (which begins one line below the section title). Double-space the text. Use Times New Roman font in 12 pt. Set one-inch (or 2.54 cm) margins. If you include a “keywords” section at the end of the abstract, indent the first line and italicize the word “Keywords” while leaving the keywords themselves without any formatting.

Example APA Abstract Page

Download this example as a PDF

Further Information

• APA 7th Edition Abstract and Keywords Guide
• Example APA Abstract
• How to Write a Good Abstract for a Scientific Paper or Conference Presentation
• How to Write a Lab Report
• Writing an APA paper

How long should an APA abstract be?

An APA abstract should typically be between 150 to 250 words long. However, the exact length may vary depending on specific publication or assignment guidelines. It is crucial that it succinctly summarizes the essential elements of the work, including purpose, methods, findings, and conclusions.

Where does the abstract go in an APA paper?

In an APA formatted paper, the abstract is placed on its own page, directly after the title page and before the main body of the paper. It’s typically the second page of the document. It starts with the word “Abstract” (centered and not in bold) at the top of the page, followed by the text of the abstract itself.

What are the 4 C’s of abstract writing?

The 4 C’s of abstract writing are an approach to help you create a well-structured and informative abstract. They are:

Conciseness: An abstract should briefly summarize the key points of your study. Stick to the word limit (typically between 150-250 words for an APA abstract) and avoid unnecessary details.

Clarity: Your abstract should be easy to understand. Avoid jargon and complex sentences. Clearly explain the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions of your study.

Completeness: Even though it’s brief, the abstract should provide a complete overview of your study, including the purpose, methods, key findings, and your interpretation of the results.

Cohesion: The abstract should flow logically from one point to the next, maintaining a coherent narrative about your study. It’s not just a list of disjointed elements; it’s a brief story of your research from start to finish.

What is the abstract of a psychology paper?

An abstract in a psychology paper serves as a snapshot of the paper, allowing readers to quickly understand the purpose, methodology, results, and implications of the research without reading the entire paper. It is generally between 150-250 words long.

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Writing an abstract - a six point checklist (with samples)

Posted in: abstract , dissertations

The abstract is a vital part of any research paper. It is the shop front for your work, and the first stop for your reader. It should provide a clear and succinct summary of your study, and encourage your readers to read more. An effective abstract, therefore should answer the following questions:

• Why did you do this study or project?
• What did you do and how?
• What did you find?
• What do your findings mean?

So here's our run down of the key elements of a well-written abstract.

• Size - A succinct and well written abstract should be between approximately 100- 250 words.
• Background - An effective abstract usually includes some scene-setting information which might include what is already known about the subject, related to the paper in question (a few short sentences).
• Purpose  - The abstract should also set out the purpose of your research, in other words, what is not known about the subject and hence what the study intended to examine (or what the paper seeks to present).
• Methods - The methods section should contain enough information to enable the reader to understand what was done, and how. It should include brief details of the research design, sample size, duration of study, and so on.
• Results - The results section is the most important part of the abstract. This is because readers who skim an abstract do so to learn about the findings of the study. The results section should therefore contain as much detail about the findings as the journal word count permits.
• Conclusion - This section should contain the most important take-home message of the study, expressed in a few precisely worded sentences. Usually, the finding highlighted here relates to the primary outcomes of the study. However, other important or unexpected findings should also be mentioned. It is also customary, but not essential, to express an opinion about the theoretical or practical implications of the findings, or the importance of their findings for the field. Thus, the conclusions may contain three elements:
• The primary take-home message.
• Any additional findings of importance.
• Implications for future studies.

Example Abstract 2: Engineering Development and validation of a three-dimensional finite element model of the pelvic bone.

Abstract from: Dalstra, M., Huiskes, R. and Van Erning, L., 1995. Development and validation of a three-dimensional finite element model of the pelvic bone. Journal of biomechanical engineering, 117(3), pp.272-278.

And finally...  A word on abstract types and styles

Abstract types can differ according to subject discipline. You need to determine therefore which type of abstract you should include with your paper. Here are two of the most common types with examples.

Informative Abstract

The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] but it also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but an informative abstract is usually no more than 300 words in length.

Descriptive Abstract A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgements about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being summarised. Some researchers consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short, 100 words or less.

Adapted from Andrade C. How to write a good abstract for a scientific paper or conference presentation. Indian J Psychiatry. 2011 Apr;53(2):172-5. doi: 10.4103/0019-5545.82558. PMID: 21772657; PMCID: PMC3136027 .

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Writing an abstract

You may be asked to write an abstract for a piece of work that you do. Although it is usually brief (typically 150-300 words), an abstract provides an important overview which helps your reader to understand your work. 

Whereas the purpose of an introduction is to broadly introduce your topic and your key message, the purpose of an abstract is to give an overview of your entire project, in particular its findings and contribution to the field. An abstract should be a standalone summary of your paper.

Typically, an abstract includes the following.

• A brief introduction to the topic that you're investigating.
• Explanation of why the topic is important in your field/s.
• Statement about the problem or research gap that you are addressing.
• Your research question/s or aim/s.
• An indication of your research methods and approach.
• Your key message.
• A summary of your key findings.
• An explanation of why your findings and key message contribute to the field/s.

In other words, an abstract includes points covering these questions.

• What is your paper about?
• Why is it important?
• How did you do it?
• What did you find?
• Why are your findings important?

To see the specific conventions in your field/s, have a look at the structure of a variety of abstracts from relevant journal articles. Do they include the same kinds of information as listed above? What structure do they follow? You can model your own abstract on these conventions.

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How to write a research summary

A research summary is a required task during academic research, and sometimes, you might need to prepare one during an organization's research project.

Most people find a research summary challenging. You must condense complex research material into an informative, easy-to-understand article, usually with a minimum of 300-500 words.

This blog article will guide you through all the steps required to make writing your research summary easier. 

What is a Research Summary?

A  research summary  is a concise overview of a research paper or project. It is designed to provide the reader with essential research insights without reading the entire document. Research summaries are commonly required in academic settings and are fundamental in disseminating knowledge concisely.

The key components of a Research Summary

Objective writing.

It is crucial to maintain objectivity when writing a research summary. The summary should reflect the author's ideas and findings without including personal opinions. This requires the summarizer to convey the main points and intent of the original research accurately while remaining neutral.

Focus and Clarity

Determining the focus of the summary is a critical first step. It involves deciding whether to create a "global" summary, which covers all main ideas, or a "selective" summary, which focuses on specific aspects of the research. The summary should be clear, engaging, and concise, capturing the essence of the study in a brief format.

Essential Elements

A good summary should include the research's foundation, the theoretical framework, and a clear outline of the empirical findings. It should also identify any research gaps addressed by the study. The content should be well-organized, starting with a brief introduction to the topic and then discussing the research methods, results, and conclusions.

Tips for writing a compelling Research Summary

Below is a checklist of helpful research paper tips worth considering when writing research summaries:

Considering the target audience 

The golden rule of writing is always to consider your target audience; a research summary is no exception. Why? Different people have different needs, and your paper should meet the needs and preferences of the target audience. Ask yourself, “Who am I writing for?” write down the answer, and you’ll find it easier to pinpoint research articles for the summary.

• Being aware of the bigger picture

Remembering a complete and coherent picture of the story delivered by the original article is crucial. It might be helpful to reread or scan the content to remind yourself of the declared goals, hypotheses, key evidence, and conclusions—this awareness offers a constant sense of direction, which ensures that no written sentence is out of context.

• Research outline

Consider writing a detailed research outline before writing a summary research draft. 

Sketch the main elements of the conclusion before writing it for several reasons:

• Validate/invalidate hypotheses.
• Enumerate key evidence supporting or invalidating them and list potential implications.
• Mention the subject's importance.
• Mention study limitations and future directions for research.

Consider writing the introduction and discussion last. It makes sense first to list hypotheses, goals, questions, and results. The information in the introduction and discussion can be adapted as needed (for instance, to match a word count limit). Additionally, based on written paragraphs, you can quickly generate your discussion with the help of a conclusion tool.

• Visual representation 

it’s not just about writing a long text and analysis of some subject by using the information you find, both research and its summary need visuals for full effect. Sometimes, a simple diagram or graph can say much of the information you tried to convey. A common mistake students make is leaving visuals for the original file and omitting them in the summary. Feel free to include tables, figures, and other visual supplements to this paper too.

• Avoiding plagiarism

It is very tempting to "borrow" or quote entire phrases from an article, provided how well-written these are. However, you need to summarize your paper without plagiarizing; only paraphrasing is allowed, and it's best to do it carefully. The best way to stay safe is by formulating your thoughts from scratch.

• Keeping the word count in check

The general rule of thumb is that the summary should meet the criteria of no more than 10% of the number of pages in the original document. In most cases, it takes 2 and 4 pages.

The writing style  

When summarizing content, it should be impersonal, precise, and purely evidence-based. A personal view or an attitude should be provided only in the critical section.

Ask a colleague to read your summary and test whether they can understand everything without reading the article—this will help ensure that you haven't skipped any vital content, explanations, concepts, etc.

• Using dedicated AI Tools

Leveraging tools like Wiseone can help by generating a thorough summary with key takeaways to remember, ensuring it remains concise and focused on the main ideas.

How to write a Research Summary

Once the requirements of the fundamentals for starting a research summary are satisfied, you can begin to write using the following format:

• Why was the research done?  – A clear description of why the research was embarked on and the hypothesis being tested.
• Who was surveyed?  – The research study should have details of the source of your information. If it was via a survey, you should document who the survey participants were and why they were selected.
• What was the methodology?  – Discuss the methodology regarding what kind of survey method you adopted. Was it a face-to-face interview, a phone interview, or a focus group setting?
• What were the key findings? - This is perhaps the most vital part of the process. What discoveries did you make after the testing? This part should be based on raw facts free from any personal bias.
• Conclusion: What conclusions were drawn from the findings?
• Takeaways and action points: This is where the views and perceptions can be reflected. Here, you can now share your recommendations or action points.
• Identify the article's focal point: To grasp the content covered in the research paper, you can skim the article first to understand the essential part of the research paper. 
• Analyze and understand the topic and article: Writing a research paper summary involves familiarizing yourself with the current state of knowledge, key definitions, concepts, and models. This information is often gleaned while reading the literature review. Please note that only a deep understanding ensures efficient and accurate content summarization.
• Make notes as you read:  Highlight and summarize each paragraph as you read. You would further condense your notes to create a draft forming your research summary.

How to Structure Your Research Summary

• Title  

The title announces the exact topic/area of analysis and can even be formulated to briefly announce key finding(s) or argument(s) delivered.

• Abstract  

An abstract is a concise and comprehensive description of the study, present virtually in any academic article (the length varies greatly, typically within 100-500 words). Unlike a scholarly article, your research summary is expected to have a much shorter abstract.

• Introduction  

The introduction is an essential part of any research summary, which provides the necessary context (the literature review) that helps introduce readers to the subject by presenting the current state of the investigation, an important concept or definition, etc. This section describes the subject's importance (or may not, for instance, when it is self-evident). Finally, an introduction typically lists investigation questions and hypotheses advanced by authors, which are usually mentioned in detail in any research summary (obviously, doing this is only possible after identifying these elements in the original paper).

• Methodology

Regardless of location, this section details experimental or data analysis methods (e.g., experiments, surveys, sampling, or statistical analysis). Many of these details would have to be omitted in a research summary; hence, it is essential to understand what is most important to mention.

• Results section –

This section lists evidence obtained from all experiments with some primary data analysis, conclusions, observations, and primary interpretations being made. It is typically the most significant section of any analysis paper, so it must be concisely rewritten, which implies understanding which content is worth omitting and keeping.

• Discussion  

The discussion is where experts discuss results in the context of current knowledge. This section contains interpretations of results, theoretical models explaining the observed results, study strengths and limitations, complementary future exploration, conclusions, etc. All these are essential elements that need to be conveyed in summary.

• Conclusion  

In the conclusion, hypotheses are revisited and validated or denied, based on how convincing the evidence is (key lines of evidence could be highlighted).

• References  

References mention those cited works directly in your summary – obviously, one has to provide appropriate citations, at least for the original article (this often suffices). Mentioning other works might be relevant when your critical opinion is also required (supported with new unrelated evidence).

Writing a practical research summary involves a blend of comprehension, objectivity, and clarity. Focusing on the main ideas, maintaining neutrality, and organizing the summary effectively can create a valuable and insightful overview that serves the audience's needs, whether for academic purposes or general knowledge.

What is a research summary?

What are the key components of a research summaries.

Objectivity : Maintaining objectivity is crucial when writing a research summary. The summary should reflect the author's ideas and findings without including personal opinions. This requires conveying the main points and intent of the original research accurately while remaining neutral.

Clarity and focus: Determining the focus of the summary is a critical first step. It involves the decision to create either a "global" summary, which covers all main ideas, or a "selective" summary, which focuses on specific aspects of the research. The summary should be clear, engaging, and concise, capturing the essence of the study in a brief format.

Essential elements: A good research summary should include the research's foundation, the theoretical framework, and a clear outline of the empirical findings. It should also identify any research gaps addressed by the study. The content should be well-organized, starting with a brief introduction to the topic and then discussing the research methods, results, and conclusions.

What are the tips for writing a compelling research summary?

• Thinking about the target audience 
• Keeping the writing style in check

What is the structure of a research summary?

• Introduction
• Results section

In the conclusion, hypotheses are revisited and validated or denied based on how convincing the evidence is (key lines of evidence could be highlighted).

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• Review Article
• Published: 21 May 2024

Characteristics and changes of glacial lakes and outburst floods

• Guoqing Zhang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2090-2813 1   na1 ,
• Jonathan L. Carrivick   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9286-5348 2   na1 ,
• Adam Emmer 3   na1 ,
• Dan H. Shugar   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6279-8420 4   na1 ,
• Georg Veh 5   na1 ,
• Xue Wang 1 , 6 ,
• Celeste Labedz 4 ,
• Martin Mergili 3 ,
• Nico Mölg 7 ,
• Matthias Huss   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2377-6923 8 , 9 , 10 ,
• Simon Allen 11 , 12 ,
• Shin Sugiyama   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5323-9558 13 &
• Natalie Lützow   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7311-3001 5  

Nature Reviews Earth & Environment ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Climate change
• Cryospheric science
• Natural hazards

Global glacier mass loss has accelerated, producing more and larger glacial lakes. Many of these glacial lakes are a source of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), which pose threats to people and infrastructure. In this Review, we synthesize global changes in glacial lakes and GLOFs. More than 110,000 glacial lakes currently exist, covering a total area of ~15,000 km 2 , having increased in area by ~22% dec –1 from 1990 to 2020. More than 10 million people are exposed to the impacts of GLOFs, commonly associated with dam failure or wave overtopping associated with mass movements. Although data limitations are substantial, more than 3,000 GLOFs have been recorded from 850 to 2022, particularly in Alaska (24%), High Mountain Asia (HMA; 18%) and Iceland (19%), the majority (64.8%) being from ice-dammed lakes. Recorded GLOFs have increased in most glaciated mountain regions of the world, with ongoing deglaciation and lake expansion expected to increase GLOF frequency further. In HMA, GLOF hazards are projected to triple by 2100, but changes in other regions will likely be lower given topographic constraints on lake evolution. Future research should prioritize acquiring field data on lake and dam properties, producing globally coordinated multi-temporal lake mapping, and robust and efficient modelling of GLOFs for comprehensive hazard assessment and response planning.

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Acknowledgements

This Review was supported by grants from the Basic Science Center for Tibetan Plateau Earth System (BSCTPES; NSFC project no. 41988101-03) and the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program (2019QZKK0201). The authors thank W. Chen, Q. Tang and Y. Tang for their assistance in preparing figures and tables.

Author information

These authors contributed equally: Guoqing Zhang, Jonathan L. Carrivick, Adam Emmer, Dan H. Shugar, Georg Veh.

Authors and Affiliations

State Key Laboratory of Tibetan Plateau Earth System, Environment and Resources (TPESER), Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

Guoqing Zhang & Xue Wang

School of Geography and water@leeds, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

Jonathan L. Carrivick

Institute of Geography and Regional Science, University of Graz, Graz, Austria

Adam Emmer & Martin Mergili

Water, Sediment, Hazards, and Earth-surface Dynamics (waterSHED) Laboratory, Department of Geoscience, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Dan H. Shugar & Celeste Labedz

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Georg Veh & Natalie Lützow

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G.Z. and J.L.C. conceptualized the Review and coordinated inputs. D.H.S. and C.L. contributed to the Introduction. A.E., M.M. and N.M. contributed to the section on global and regional changes of lake size and abundance. G.V., J.L.C., S.S. and N.L. contributed to the section on historical glacial lake outburst floods. G.Z., M.H. and S.A. contributed to the section on future glacial lakes and outburst floods. G.Z., S.A. and J.L.C. contributed to the section on summary and future perspectives. X.W. contributed to some of the figures. G.Z. and J.L.C. led the writing, and all authors reviewed and edited the manuscript before submission.

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Zhang, G., Carrivick, J.L., Emmer, A. et al. Characteristics and changes of glacial lakes and outburst floods. Nat Rev Earth Environ (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-024-00554-w

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Outbreak of Human Trichinellosis — Arizona, Minnesota, and South Dakota, 2022

Weekly / May 23, 2024 / 73(20);456–459

Shama Cash-Goldwasser, MD 1 ; Dustin Ortbahn, MPH 2 ; Muthu Narayan, DO 3 ; Conor Fitzgerald, MPH 4 ; Keila Maldonado 5 ; James Currie, MD 6 ; Anne Straily, DVM 7 ; Sarah Sapp, PhD 7 ; Henry S. Bishop 7 ; Billy Watson, PhD 7 ; Margaret Neja 7 ; Yvonne Qvarnstrom, PhD 7 ; David M. Berman, DO 8 ; Sarah Y. Park, MD 8 ; Kirk Smith, DVM, PhD 9 ; Stacy Holzbauer, DVM 9 ,10 ( View author affiliations )

What is already known about this topic?

Human trichinellosis cases in the United States are rare and are usually acquired through consumption of wild game.

What is added by this report?

Among eight persons who shared a meal that included the meat of a black bear harvested in Canada and frozen for 45 days, six trichinellosis cases were identified. The meat was grilled with vegetables and served rare; two cases occurred in persons who ate only the vegetables. Motile freeze-resistant Trichinella nativa larvae were identified in remaining meat frozen for >15 weeks.

What are the implications for public health practice?

Cooking meat to an internal temperature of ≥165°F (≥74°C) is necessary to kill Trichinella spp. parasites. Trichinella -infected meat can cross-contaminate other foods, and raw meat should be kept and prepared separate from other foods to prevent cross-contamination.

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Trichinellosis is a parasitic zoonotic disease transmitted through the consumption of meat from animals infected with Trichinella spp. nematodes. In North America, human trichinellosis is rare and is most commonly acquired through consumption of wild game meat. In July 2022, a hospitalized patient with suspected trichinellosis was reported to the Minnesota Department of Health. One week before symptom onset, the patient and eight other persons shared a meal that included bear meat that had been frozen for 45 days before being grilled and served rare with vegetables that had been cooked with the meat. Investigation identified six trichinellosis cases, including two in persons who consumed only the vegetables. Motile Trichinella larvae were found in remaining bear meat that had been frozen for >15 weeks. Molecular testing identified larvae from the bear meat as Trichinella nativa , a freeze-resistant species. Persons who consume meat from wild game animals should be aware that that adequate cooking is the only reliable way to kill Trichinella parasites and that infected meat can cross-contaminate other foods.

Investigation and Results

Index patient notification.

In July 2022, the Minnesota Department of Health was notified of a man aged 29 years who was hospitalized with fever, severe myalgias, periorbital edema, eosinophilia, and other laboratory abnormalities ( Table ); health care providers suspected trichinellosis. The patient had sought care for his symptoms, which commenced in early July, four times and had been hospitalized twice over a 17-day period. During his second hospitalization, providers obtained a history of bear meat consumption, and empiric albendazole treatment for probable trichinellosis was initiated. An investigation was launched to confirm the diagnosis, identify additional cases, and ascertain the source of infection to prevent future cases. The index patient’s diagnosis was confirmed by a positive Trichinella immunoglobulin (Ig) G antibody test result.

Potential Exposure Source Identification

Six days before symptom onset in the index patient, he and eight extended family members from three states (Arizona, Minnesota, and South Dakota) had gathered for several days in South Dakota and shared a meal that included kabobs made from the meat of a black bear ( Ursus americanus ), which had been harvested by one of the family members in northern Saskatchewan, Canada in May 2022. The hunting outfitter had recommended freezing the meat to kill parasites. The meat was frozen in a household freezer* for 45 days until being thawed and grilled with vegetables. The meat was initially inadvertently served rare, reportedly because the meat was dark in color, and it was difficult for the family members to visually ascertain the level of doneness. After some of the family members began eating the meat and noticed that it was undercooked, the meat was recooked before being served again. The family reunion concluded before onset of illness in the index patient.

Laboratory Investigation and Case Definition

Public health authorities in Arizona, Minnesota, and South Dakota interviewed eight of the nine persons who had attended the implicated meal. The ninth attendee was a person aged <18 years whose exposure status could not be confirmed; however, that person reportedly remained healthy. Testing of paired acute and convalescent sera for Trichinella IgG antibodies was recommended for the eight exposed persons and was completed for six. Pathogen-agnostic microbial cell-free metagenomic DNA sequencing ( 1 ) was performed on plasma samples from the index patient and one other person who had sought care twice before being hospitalized with fever, myalgias, abdominal pain, periorbital edema, and laboratory abnormalities. Trichinellosis cases were classified according to the 2014 case definition from the Council for State and Territorial Epidemiologists (CSTE), † (i.e., the presence of clinically compatible symptoms in a person who had consumed an epidemiologically implicated meal or meat in which the parasite was demonstrated [probable] or had a positive serologic test result for Trichinella antibodies [confirmed]). Samples of frozen bear meat were obtained from the household freezer and sent to CDC for artificial tissue digestion and microscopic examination for larvae and molecular testing for Trichinella spp.

Additional Case Detection and Exposure Source Confirmation

Among the eight interviewed persons, five consumed the bear meat, and eight consumed the vegetables that had been cooked with it. Six of the eight persons who attended the meal, including four who consumed the bear meat and the vegetables, and two who consumed only the vegetables (but no meat), had symptoms consistent with trichinellosis, and met case criteria (two confirmed and four probable). Patients with trichinellosis ranged in age from 12 to 62 years and lived in three states: Arizona (one), Minnesota (four), and South Dakota (one). All cases were diagnosed in the patients’ state of residence. Three of the six symptomatic persons, two of whom sought care at least twice before being offered treatment, were hospitalized. The three hospitalized persons received trichinellosis-directed treatment with albendazole. § All six symptomatic persons recovered; the nonhospitalized patients did not receive trichinellosis-directed treatment because their symptoms had resolved with supportive care only, and the benefit of treatment after larval invasion of muscle is unclear ( 2 ). Six persons submitted a serum sample, each collected within 4 weeks of symptom onset; two specimens tested positive for Trichinella IgG antibodies by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Two persons submitted a plasma sample for microbial cell-free DNA sequencing during hospitalization for trichinellosis-compatible symptoms, and both plasma samples tested positive for Trichinella spp. DNA. Microscopy identified motile Trichinella larvae (>800 larvae/g) in samples of bear meat that had been frozen for 110 days in a household freezer ( Figure ). Real-time multiplex polymerase chain reaction testing ( 3 ) of the bear meat was positive for T. nativa and whole genome sequencing identified mitochondrial sequences 100% identical to T. nativa.

Public Health Response

The family member who harvested the bear and provided meat samples for testing was advised to discard any remaining meat. All identified trichinellosis cases were reported to appropriate state health departments and to CDC. CDC notified the Public Health Agency of Canada of the outbreak and the confirmed source of infection. This activity was reviewed by CDC, deemed not research, and was conducted consistent with applicable federal law and CDC policy. ¶

Trichinellosis is rarely reported in the United States. As a result of changes in pork production practices from historical norms that fostered transmission, most cases reported in recent years are attributed to consumption of meat from wild game ( 4 ). During January 2016–December 2022, seven U.S. trichinellosis outbreaks, including 35 probable and confirmed cases, were reported to CDC; bear meat was the suspected or confirmed source of infection in the majority of those outbreaks (CDC, unpublished data, 2022). Estimates of Trichinella infection prevalence among wild animal host species vary widely. A Trichinella infection prevalence range of at least 1% to 24% among black bears in Canada and Alaska has been reported, and even higher prevalences of Trichinella infection are reported among species of predators that are strict carnivores (e.g., polar bear, wolverine, and cougar) ( 5 ). The frequency with which black bear meat is the implicated source of human infection might be driven by hunting practices, ecological factors, and the relatively high parasite density observed in the muscle of infected black bears compared with that of other species ( 6 , 7 ).

Because symptoms of trichinellosis are typically nonspecific, diagnosis of infection requires a high index of suspicion; however, periorbital edema and certain laboratory abnormalities (e.g., eosinophilia and elevated creatine kinase levels) can provide etiologic clues. In this outbreak, two of the hospitalized patients sought care multiple times before receiving a diagnosis. Four of the six patients met clinical and epidemiologic criteria and thus were considered probable cases. Laboratory confirmation can be challenging because of the limited sensitivity of antibody testing early in illness ( 8 ); in this investigation, acute Trichinella IgG test results were positive in only two of six tested patient specimens. The clinical utility of trichinellosis test results obtained after acute illness is limited, and historically, public health investigators have had difficulty obtaining convalescent serum samples from persons who have recovered. Laboratory criteria in the current CSTE trichinellosis case definition do not include nucleic acid testing of human specimens. The sensitivity of such assays to detect Trichinella DNA in blood is uncharacterized; however, plasma samples from both patients tested by metagenomic sequencing ( 1 ) yielded positive results for Trichinella DNA. As demonstrated in this outbreak, pathogen-agnostic molecular assays can be useful for detection of rare diseases when standard workup is unrevealing and if other diagnostic tests lack sensitivity.

Implications for Public Health Practice

Although freezing kills Trichinella species commonly implicated in pork-associated outbreaks, freeze-resistant Trichinella species, including T. nativa and the T6 genotype ( 9 ), predominate in Arctic and sub-Arctic regions ( 6 ). Larval motility was observed in bear meat that had been frozen for nearly 4 months (110 days). Persons who consume game meat, especially that harvested in northern latitudes, should be informed that adequate cooking is the only reliable way to kill Trichinella parasites. Cooking wild game meat to an internal temperature of ≥165°F (≥74°C) is recommended by public health authorities**; temperatures should be verified with a meat thermometer. As demonstrated in this outbreak, the color of meat is not a good indicator of cooking adequacy. Safe handling of raw meat (i.e., separating raw or undercooked meat and its juices from other foods) is recommended to prevent trichinellosis; this investigation and previous investigations suggest that Trichinella -infected meat can cross-contaminate other foods ( 10 ). Government and private entities that oversee and organize hunting should educate hunters about these risks and effective preventative measures.

Acknowledgments

The persons affected by this outbreak; Lauren Ahart, Sue Montgomery, Parasitic Diseases Branch, CDC.

Corresponding author: Shama Cash-Goldwasser, [email protected] .

1 Epidemic Intelligence Service, CDC; 2 South Dakota Department of Health; 3 University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota; 4 Arizona Department of Health Services; 5 Maricopa County Department of Public Health, Phoenix, Arizona; 6 Lakeview Clinic, Waconia, Minnesota; 7 Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Center for Global Health, CDC; 8 Medical Affairs, Karius, Inc., Redwood City, California; 9 Minnesota Department of Health; 10 Division of State and Local Readiness, Center for Preparedness and Response, CDC.

All authors have completed and submitted the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors form for disclosure of potential conflicts of interest. David M. Berman reports that he is a paid laboratory medical consultant for Precision Health Solutions and reports ownership of company shares in Karius, Inc. No other potential conflicts of interest were disclosed.

* The temperature of the freezer is not known.

† https://ndc.services.cdc.gov/case-definitions/trichinellosis-2014/

§ https://www.cdc.gov/trichinellosis/hcp/clinical-care/index.html

¶ 45 C.F.R. part 46, 21 C.F.R. part 56; 42 U.S.C. Sect. 241(d); 5 U.S.C. Sect. 552a; 44 U.S.C. Sect. 3501 et seq.

** https://www.cdc.gov/trichinellosis/prevention/index.html

• Blauwkamp TA, Thair S, Rosen MJ, et al. Analytical and clinical validation of a microbial cell-free DNA sequencing test for infectious disease. Nat Microbiol 2019;4:663–74. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-018-0349-6 PMID:30742071
• Pozio E, Sacchini D, Sacchi L, Tamburrini A, Alberici F. Failure of mebendazole in the treatment of humans with Trichinella spiralis infection at the stage of encapsulating larvae. Clin Infect Dis 2001;32:638–42. https://doi.org/10.1086/318707 PMID:11181129
• Almeida M, Bishop H, Nascimento FS, Mathison B, Bradbury RS, Silva AD. Multiplex TaqMan qPCR assay for specific identification of encapsulated Trichinella species prevalent in North America. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2018;113:e180305. https://doi.org/10.1590/0074-02760180305 PMID:30379199
• Wilson NO, Hall RL, Montgomery SP, Jones JL. Trichinellosis surveillance—United States, 2008-2012. MMWR Surveill Summ 2015;64(No. SS-1):1–8. PMID:25590865
• Oksanen A, Kärssin A, Berg RPKD, et al. Epidemiology of Trichinella in the Arctic and subarctic: a review. Food Waterborne Parasitol 2022;28:e00167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fawpar.2022.e00167 PMID:35812081
• Gajadhar AA, Forbes LB. A 10-year wildlife survey of 15 species of Canadian carnivores identifies new hosts or geographic locations for Trichinella genotypes T2, T4, T5, and T6. Vet Parasitol 2010;168:78–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.10.012 PMID:19926223
• Harms NJ, Larivee M, Scandrett B, Russell D. High prevalence and intensity of Trichinella infection in Yukon American Black ( Ursus americanus ) and Grizzly ( Ursus arctos ) bears. J Wildl Dis 2021;57:429–33. https://doi.org/10.7589/JWD-D-20-00135 PMID:33822166
• Yang Y, Cai YN, Tong MW, et al. Serological tools for detection of Trichinella infection in animals and humans. One Health 2016;2:25–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.onehlt.2015.11.005 PMID:28616474
• Pozio E. Adaptation of Trichinella spp. for survival in cold climates. Food Waterborne Parasitol 2016;4:4–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fawpar.2016.07.001
• Hall RL, Lindsay A, Hammond C, et al. Outbreak of human trichinellosis in Northern California caused by Trichinella murrelli . Am J Trop Med Hyg 2012;87:297–302. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2012.12-0075 PMID:22855761

Abbreviations: eos = eosinophils; F = female; M = male; NA = not applicable; ND = not done; WBC = white blood cell. * Initial results are from hospitalization during which trichinellosis was suspected. Reference ranges varied among different laboratories that conducted testing. † Reference range = 4–88. § Reference range = 39–208. ¶ Consumed vegetables that were cooked and served with the bear meat. ** Reference range = 39–308.

FIGURE . Microscopic examination of encapsulated larvae in a direct black bear meat muscle squash prep (A), larvae liberated from artificially digested bear meat (B), and motile larvae viewed with differential interference contrast microscopy (C and D)* from black bear meat suspected as the source of an outbreak of human Trichinella nativa infections — Arizona, Minnesota, and South Dakota, 2022

Photos/Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Center for Global Health, CDC

* Scale bars = 100 µ m.

Suggested citation for this article: Cash-Goldwasser S, Ortbahn D, Narayan M, et al. Outbreak of Human Trichinellosis — Arizona, Minnesota, and South Dakota, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2024;73:456–459. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7320a2 .

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• Introduction
• Conclusions
• Article Information

The blue histogram bars depict the frequency of T scores among participants per Child Behavior Checklist index scale including the internalizing problems scale (A), externalizing problems scale (B), and total problems scale (C). Frequencies and percentages are based on a total of 229 participants.

eFigure 1. Participant Selection Flowchart for the Current Study Sample

eFigure 2. Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) for Covariate Selection

eTable 1. Maternal Demographics According to Fluoride Sample

eFigure 3. Distributions of Raw Scores for CBCL Syndrome Scales Among Children in the MADRES Study at Age 3; n = 229

eFigure 4. Distributions of Raw Scores for CBCL DSM-Oriented Scales Among Children in the MADRES Study at Age 3; n = 229

eTable 2. CBCL Scores at Age 36-Months in the MADRES Cohort

eTable 3. Poisson Regression Estimating the Risk Ratio for Third Trimester MUFsg in Relation to CBCL Clinical Index Scores

eTable 4. Sensitivity Analysis Including “Borderline Clinical” with “Non-Clinical” Group as the Reference in Logistic Regression of Trimester 3 MUFsg With CBCL Clinical Index Scores

eTable 5. Sensitivity Analysis of Associations of MUFsg in Trimester 1 With CBCL Clinical Index Scores

eTable 6. Sensitivity Analysis of Associations of Trimester 1 MUFsg With Composite T-Scores, and Syndrome or DSM Scale Raw CBCL Scores at Age 3

eTable 7. Associations of MUFsg in Trimester 1 with CBCL Scores Adjusting for Blood Lead

eTable 8. Associations of MUFsg in Trimester 3 With CBCL Scores Adjusting for Trimester 1 Blood Lead

eTable 9. Associations of MUFsg in Trimester 3 with CBCL Clinical Index Scores Adjusting for Trimester 1 Blood Lead

eTable 10. Associations of MUFsg in Trimester 3 with CBCL Scores Among Women Who Fasted for ≥ 8 Hours

eTable 11. Trimester 3 MUFsg in Relation to CBCL Clinical Index Scores Among Women who Fasted for ≥ 8 Hours

eTable 12. Associations of MUFsg in Trimester 3 with CBCL Scores Including Women Who Smoked During Pregnancy

eTable 13. Trimester 3 MUFsg in Relation to CBCL Clinical Index Scores Including Women Who Smoked During Pregnancy

eTable 14. Associations of Average MUFsg Across Trimesters 1 and 3 With CBCL Scores

eTable 15. Average MUFsg Across Trimesters 1 and 3 in Relation to CBCL Clinical Index Scores

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Malin AJ , Eckel SP , Hu H, et al. Maternal Urinary Fluoride and Child Neurobehavior at Age 36 Months. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(5):e2411987. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.11987

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Maternal Urinary Fluoride and Child Neurobehavior at Age 36 Months

• 1 Department of Epidemiology, College of Public Health and Health Professions University of Florida, Gainesville
• 2 College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville
• 3 Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine of University of Southern California, Los Angeles
• 4 Department of Dental Public Health and Dental Informatics, School of Dentistry, Indiana University, Indianapolis

Question   Is prenatal fluoride exposure associated with child neurobehavior in a US-based sample?

Findings   In this cohort study of 229 pregnant women and their children, a 0.68 mg/L (ie, 1 IQR) increase in specific gravity–adjusted maternal urinary fluoride during pregnancy was associated with nearly double the odds of T scores for total child neurobehavioral problems being in the borderline clinical or clinical range.

Meaning   These findings suggest that prenatal fluoride exposure may increase risk of neurobehavioral problems among children living in an optimally fluoridated area in the US.

Importance   Recent studies in Canadian and Mexican populations suggest an association of higher prenatal fluoride exposure with poorer neurobehavioral development, but whether this association holds for US-based populations is unknown.

Objective   To examine associations of third trimester maternal urinary fluoride (MUF) with child neurobehavior at age 3 years in the US.

Design, Setting, and Participants   This prospective cohort study utilized urine samples archived from 2017 to 2020 and neurobehavioral data assessed from 2020 to 2023 from the Maternal and Developmental Risks from Environmental and Social Stressors (MADRES) pregnancy cohort, which consisted of predominately Hispanic women residing in Los Angeles, California. Cohort eligibility criteria at recruitment included being 18 years of age or older, less than 30 weeks’ gestation, and a fluent English or Spanish speaker. Exclusion criteria included having a disability preventing participation or provision of informed consent, being HIV positive or incarcerated, and having a multiple gestation pregnancy. There were 263 mother-child pairs who completed the 3-year study visit. In this analysis, women who reported prenatal smoking were excluded. Data analysis was conducted from October 2022 to March 2024.

Exposure   Specific gravity-adjusted MUF (MUF SG ), a biomarker of prenatal fluoride exposure.

Main Outcomes and Measures   Neurobehavior was quantified using the Preschool Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), which included composite scores for Total Problems, Internalizing Problems, and Externalizing Problems. CBCL composite T scores range from 28 to 100. T scores from 60 to 63 are in the borderline clinical range, whereas scores above 63 are in the clinical range. Linear and logistic regression models adjusted for covariates were conducted.

Results   A total of 229 mother-child pairs (mean [SD] maternal age, 29.45 [5.67] years; 116 female children [50.7%] and 113 male children [49.3%]) who had MUF SG measured were included in the study. Median (IQR) MUF SG was 0.76 (0.51-1.19) mg/L, and 32 participants (14.0%) had a Total Problems T score in the borderline clinical or clinical range. A 1-IQR (0.68 mg/L) increase in MUF SG was associated with nearly double the odds of the Total Problems T score being in the borderline clinical or clinical range (odds ratio, 1.83; 95% CI, 1.17-2.86; P  = .008), as well as with a 2.29-point increase in T score for the Internalizing Problems composite (B = 2.29; 95% CI, 0.47-4.11; P  = .01) and a 2.14-point increase in T score for the Total Problems composite (B = 2.14; 95% CI, 0.29-3.98; P  = .02).

Conclusions and Relevance   In this prospective cohort study of mother-child pairs in Los Angeles, California, prenatal fluoride exposure was associated with increased neurobehavioral problems. These findings suggest that there may be a need to establish recommendations for limiting fluoride exposure during the prenatal period.

Fluoride levels in community drinking water systems in the US have been adjusted to prevent dental caries since 1945. 1 Currently, 73% of the US receives fluoridated water at a targeted concentration of 0.7 mg/L (to convert to millimoles per liter, multiply by 0.05263). This has been considered optimal for preventing dental caries while minimizing risk of adverse systemic health effects. 2 Most of Los Angeles County, California is at least partially fluoridated. 3 , 4 Fluoride can also naturally occur in soil and rock or be released into the environment via industrial processes. 5 , 6

It is widely established that exposure to high fluoride levels can adversely affect neurodevelopment 7 ; however, findings from recent studies conducted in Mexico and Canada 8 - 11 suggest that fluoride exposure at lower US-relevant levels may also be associated with poorer neurodevelopment. Specifically, higher prenatal fluoride exposure in Canada and/or Mexico has been associated with lower IQ among children aged 3 to 4 years in Canada 10 and children aged 6 to 12 years in Mexico, 9 increased symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) among children aged 6 to 12 years, 12 poorer executive function among children aged 3 to 5 years, 13 and poorer performance on measures of global cognition among 12- and 24-month-old boys. 14 A recent systematic review conducted by the National Toxicology Program reported “with moderate confidence that higher fluoride exposure…is consistently associated with lower IQ in children.” 15 The report 15 also highlighted the lack of US studies investigating associations of fluoride exposure with neurodevelopment or cognition and stated that US studies would be valuable. To our knowledge, we conducted the first, US-based study to examine associations of prenatal fluoride exposure with child neurobehavioral outcomes.

This cohort study was approved by the institutional review boards at The University of Southern California and The University of Florida and followed the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology ( STROBE ) reporting guideline. This study included mother-child pairs from the Maternal and Developmental Risks from Environmental and Social Stressors (MADRES) cohort. 16 MADRES is a prospective pregnancy cohort consisting of 1065 predominately Hispanic women of low socioeconomic status residing in urban Los Angeles, California. 16 Briefly, in 2015, pregnant women were recruited from prenatal care clinicians in Los Angeles serving predominantly medically underserved communities and provided written informed consent. Eligibility criteria include being 18 years of age or older, less than 30 weeks’ gestation at the time of recruitment, and being able to speak English or Spanish fluently. Exclusion criteria included having a multiple gestation pregnancy; being HIV positive; having a physical, mental, or cognitive disability that would prevent participation or provision of informed consent; and current incarceration. 16 The current study included mother-child pairs from the MADRES prospective cohort who had maternal urinary fluoride (MUF) measured during the third trimester of pregnancy and child scores on the Preschool Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) for ages 1.5 to 5 years at age 36 months (eFigure 1 in Supplement 1 ).

Single spot urine samples were collected from MADRES participants during the third trimester of pregnancy (from 2017-2020). The mean (range) gestational age at third trimester urine collection was 31.6 (26.9-36.0) weeks. MUF was measured at the Oral Health Research Institute at the Indiana University School of Dentistry using the Martinez Mier et al modification 17 , 18 of the hexamethyldisiloxane microdiffusion method of Taves et al 19 (see the eMethods in Supplement 1 for additional details). MUF measurements were adjusted for specific gravity (MUF SG ). Urinary fluoride was utilized because it provides a reliable measure of total fluoride intake. It is also the most widely employed measure of individual fluoride exposure in epidemiological studies, including those assessing neurodevelopment. 10 - 12 , 20 , 21

We examined child neurobehavioral problems. These included internalizing and externalizing symptoms and symptoms consistent with Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fifth Edition [ DSM-5 ]) diagnostic categories.

Child neurobehavioral outcomes were assessed from 2020 to 2023 via the Preschool CBCL, a valid measure of neurobehavior. 22 - 24 The Preschool CBCL is a parent-reported measure of 99 items that was administered in MADRES when the child was approximately 36 months old. Children were rated on the CBCL by their mothers. The CBCL is available in English and Spanish. CBCL scores comprise 7 syndrome scales (Emotionally Reactive, Anxious-Depressed, Somatic Complaints, Withdrawn, Sleep Problems, Attention Problems, and Aggressive Behavior) characterizing problems that tend to co-occur together. The CBCL also includes 5 DSM-5 –oriented scales that are comprised of items determined to be consistent with DSM-5 diagnostic categories (Depressive Problems, Anxiety Problems, Oppositional Defiant Problems, Autism Spectrum Problems, and ADHD Problems). Scores on CBCL syndrome scales are grouped to produce an Internalizing Problems composite score and Externalizing Problems composite score. Scales that focus primarily on issues within the self comprise the Internalizing Problems composite. Conversely, scales that focus on other-directed problems and expectations for the child comprise the Externalizing Problems composite. Lastly, a Total Problems composite score is calculated by summing scores on all 99 items. 24 Internalizing Problems, Externalizing Problems, and Total Problems composite T scores range from 28 to 100. T scores ranging from 60 to 63 are in the borderline clinical range, whereas those above 63 are in the clinical range. 24 We calculated 2-category clinical index variables of normal vs borderline clinical or clinical for statistical analyses for each composite variable (see the eMethods in Supplement 1 for additional details about the CBCL scales).

Covariates were selected using a directed acyclic graph (eFigure 2 in Supplement 1 ), and included maternal age (continuous), education (less than 12th grade, completed 12th grade, some college or technical school, completed college, and some graduate training), ethnicity by nativity (non-Hispanic, US-born Hispanic, or non–US-born Hispanic), marital status (decline to answer, married, living together, never married and single, divorced or separated, or widowed), prepregnancy body mass index (continuous; calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared) and prenatal household income (unknown,<$15 000, $15 000-$29 999, $30 000-$49 999, $50 000-$99 999, and ≥$100 000), as well as child sex. Categories for ethnicity by nativity were defined by study principal investigators, and ethnicity was included because it has been shown to be associated with fluoride exposure and neurodevelopment. We adjusted for ethnicity as a proxy for structural racism rather than as a biological difference. We recoded marital status based on cohabitation status (eMethods in Supplement 1 ).

Descriptive statistics were calculated for MUF SG , sociodemographic variables, and scores on the CBCL. We conducted linear regression adjusted for covariates to examine associations of third trimester MUF SG with CBCL composite T scores as well as raw scores on CBCL syndrome scales and DSM-5 –oriented scales. Assumptions of linear regression were satisfied for models examining associations of MUF SG with CBCL composite T scores; however, for several models examining associations of MUF SG with CBCL syndrome scales and DSM-5 –oriented scales, linear regression assumptions were not satisfied. Therefore, a natural logarithm transformation was applied and a constant of 1 was added (to account for scores of 0) to the raw scores for these scales to satisfy linear regression assumptions (see the eMethods in Supplement 1 for an expanded statistical analysis plan). We also tested whether child sex modified associations of MUF SG with CBCL scores by including a MUF SG  × sex term in regression models to be retained if statistically significant. We conducted logistic regression examining associations of MUF SG with binary clinical index variables. Additionally, in sensitivity analyses, we conducted Poisson regression with robust error variances to determine the relative risk of scoring in the normal compared with borderline clinical or clinical range for clinical index variables. We also conducted binary logistic regression that included 2-category clinical index dependent variables of nonclinical (ie, normal or borderline) vs clinical for each clinical index variable. We conducted several additional sensitivity analyses that are reported in the eMethods in Supplement 1 . We excluded women who reported prenatal smoking (6 participants). Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS statistical software version 28 (IBM) and STATA/MP version 13.0 (Stata Corp). The criterion for statistical significance was an α < .05. Data analysis occurred from October 2022 to March 2024.

There were 229 mother-child pairs (mean [SD] maternal age, 29.45 [5.67] years; 116 female children [50.7%] and 113 male children [49.3%]) included in this study. See Table 1 for sociodemographic characteristics and exposure variables. For a comparison of sociodemographic characteristics between the current study sample and overall MADRES cohort with a live birth, see eTable 1 in Supplement 1 . Most participants (192 participants) reported fasting in the third trimester for at least 8 hours. MUF SG did not differ between women who reported fasting and those who did not. Median (IQR) MUF SG was 0.76 (0.51-1.19) mg/L. Mean (SD) T scores were 47.69 (11.60) for the Total Problems composite, 47.13 (11.62) for the Internalizing Problems composite, and 46.48 (10.68) for the Externalizing Problems composite ( Figure ). Of all participants, 32 (14.0%) had a Total Problems T score in the borderline clinical or clinical range, 35 (15.3%) had an Internalizing Problems T score in the borderline clinical or clinical range, and 23 (10.0%) had an Externalizing Problems T score in the borderline clinical or clinical range. Descriptive statistics for CBCL syndrome and DSM-oriented scale raw scores are presented in eFigure 3, eFigure 4, and eTable2 in Supplement 1 .

Associations of MUF SG with CBCL composite T scores and binary clinical index variables are presented in Table 2 . A 1-IQR (0.68 mg/L) increase in MUF SG was associated with nearly double the odds of having a Total Problems T score in the borderline clinical or clinical range compared with the normal range (odds ratio [OR], 1.83; 95% CI, 1.17-2.86; P  = .008). Additionally, a 1-IQR increase in MUF SG was associated with a 2.29-point increase in Internalizing Problems T scores (B = 2.29; 95% CI, 0.47-4.11; P  = .01) and 2.14-point increase in Total Problems T scores (B = 2.14; 95% CI, 0.29-3.98; P  = .02). Associations of MUF SG with Externalizing Problems T scores or odds of having an Internalizing Problems T score in the borderline clinical or clinical range compared with the normal range were also positive but not statistically significant ( Table 2 ). Risk ratios were generally consistent with these ORs; however, magnitudes were smaller, and the P value for the risk ratio for the Internalizing Problems binary clinical index variable was statistically significant (eTable 3 in Supplement 1 ). Sensitivity analyses that included nonclinical vs clinical index dependent variables were also consistent (eTable 4 in Supplement 1 ).

Associations of MUF SG with raw scores for CBCL syndrome scales and DSM-5 –oriented scales are presented in Table 3 . A 1-IQR increase in MUF SG was associated with a 13.54% increase in raw scores for the Emotionally Reactive CBCL syndrome scale (B = 0.13; 95% CI, 0.02-0.24; P  = .02), and a 19.60% increase in raw scores for the Somatic Complaints CBCL syndrome scale (B = 0.18; 95% CI, 0.07-0.28; P  = .001). Additionally, a 1-IQR increase in MUF SG was associated with an 11.29% increase in scores on the DSM-5 –oriented Anxiety Problems scale of the CBCL (B = 0.11; 95% CI, 0.003-0.21; P  = .045) and an 18.53% increase in scores on the DSM-5 –oriented Autism Spectrum Problems scale of the CBCL (B = 0.17; 95% CI, 0.04-0.30; P  = .009). There were no other associations of MUF SG with other syndrome scales or DSM-5 –oriented scales. There was no interaction between fluoride and sex.

MUF SG during the first trimester was also positively associated with CBCL scores (eTable 5 and eTable 6 in Supplement 1 ) and when first trimester blood lead level was included as a covariate in sensitivity analyses, the magnitudes of associations became larger and previously nonsignificant findings became significant associations in models for both the first and third trimester (eTables 7-9 in Supplement 1 ). Associations of MUF SG with CBCL scores in the third trimester remained generally the same when examined among only the sample of women who fasted for at least 8 hours (192 participants) and when adjusting for maternal smoking during pregnancy (eTables 10-13 in Supplement 1 ). Lastly, magnitudes of associations of mean MUF SG across the first and third trimesters with CBCL scores were larger than associations of MUF SG in only the third trimester with CBCL scores (eTable 14 and eTable 15 in Supplement 1 ).

To our knowledge, this is the first US-based cohort study to examine associations of prenatal fluoride exposure with child neurobehavior. The study sample resided in a predominately fluoridated region and had fluoride exposures that are typical of those living in fluoridated communities in North America. 17 , 25 , 26 For example, Till et al 25 reported a median MUF SG of 0.77 mg/L among women living in fluoridated communities in Canada. We found that women with higher fluoride exposure during pregnancy tended to rate their children higher on overall neurobehavioral problems and internalizing symptoms, including emotional reactivity, anxiety, and somatic complaints by age 3 years. Furthermore, each 0.68 mg/L increase in MUF SG was associated with nearly double the odds of total neurobehavioral problems being in the borderline clinical or clinical range. Women with higher MUF SG during pregnancy also tended to rate their children higher on Autism Spectrum Disorder symptoms. The effect sizes observed in this study are sizable considering the relatively low urinary fluoride levels of participants.

Findings from this study are consistent with a recent Canadian study 13 of over 600 maternal-child pairs in the Calgary cohort of the Alberta Pregnancy Outcomes and Nutrition study. The study found that exposure to drinking water fluoridated at 0.7 mg/L throughout pregnancy was associated with symptoms of executive dysfunction, including poorer inhibitory control, and decreased cognitive flexibility among children aged 3 to 5 years. However, associations were most pronounced among girls. 13 Although we did not observe sex-specific associations in the current study, higher MUF SG was associated with higher symptoms of Autism Spectrum Disorder and anxiety, which are also associated with poorer cognitive flexibility. 27 - 29 Another recent study 12 conducted in the Early Life Exposures in Mexico to Environmental Toxicants (ELEMENT) cohort found that higher creatinine-adjusted MUF was associated with higher scores on measures of inattention and overall ADHD symptoms from ages 6 to 12 years. While we did not find associations of MUF SG with symptoms of inattention or ADHD, this may reflect the timing of neurobehavioral assessment because symptoms of inattention are more difficult to assess (and ADHD is more difficult to diagnose) in children younger than 4 years. Although no other prospective studies, to our knowledge, have examined associations of prenatal fluoride exposure with CBCL scores, a recent cross-sectional study 30 of 12-year-old children in the Cincinnati Childhood Allergy and Air Pollution Study found that higher specific gravity-adjusted urinary fluoride levels were associated with higher somatic symptoms scores and odds of internalizing T scores being in a clinically at-risk range (defined as a T score ≥60) on the Behavior Assessment System for Children (Second Edition), particularly among boys. Still, an earlier study of 7- to 11-year-old children residing in Boston 31 found no association of dental fluorosis or environmental fluoride exposure (assessed via questionnaire) with parent-reported neurobehavioral problems on the CBCL.

Other studies conducted in Canada and Mexico have found associations of higher prenatal fluoride exposure at US-population–relevant levels with poorer neurocognitive outcomes, including lower IQ. 8 - 10 , 12 , 14 , 21 For example, a study conducted in the ELEMENT cohort found that each 0.5 mg/L increase in creatine-adjusted MUF was associated with a more than 2-point reduction in global cognitive functioning or IQ across 3 time points during middle to late childhood. 21 Similarly, research conducted in the Canadian Maternal-Infant Research on Environmental Chemicals cohort found that each 1 mg/L increase in MUF SG was associated with a 4.49-point lower IQ score in boys. 8 , 10 Taken together, the weight of the scientific literature supports an association of prenatal fluoride exposure with adverse child cognitive and neurobehavioral development in North America. Still, when considering the global body of scientific literature, there are some inconsistencies. 32 - 34

It is well-established that the prenatal and early postnatal periods are windows of susceptibility for neurodevelopmental impacts of environmental toxicant exposures. 35 , 36 Animal studies have delineated potential mechanisms underlying the association of prenatal fluoride exposure with neurobehavioral development. A 2022 study 37 found that at 90 days of age, male rats who were prenatally and perinatally exposed to relatively low fluoride levels exhibited altered neurobiochemical markers of oxidative damage, glutamate metabolism, and acetylcholinesterase activity. Another recent study 38 found that at 90 days of age, female rats exposed to low fluoride levels during gestation and lactation exhibited decreased messenger RNA expression of the α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) and reduced hippocampal catalase activity (an indicator of oxidative stress). Neurochemical changes observed in both studies 37 , 38 have been replicated in other animal as well as in vitro studies that included high fluoride exposures. 39 - 41 Interestingly, both oxidative stress and alterations of the α7nAChR in particular have been implicated in the pathophysiology of neurodevelopmental disorders, including Autism Spectrum Disorder. 42 , 43 Furthermore, alterations in glutamate pathways have been implicated in the cause and treatment of anxiety disorders. 44 Prenatal fluoride exposure may also adversely affect neurodevelopment and cognition by causing mitochondrial dysfunction which can increase oxidative stress, blocking autophagosome-lysosome fusion which can contribute to cellular damage, and by causing synaptic dysfunction. 45 - 47 Additionally, prenatal fluoride exposure, even at low levels, can suppress maternal thyroid gland activity which can contribute to cognitive and neurobehavioral problems in offspring. 48 , 49

There are notable strengths of the current study, including the use of individual biomarker measures of exposure assessment that provide an estimate of fluoride intake from all sources, and the adjustment for a breadth of covariates associated with fluoride exposure, metabolism, and neurodevelopment. Additionally, our study addressed a limitation of prior studies on fluoride exposure and neurodevelopment by including a sample of predominately fasting pregnant women, which can be difficult to achieve. However, there are also limitations. First, we measured fluoride in spot samples rather than 24-hour urine samples, which can be influenced by daily behaviors (eg, food and beverage consumption or use of fluoridated dental products), and therefore increase random error. Still, the inclusion of mostly fasting urine samples reduces the potential impact of food and beverage consumption on urinary fluoride concentrations. Second, we were limited in our ability to examine patterns of associations of fluoride exposure with neurobehavior according to trimester because only a subsample of participants had urine available for fluoride analyses in the first trimester and most participants did not fast prior to urine collection. Nevertheless, associations of first trimester MUF SG with CBCL scores after adjusting for blood lead were in the same direction as for the third trimester. Third, we did not have data on tap water consumption habits for the study sample; however, home cooking rates were high, and rice tended to be a dietary staple among MADRES participants, which can be a source of tap water fluoride exposure. Fourth, given that the study sample resided in Los Angeles, California, and was predominately Hispanic, we do not know whether findings observed in this study are generalizable to other US populations or are nationally representative. Fifth, this study excluded participants who delivered their babies prior to 30 weeks’ gestation which precluded examination of associations of MUF SG with neurobehavior among children who were born very preterm. Sixth, lead concentrations in whole blood were only measured for most of the study sample during the first trimester, and therefore we were only able to adjust for first trimester blood lead in our third trimester analyses. Still, we do not anticipate confounding of associations of MUF SG with CBCL scores by blood lead given that the inclusion of first trimester blood lead in first and third trimester models increased the magnitude of the associations. Furthermore, blood lead has been shown to be stable between the first and third trimesters of pregnancy, 50 which supports the use of first trimester blood lead as a proxy for third trimester blood lead.

This cohort study found that prenatal fluoride exposure was associated with increased risk for neurobehavioral problems among children residing in the US. These findings suggest that there may be a need to establish recommendations for limiting exposure to fluoride from all sources during the prenatal period, a time when the developing brain is known to be especially vulnerable to injury from environmental insults.

Accepted for Publication: March 18, 2024.

Published: May 20, 2024. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.11987

Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License . © 2024 Malin AJ et al. JAMA Network Open .

Corresponding Author: Ashley J. Malin, PhD, Department of Epidemiology, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, 2004 Mowry Rd, Gainesville, FL 32603 ( [email protected] ).

Author Contributions: Dr Malin and Ms Yang had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Concept and design: Malin, Hu, Bastain.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: All authors.

Drafting of the manuscript: Malin, Eckel, Hu, Martinez-Mier, Bastain.

Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.

Statistical analysis: Malin, Eckel, Hu, Hernandez-Castro, Yang.

Obtained funding: Malin, Farzan, Habre, Breton, Bastain.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Martinez-Mier, Farzan, Habre, Bastain.

Supervision: Hu, Martinez-Mier, Farzan, Habre, Bastain.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Hu reported having testified as a nonretained expert witness at the request of the US Department of Justice on his previously published research on the subject of prenatal fluoride exposure and neurodevelopmental outcomes as part of an ongoing trial in US District Court. Dr Farzan reported receiving grants from the National Institutes of Health outside the submitted work. No other disclosures were reported.

Funding/Support: This work was supported in part by funding from the National Institutes of Health and National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (grant Nos. R00ES031676, ES030400, P50MD015705, P50ES026086, and R01ES021446) and the US Environmental Protection Agency (grant No. 83615801–0).

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The funders had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Data Sharing Statement: See Supplement 2 .

Additional Contributions: The authors thank the Maternal and Developmental Risks from Environmental and Social Stressors (MADRES) participants, the study staff, and community clinic partners for making this work possible. The authors also thank Durdana Khan, MPH, PhD (Department of Epidemiology, University of Florida), for conducting an additional reanalysis of the data included in this study. No additional compensation was provided to Dr Khan for this task.

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