How many Jews were murdered during the Holocaust?
A 02.
While it is impossible to ascertain the exact number of Jewish victims, statistics indicate that the total was over 5,860,000. Six million is the round figure accepted by most authorities.
How many non-Jewish civilians were murdered during World War II?
A 03.
While it is impossible to ascertain the exact number, the recognized figure is approximately 5,000,000. Among the groups which the Nazis and their collaborators murdered and persecuted were: Gypsies, Serbs, Polish intelligentsia, resistance fighters from all the nations, German opponents of Nazism, homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, habitual criminals, and the "anti-social," e.g. beggars, vagrants, and hawkers.
Which Jewish communities suffered losses during the Holocaust?
A 04.
Every Jewish community in occupied Europe suffered losses during the Holocaust. The Jewish communities in North Africa were persecuted, but the Jews in these countries were neither deported to the death camps, nor were they systematically murdered.
How many Jews were murdered in each country and what percentage of the pre-war Jewish population did they constitute?
A 05.
(Source: Encyclopedia of the Holocaust)
Austria 50,000 -- 27.0%
Italy 7,680 -- 17.3%
Belgium 28,900 -- 44.0%
Latvia 71,500 -- 78.1%
Bohemia/Moravia 78,150 -- 66.1%
Lithuania 143,000 -- 85.1%
Bulgaria 0 -- 0.0%
Luxembourg 1,950 -- 55.7%
Denmark 60 -- 0.7%
Netherlands 100,000 -- 71.4%
Estonia 2,000 -- 44.4%
Norway 762 -- 44.8%
Finland 7 -- 0.3%
Poland 3,000,000 -- 90.9%
France 77,320 -- 22.1%
Romania 287,000 -- 47.1%
Germany 141,500 -- 25.0%
Slovakia 71,000 -- 79.8%
Greece 67,000 -- 86.6%
Soviet Union 1,100,000 -- 36.4%
Hungary 569,000 -- 69.0%
Yugoslavia 63,300 -- 81.2%
What is a death camp? How many were there? Where were they located?
A 06.
A death (or mass murder) camp is a concentration camp with special apparatus specifically designed for systematic murder. Six such camps existed: Auschwitz-Birkenau, Belzec, Chelmno, Majdanek, Sobibor, Treblinka. All were located in Poland.
What does the term "Final Solution" mean and what is its origin?
A 07.
The term "Final Solution" (Endl"sung) refers to Germany's plan to murder all the Jews of Europe. The term was used at the Wannsee Conference (Berlin; January 20,1942) where German officials discussed its implementation.
When did the "Final Solution" actually begin?
A 08.
While thousands of Jews were murdered by the Nazis or died as a direct result of discriminatory measures instituted against Jews during the initial years of the Third Reich, the systematic murder of Jews did not begin until the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941.
How did the Germans define who was Jewish?
A 09.
On November 14, 1935, the Nazis issued the following definition of a Jew: Anyone with three Jewish grandparents; someone with two Jewish grandparents who belonged to the Jewish community on September 15, 1935, or joined thereafter; was married to a Jew or Jewess on September 15, 1935, or married one thereafter; was the offspring of a marriage or extramarital liaison with a Jew on or after September 15, 1935.
How did the Germans treat those who had some Jewish blood but were not classified as Jews?
A 10.
Those who were not classified as Jews but who had some Jewish blood were categorized as Mischlinge (hybrids) and were divided into two groups:
Mischlinge of the first degree--those with two Jewish grandparents.
Mischlinge of the second degree--those with one Jewish grandparent.
The Mischlinge were officially excluded from membership in the Nazi Party and all Party organizations (e.g. SA, SS, etc.). Although they were drafted into the Germany Army, they could not attain the rank of officers. They were also barred from the civil service and from certain professions. (Individual Mischlinge were, however, granted exemptions under certain circumstances.) Nazi officials considered plans to sterilize Mischlinge, but this was never done. During World War II, first-degree Mischlinge, incarcerated in concentration camps, were deported to death camps.
What were the first measures taken by the Nazis against the Jews?
A 11.
The first measures against the Jews included:
April 1, 1933: A boycott of Jewish shops and businesses by the Nazis.
April 7, 1933: The law for the Re-establishment of the Civil Service expelled all non-Aryans (defined on April 11, 1933 as anyone with a Jewish parent or grandparent) from the civil service. Initially, exceptions were made for those working since August 1914; German veterans of World War I; and, those who had lost a father or son fighting for Germany or her allies in World War I.
April 7, 1933: The law regarding admission to the legal profession prohibited the admission of lawyers of non-Aryan descent to the Bar. It also denied non-Aryan members of the Bar the right to practice law. (Exceptions were made in the cases noted above in the law regarding the civil service.) Similar laws were passed regarding Jewish law assessors, jurors, and commercial judges.
April 22, 1933: The decree regarding physicians' services with the national health plan denied reimbursement of expenses to those patients who consulted non-Aryan doctors. Jewish doctors who were war veterans or had suffered from the war were excluded.
April 25, 1933: The law against the overcrowding of German schools restricted Jewish enrollment in German high schools to 1.5% of the student body. In communities where they constituted more than 5% of the population, Jews were allowed to constitute up to 5% of the student body. Initially, exceptions were made in the case of children of Jewish war veterans, who were not considered part of the quota. In the framework of this law, a Jewish student was a child with two non-Aryan parents.
Did the Nazis plan to murder the Jews from the beginning of their regime?
A 12.
This question is one of the most difficult to answer. While Hitler made several references to killing Jews, both in his early writings (Mein Kampf) and in various speeches during the 1930s, it is fairly certain that the Nazis had no operative plan for the systematic annihilation of the Jews before 1941. The decision on the systematic murder of the Jews was apparently made in the late winter or the early spring of 1941 in conjunction with the decision to invade the Soviet Union.
When was the first concentration camp established and who were the first inmates?
A 13.
The first concentration camp, Dachau, opened on March 22, 1933. The camp's first inmates were primarily political prisoners (e.g. Communists or Social Democrats); habitual criminals; homosexuals; Jehovah's Witnesses; and "anti-socials" (beggars, vagrants, hawkers). Others considered problematic by the Nazis (e.g. Jewish writers and journalists, lawyers, unpopular industrialists, and political officials) were also included.
Which groups of people in Germany were considered enemies of the state by the Nazis and were, therefore, persecuted?
A 14.
The following groups of individuals were considered enemies of the Third Reich and were, therefore, persecuted by the Nazi authorities: Jews, Gypsies, Social Democrats, other opposing politicians, opponents of Nazism, Jehovah's Witnesses, homosexuals, habitual criminals, and "anti-socials" (e.g. beggars, vagrants, hawkers), and the mentally ill. Any individual who was considered a threat to the Nazis was in danger of being persecuted.
What was the difference between the persecution of the Jews and the persecution of other groups classified by the Nazis as enemies of the Third Reich?
A 15.
The Jews were the only group singled out for total systematic annihilation by the Nazis. To escape the death sentence imposed by the Nazis, the Jews could only leave Nazi-controlled Europe. Every single Jew was to be killed according to the Nazis' plan. In the case of other criminals or enemies of the Third Reich, their families were usually not held accountable. Thus, if a person were executed or sent to a concentration camp, it did not mean that each member of his family would meet the same fate. Moreover, in most situations the Nazis' enemies were classified as such because of their actions or political affiliation (actions and/or opinions which could be revised). In the case of the Jews, it was because of their racial origin, which could never be changed.
Why were the Jews singled out for extermination?
A 16.
The explanation of the Nazis' implacable hatred of the Jew rests on their distorted world view which saw history as a racial struggle. They considered the Jews a race whose goal was world domination and who, therefore, were an obstruction to Aryan dominance. They believed that all of history was a fight between races which should culminate in the triumph of the superior Aryan race. Therefore, they considered it their duty to eliminate the Jews, whom they regarded as a threat. Moreover, in their eyes, the Jews' racial origin made them habitual criminals who could never be rehabilitated and were, therefore, hopelessly corrupt and inferior.
There is no doubt that other factors contributed toward Nazi hatred of the Jews and their distorted image of the Jewish people. These included the centuries-old tradition of Christian antisemitism which propagated a negative stereotype of the Jew as a Christ-killer, agent of the devil, and practitioner of witchcraft. Also significant was the political antisemitism of the latter half of the nineteenth and early part of the twentieth centuries, which singled out the Jew as a threat to the established order of society. These combined to point to the Jew as a target for persecution and ultimate destruction by the Nazis.
What did people in Germany know about the persecution of Jews and other enemies of Nazism?
A 17.
Certain initial aspects of Nazi persecution of Jews and other opponents were common knowledge in Germany. Thus, for example, everyone knew about the Boycott of April 1, 1933, the Laws of April, and the Nuremberg Laws, because they were fully publicized. Moreover, offenders were often publicly punished and shamed. The same holds true for subsequent anti-Jewish measures. Kristallnacht (The Night of the Broken Glass) was a public pogrom, carried out in full view of the entire population. While information on the concentration camps was not publicized, a great deal of information was available to the German public, and the treatment of the inmates was generally known, although exact details were not easily obtained.
As for the implementation of the "Final Solution" and the murder of other undesirable elements, the situation was different. The Nazis attempted to keep the murders a secret and, therefore, took precautionary measures to ensure that they would not be publicized. Their efforts, however, were only partially successful. Thus, for example, public protests by various clergymen led to the halt of their euthanasia program in August of 1941. These protests were obviously the result of the fact that many persons were aware that the Nazis were killing the mentally ill in special institutions.
As far as the Jews were concerned, it was common knowledge in Germany that they had disappeared after having been sent to the East. It was not exactly clear to large segments of the German population what had happened to them. On the other hand, there were thousands upon thousands of Germans who participated in and/or witnessed the implementation of the "Final Solution" either as members of the SS, the Einsatzgruppen, death camp or concentration camp guards, police in occupied Europe, or with the Wehrmacht.
Did all Germans support Hitler's plan for the persecution of the Jews?
A 18.
Although the entire German population was not in agreement with Hitler's persecution of the Jews, there is no evidence of any large scale protest regarding their treatment. There were Germans who defied the April 1, 1933 boycott and purposely bought in Jewish stores, and there were those who aided Jews to escape and to hide, but their number was very small. Even some of those who opposed Hitler were in agreement with his anti-Jewish policies. Among the clergy, Dompropst Bernhard Lichtenberg of Berlin publicly prayed for the Jews daily and was, therefore, sent to a concentration camp by the Nazis. Other priests were deported for their failure to cooperate with Nazi antisemitic policies, but the majority of the clergy complied with the directives against German Jewry and did not openly protest.
Did the people of occupied Europe know about Nazi plans for the Jews? What was their attitude? Did they cooperate with the Nazis against the Jews?
A 19.
The attitude of the local population vis-a-vis the persecution and destruction of the Jews varied from zealous collaboration with the Nazis to active assistance to Jews. Thus, it is difficult to make generalizations. The situation also varied from country to country. In Eastern Europe and especially in Poland, Russia, and the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania), there was much more knowledge of the "Final Solution" because it was implemented in those areas. Elsewhere, the local population had less information on the details of the "Final Solution."
In every country they occupied, with the exception of Denmark and Bulgaria, the Nazis found many locals who were willing to cooperate fully in the murder of the Jews. This was particularly true in Eastern Europe, where there was a long standing tradition of virulent antisemitism, and where various national groups, which had been under Soviet domination (Latvians, Lithuanians, and Ukrainians), fostered hopes that the Germans would restore their independence. In several countries in Europe, there were local fascist movements which allied themselves with the Nazis and participated in anti-Jewish actions; for example, the Iron Guard in Romania and the Arrow Guard in Slovakia. On the other hand, in every country in Europe, there were courageous individuals who risked their lives to save Jews. In several countries, there were groups which aided Jews, e.g. Joop Westerweel's group in the Netherlands, Zegota in Poland, and the Assisi underground in Italy.
Did the Allies and the people in the Free World know about the events going on in Europe?
A 20.
The various steps taken by the Nazis prior to the "Final Solution" were all taken publicly and were, therefore, reported in the press. Foreign correspondents commented on all the major anti-Jewish actions taken by the Nazis in Germany, Austria, and Czechoslovakia prior to World War II. Once the war began, obtaining information became more difficult, but reports, nonetheless, were published regarding the fate of the Jews. Thus, although the Nazis did not publicize the "Final Solution," less than one year after the systematic murder of the Jews was initiated, details began to filter out to the West. The first report which spoke of a plan for the mass murder of Jews was smuggled out of Poland by the Bund (a Jewish socialist political organization) and reached England in the spring of 1942. The details of this report reached the Allies from Vatican sources as well as from informants in Switzerland and the Polish underground. (Jan Karski, an emissary of the Polish underground, personally met with Franklin Roosevelt and British Foreign Minister Anthony Eden). Eventually, the American Government confirmed the reports to Jewish leaders in late November 1942. They were publicized immediately thereafter. While the details were neither complete nor wholly accurate, the Allies were aware of most of what the Germans had done to the Jews at a relatively early date.
What was the response of the Allies to the persecution of the Jews? Could they have done anything to help?
A 21.
The response of the Allies to the persecution and destruction of European Jewry was inadequate. Only in January 1944 was an agency, the War Refugee Board, established for the express purpose of saving the victims of Nazi persecution. Prior to that date, little action was taken. On December 17, 1942, the Allies issued a condemnation of Nazi atrocities against the Jews, but this was the only such declaration made prior to 1944.
Moreover, no attempt was made to call upon the local population in Europe to refrain from assisting the Nazis in their systematic murder of the Jews. Even following the establishment of the War Refugee Board and the initiation of various rescue efforts, the Allies refused to bomb the death camp of Auschwitz and/or the railway lines leading to that camp, despite the fact that Allied bombers were at that time engaged in bombing factories very close to the camp and were well aware of its existence and function.
Other practical measures which were not taken concerned the refugee problem. Tens of thousands of Jews sought to enter the United States, but they were barred from doing so by the stringent American immigration policy. Even the relatively small quotas of visas which existed were often not filled, although the number of applicants was usually many times the number of available places. Conferences held in Evian, France (1938) and Bermuda (1943) to solve the refugee problem did not contribute to a solution. At the former, the countries invited by the United States and Great Britain were told that no country would be asked to change its immigration laws. Moreover, the British agreed to participate only if Palestine were not considered. At Bermuda, the delegates did not deal with the fate of those still in Nazi hands, but rather with those who had already escaped to neutral lands. Practical measures which could have aided in the rescue of Jews included the following:
• Permission for temporary admission of refugees
• Relaxation of stringent entry requirements
• Frequent and unequivocal warnings to Germany and local populations all over Europe that those participating in the annihilation of Jews would be held strictly accountable
• Bombing the death camp at Auschwitz
Who are the "Righteous Among the Nations"?
A 22.
"Righteous Among the Nations," or "Righteous Gentiles," refers to those non-Jews who aided Jews during the Holocaust. There were "Righteous Among the Nations" in every country overrun or allied with the Nazis, and their deeds often led to the rescue of Jewish lives. Yad Vashem, the Israeli national remembrance authority for the Holocaust, bestows special honors upon these individuals. To date, after carefully evaluating each case, Yad Vashem has recognized approximately 10,000 "Righteous Gentiles" in three different categories of recognition. The country with the most "Righteous Gentiles" is Poland. The country with the highest proportion (per capita) is the Netherlands. The figure of 10,000 is far from complete as many cases were never reported, frequently because those who were helped have died. Moreover, this figure only includes those who actually risked their lives to save Jews, and not those who merely extended aid.
Were Jews in the Free World aware of the persecution and destruction of European Jewry and, if so, what was their response?
A 23.
The news of the persecution and destruction of European Jewry must be divided into two periods. The measures taken by the Nazis prior to the "Final Solution" were all taken publicly and were, therefore, in all the newspapers. Foreign correspondents reported on all major anti-Jewish actions taken by the Nazis in Germany, Austria, and Czechoslovakia prior to World War II. Once the war began, obtaining information became more difficult, but, nonetheless, reports were published regarding the fate of the Jews.
The "Final Solution" was not openly publicized by the Nazis, and thus it took longer for information to reach the "Free World." Nevertheless, by December 1942, news of the mass murders and the plan to annihilate European Jewry was publicized in the Jewish press.
The response of the Jews in the "Free World" must also be divided into two periods, before and after the publication of information on the "Final Solution." Efforts during the early years of the Nazi regime concentrated on facilitating emigration from Germany (although there were those who initially opposed emigration as a solution) and combatting German antisemitism. Unfortunately, the views on how to best achieve these goals differed and effective action was often hampered by the lack of internal unity. Moreover, very few Jewish leaders actually realized the scope of the danger. Following the publication of the news of the "Final Solution," attempts were made to launch rescue attempts via neutral states and to send aid to Jews under Nazi rule. These attempts, which were far from adequate, were further hampered by the lack of assistance and obstruction from government channels. Additional attempts to achieve internal unity during this period failed.
Did the Jews in Europe realize what was going to happen to them?
A 24.
Regarding the knowledge of the "Final Solution" by its potential victims, several key points must be kept in mind. First of all, the Nazis did not publicize the "Final Solution," nor did they ever openly speak about it. Every attempt was made to fool the victims and, thereby, prevent or minimize resistance. Thus, deportees were always told that they were going to be "resettled." They were led to believe that conditions "in the East" (where they were being sent) would be better than those in ghettos. Following arrival in certain concentration camps, the inmates were forced to write home about the wonderful conditions in their new place of residence. The Germans made every effort to ensure secrecy. In addition, the notion that human beings--let alone the civilized Germans--could build camps with special apparatus for mass murder seemed unbelievable in those days. Since German troops liberated the Jews from the Czar in World War I, Germans were regarded by many Jews as a liberal, civilized people. Escapees who did return to the ghetto frequently encountered disbelief when they related their experiences. Even Jews who had heard of the camps had difficulty believing reports of what the Germans were doing there. Inasmuch as each of the Jewish communities in Europe was almost completely isolated, there was a limited number of places with available information. Thus, there is no doubt that many European Jews were not aware of the "Final Solution," a fact that has been corroborated by German documents and the testimonies of survivors.
How many Jews were able to escape from Europe prior to the Holocaust?
A 25.
It is difficult to arrive at an exact figure for the number of Jews who were able to escape from Europe prior to World War II, since the available statistics are incomplete. From 1933-1939, 355,278 German and Austrian Jews left their homes. (Some immigrated to countries later overrun by the Nazis.) In the same period, 80,860 Polish Jews immigrated to Palestine and 51,747 European Jews arrived in Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay. During the years 1938-1939, approximately 35,000 emigrated from Bohemia and Moravia (Czechoslovakia). Shanghai, the only place in the world for which one did not need an entry visa, received approximately 20,000 European Jews (mostly of German origin) who fled their homelands. Immigration figures for countries of refuge during this period are not available. In addition, many countries did not provide a breakdown of immigration statistics according to ethnic groups. It is impossible, therefore, to ascertain.
What efforts were made to save the Jews fleeing from Germany before World War II began?
A 26.
Various organizations attempted to facilitate the emigration of the Jews (and non-Jews persecuted as Jews) from Germany. Among the most active were the Jewish Agency for Palestine, the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, HICEM, the Central British Fund for German Jewry, the Reichsvertretung der Deutschen Juden (Reich Representation of German Jews), which represented German Jewry, and other non-Jewish groups such as the League of Nations High Commission for Refugees (Jewish and other) coming from Germany, and the American Friends Service Committee. Among the programs launched were the "Transfer Agreement" between the Jewish Agency and the German government whereby immigrants to Palestine were allowed to transfer their funds to that country in conjunction with the import of German goods to Palestine. Other efforts focused on retraining prospective emigrants in order to increase the number of those eligible for visas, since some countries barred the entry of members of certain professions. Other groups attempted to help in various phases of refugee work: selection of candidates for emigration, transportation of refugees, aid in immigrant absorption, etc. Some groups attempted to facilitate increased emigration by enlisting the aid of governments and international organizations in seeking refugee havens. The League of Nations established an agency to aid refugees but its success was extremely limited due to a lack of political power and adequate funding.
The United States and Great Britain convened a conference in 1938 at Evian, France, seeking a solution to the refugee problem. With the exception of the Dominican Republic, the nations assembled refused to change their stringent immigration regulations, which were instrumental in preventing large-scale immigration.
In 1939, the Intergovernmental Committee on Refugees, which had been established at the Evian Conference, initiated negotiations with leading German officials in an attempt to arrange for the relocation of a significant portion of German Jewry. However, these talks failed. Efforts were made for the illegal entry of Jewish immigrants to Palestine as early as July 1934, but were later halted until July 1938. Large-scale efforts were resumed under the Mosad le-Aliya Bet, Revisionist Zionists, and private parties. Attempts were also made, with some success, to facilitate the illegal entry of refugees to various countries in Latin America.
Why were so few refugees able to flee Europe prior to the outbreak of World War II?
A 27.
The key reason for the relatively low number of refugees leaving Europe prior to World War II was the stringent immigration policies adopted by the prospective host countries. In the United States, for example, the number of immigrants was limited to 153,744 per year, divided by country of origin. Moreover, the entry requirements were so stringent that available quotas were often not filled. Schemes to facilitate immigration outside the quotas never materialized as the majority of the American public consistently opposed the entry of additional refugees. Other countries, particularly those in Latin America, adopted immigration policies that were similar or even more restrictive, thus closing the doors to prospective immigrants from the Third Reich. Great Britain, while somewhat more liberal than the United States on the entry of immigrants, took measures to severely limit Jewish immigration to Palestine. In May 1939, the British issued a "White Paper" stipulating that only 75,000 Jewish immigrants would be allowed to enter Palestine over the course of the next five years (10,000 a year, plus an additional 25,000). This decision prevented hundreds of thousands of Jews from escaping Europe.
The countries most able to accept large numbers of refugees consistently refused to open their gates. Although a solution to the refugee problem was the agenda of the Evian Conference, only the Dominican Republic was willing to approve large-scale immigration. The United States and Great Britain proposed resettlement havens in under-developed areas (e.g. Guyana, formerly British Guiana, and the Philippines), but these were not suitable alternatives.
Two important factors should be noted. During the period prior to the outbreak of World War II, the Germans were in favor of Jewish emigration. At that time, there were no operative plans to kill the Jews. The goal was to induce them to leave, if necessary, by the use of force. It is also important to recognize the attitude of German Jewry. While many German Jews were initially reluctant to emigrate, the majority sought to do so following Kristallnacht (The Night of Broken Glass), November 9-10, 1938. Had havens been available, more people would certainly have emigrated.
What was Hitler's ultimate goal in launching World War II?
A 28.
Hitler's ultimate goal in launching World War II was the establishment of an Aryan empire from Germany to the Urals. He considered this area the natural territory of the German people, an area to which they were entitled by right, the Lebensraum (living space) that Germany needed so badly for its farmers to have enough soil. Hitler maintained that these areas were needed for the Aryan race to preserve itself and assure its dominance.
There is no question that Hitler knew that, by launching the war in the East, the Nazis would be forced to deal with serious racial problems in view of the composition of the population in the Eastern areas. Thus, the Nazis had detailed plans for the subjugation of the Slavs, who would be reduced to serfdom status and whose primary function would be to serve as a source of cheap labor for Aryan farmers. Those elements of the local population, who were of higher racial stock, would be taken to Germany where they would be raised as Aryans.
In Hitler's mind, the solution of the Jewish problem was also linked to the conquest of the eastern territories. These areas had large Jewish populations and they would have to be dealt with accordingly. While at this point there was still no operative plan for mass annihilation, it was clear to Hitler that some sort of comprehensive solution would have to be found. There was also talk of establishing a Jewish reservation either in Madagascar or near Lublin, Poland. When he made the decisive decision to invade the Soviet Union, Hitler also gave instructions to embark upon the "Final Solution," the systematic murder of European Jewry.
Was there any opposition to the Nazis within Germany?
A 29.
Throughout the course of the Third Reich, there were different groups who opposed the Nazi regime and certain Nazi policies. They engaged in resistance at different times and with various methods, aims, and scope.
From the beginning, leftist political groups and a number of disappointed conservatives were in opposition; at a later date, church groups, government officials, students and businessmen also joined. After the tide of the war was reversed, elements within the military played an active role in opposing Hitler. At no point, however, was there a unified resistance movement within Germany.
Did the Jews try to fight against the Nazis? To what extent were such efforts successful?
A 30.
Despite the difficult conditions to which Jews were subjected in Nazi-occupied Europe, many engaged in armed resistance against the Nazis. This resistance can be divided into three basic types of armed activities: ghetto revolts, resistance in concentration and death camps, and partisan warfare.
The Warsaw Ghetto revolt, which lasted for about five weeks beginning on April 19, 1943, is probably the best-known example of armed Jewish resistance, but there were many ghetto revolts in which Jews fought against the Nazis.
Despite the terrible conditions in the death, concentration, and labor camps, Jewish inmates fought against the Nazis at the following sites: Treblinka (August 2, 1943); Babi Yar (September 29, 1943); Sobibór (October 14, 1943); Janówska (November 19, 1943); and Auschwitz (October 7, 1944).
Jewish partisan units were active in many areas, including Baranovichi, Minsk, Naliboki forest, and Vilna. While the sum total of armed resistance efforts by Jews was not militarily overwhelming and did not play a significant role in the defeat of Nazi Germany, these acts of resistance did lead to the rescue of an undetermined number of Jews, Nazi casualties, and untold damage to German property and self-esteem.
What was the Judenrat?
A 31.
The Judenrat was the council of Jews, appointed by the Nazis in each Jewish community or ghetto. According to the directive from Reinhard Heydrich of the SS on September 21, 1939, a Judenrat was to be established in every concentration of Jews in the occupied areas of Poland. They were led by noted community leaders. Enforcement of Nazi decrees affecting Jews and administration of the affairs of the Jewish community were the responsibilities of the Judenrat. These functions placed the Judenrat in a highly responsible, but controversial position, and many of their actions continue to be the subject of debate among historians. While the intentions of the heads of councils were rarely challenged, their tactics and methods have been questioned. Among the most controversial were Mordechai Rumkowski in Lodz and Jacob Gens in Vilna, both of whom justified the sacrifice of some Jews in order to save others. Leaders and members of the Judenrat were guided, for the most part, by a sense of communal responsibility, but lacked the power and the means to successfully thwart Nazi plans for annihilation of all Jews.
Did international organizations, such as the Red Cross, aid victims of Nazi persecution?
A 32.
During the course of World War II, the International Red Cross (IRC) did very little to aid the Jewish victims of Nazi persecution. Its activities can basically be divided into three periods:
1. September, 1939 - June 22, 1941:
The IRC confined its activities to sending food packages to those in distress in Nazi-occupied Europe. Packages were distributed in accordance with the directives of the German Red Cross. Throughout this time, the IRC complied with the German contention that those in ghettos and camps constituted a threat to the security of the Reich and, therefore, were not allowed to receive aid from the IRC.
2. June 22, 1941 - Summer 1944:
Despite numerous requests by Jewish organizations, the IRC refused to publicly protest the mass annihilation of Jews and non-Jews in the camps, or to intervene on their behalf. It maintained that any public action on behalf of those under Nazi rule would ultimately prove detrimental to their welfare. At the same time, the IRC attempted to send food parcels to those individuals whose addresses it possessed.
3. Summer 1944 - May 1945:
Following intervention by such prominent figures as President Franklin Roosevelt and the King of Sweden, the IRC appealed to Miklós Horthy, Regent of Hungary, to stop the deportation of Hungarian Jews.
The IRC did insist that it be allowed to visit concentration camps, and a delegation did visit the "model ghetto" of Terezin (Theresienstadt). The IRC request came following the receipt of information about the harsh living conditions in the camp.
The IRC requested permission to investigate the situation, but the Germans only agreed to allow the visit nine months after submission of the request. This delay provided time for the Nazis to complete a "beautification" program, designed to fool the delegation into thinking that conditions at Terezin were quite good and that inmates were allowed to live out their lives in relative tranquility.
The visit, which took place on July 23, 1944, was followed by a favorable report on Terezin to the members of the IRC which Jewish organizations protested vigorously, demanding that another delegation visit the camp. Such a visit was not permitted until shortly before the end of the war. In reality, the majority were subsequently deported to Auschwitz where they were murdered.
How did Germany's allies, the Japanese and the Italians, treat the Jews in the lands they occupied?
A 33.
Neither the Italians nor the Japanese, both of whom were Germany's allies during World War II, cooperated regarding the "Final Solution." Although the Italians did, upon German urging, institute discriminatory legislation against Italian Jews, Mussolini's government refused to participate in the "Final Solution" and consistently refused to deport its Jewish residents. Moreover, in their occupied areas of France, Greece, and Yugoslavia, the Italians protected the Jews and did not allow them to be deported. However, when the Germans overthrew the Badoglio government in 1943, the Jews of Italy, as well as those under Italian protection in occupied areas, were subject to the "Final Solution."
The Japanese were also relatively tolerant toward the Jews in their country as well as in the areas which they occupied. Despite pressure by their German allies urging them to take stringent measures against Jews, the Japanese refused to do so. Refugees were allowed to enter Japan until the spring of 1941, and Jews in Japanese-occupied China were treated well. In the summer and fall of 1941, refugees in Japan were transferred to Shanghai but no measures were taken against them until early 1943, when they were forced to move into the Hongkew Ghetto. While conditions were hardly satisfactory, they were far superior to those in the ghettos under German control.
What was the attitude of the churches vis-a-vis the persecution of the Jews? Did the Pope ever speak out against the Nazis?
A 34.
The head of the Catholic Church at the time of the Nazi rise to power was Pope Pius XI. Although he stated that the myths of "race" and "blood" were contrary to Christian teaching (in a papal encyclical, March 1937), he neither mentioned nor criticized antisemitism. His successor, Pius XII (Cardinal Pacelli) was a Germanophile who maintained his neutrality throughout the course of World War II. Although as early as 1942 the Vatican received detailed information on the murder of Jews in concentration camps, the Pope confined his public statements to expressions of sympathy for the victims of injustice and to calls for a more humane conduct of the war.
Despite the lack of response by Pope Pius XII, several papal nuncios played an important role in rescue efforts, particularly the nuncios in Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, and Turkey. It is not clear to what, if any, extent they operated upon instructions from the Vatican. In Germany, the Catholic Church did not oppose the Nazis' antisemitic campaign. Church records were supplied to state authorities which assisted in the detection of people of Jewish origin, and efforts to aid the persecuted were confined to Catholic non-Aryans. While Catholic clergymen protested the Nazi euthanasia program, few, with the exception of Bernhard Lichtenberg, spoke out against the murder of the Jews.
In Western Europe, Catholic clergy spoke out publicly against the persecution of the Jews and actively helped in the rescue of Jews. In Eastern Europe, however, the Catholic clergy was generally more reluctant to help. Dr. Jozef Tiso, the head of state of Slovakia and a Catholic priest, actively cooperated with the Germans as did many other Catholic priests.
The response of Protestant and Eastern Orthodox churches varied. In Germany, for example, Nazi supporters within Protestant churches complied with the anti-Jewish legislation and even excluded Christians of Jewish origin from membership. Pastor Martin Niem"ller's Confessing Church defended the rights of Christians of Jewish origin within the church, but did not publicly protest their persecution, nor did it condemn the measures taken against the Jews, with the exception of a memorandum sent to Hitler in May 1936.
In occupied Europe, the position of the Protestant churches varied. In several countries (Denmark, France, the Netherlands, and Norway) local churches and/or leading clergymen issued public protests when the Nazis began deporting Jews. In other countries (Bulgaria, Greece, and Yugoslavia), some Orthodox church leaders intervened on behalf of the Jews and took steps which, in certain cases, led to the rescue of many Jews.
How many Nazi criminals were there? How many were brought to justice?
A 35.
We do not know the exact number of Nazi criminals since the available documentation is incomplete. The Nazis themselves destroyed many incriminating documents and there are still many criminals who are unidentified and/or unindicted.
Those who committed war crimes include those individuals who initiated, planned and directed the killing operations, as well as those with whose knowledge, agreement, and passive participation the murder of European Jewry was carried out.
Those who actually implemented the "Final Solution" include the leaders of Nazi Germany, the heads of the Nazi Party, and the Reich Security Main Office. Also included are hundreds of thousands of members of the Gestapo, the SS, the Einsatzgruppen, the police and the armed forces, as well as those bureaucrats who were involved in the persecution and destruction of European Jewry. In addition, there were thousands of individuals throughout occupied Europe who cooperated with the Nazis in killing Jews and other innocent civilians.
We do not have complete statistics on the number of criminals brought to justice, but the number is certainly far less than the total of those who were involved in the "Final Solution." The leaders of the Third Reich, who were caught by the Allies, were tried by the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg from November 20, 1945 to October 1, 1946. Afterwards, the Allied occupation authorities continued to try Nazis, with the most significant trials held in the American zone (the Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings). In total, 5,025 Nazi criminals were convicted between 1945-1949 in the American, British and French zones, in addition to an unspecified number of people who were tried in the Soviet zone. In addition, the United Nations War Crimes Commission prepared lists of war criminals who were later tried by the judicial authorities of Allied countries and those countries under Nazi rule during the war. The latter countries have conducted a large number of trials regarding crimes committed in their lands. The Polish tribunals, for example, tried approximately 40,000 persons, and large numbers of criminals were tried in other countries. In all, about 80,000 Germans have been convicted for committing crimes against humanity, while the number of local collaborators is in the tens of thousands. Special mention should be made of Simon Wiesenthal, whose activities led to the capture of over one thousand Nazi criminals.
Courts in Germany began, in some cases, to function as early as 1945. By 1969, almost 80,000 Germans had been investigated and over 6,000 had been convicted. In 1958, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG; West Germany) established a special agency in Ludwigsburg to aid in the investigation of crimes committed by Germans outside Germany, an agency which, since its establishment, has been involved in hundreds of major investigations. One of the major problems regarding the trial of war criminals in the FRG (as well as in Austria) has been the fact that the sentences have been disproportionately lenient for the crimes committed. Some trials were also conducted in the former German Democratic Republic (GDR; East Germany), yet no statistics exist as to the number of those convicted or the extent of their sentences.
What were the Nuremberg trials?
A 36.
The term "Nuremberg Trials" refers to two sets of trials of Nazi war criminals conducted after the war. The first trials were held November 20, 1945 to October 1, 1946, before the International Military Tribunal (IMT), which was made up of representatives of France, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and the United States. It consisted of the trials of the political, military and economic leaders of the Third Reich captured by the Allies. Among the defendants were: G"ring, Rosenberg, Streicher, Kaltenbrunner, Seyss-Inquart, Speer, Ribbentrop and Hess (many of the most prominent Nazis -- Hitler, Himmler, and Goebbels -- committed suicide and were not brought to trial). The second set of trials, known as the Subsequent Nuremberg Proceedings, was conducted before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals (NMT), established by the Office of the United States Government for Germany (OMGUS). While the judges on the NMT were American citizens, the tribunal considered itself international. Twelve high-ranking officials were tried, among whom were cabinet ministers, diplomats, doctors involved in medical experiments, and SS officers involved in crimes in concentration camps or in genocide in Nazi-occupied areas.
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Following Facing Historyâs unique methodology, Holocaust and Human Behavior uses readings, primary source material, and short documentary films to examine the challenging history of the Holocaust and prompt reflection on our world today. This website is designed to let you skip around or read the book from cover to cover. You can easily browse by reading or topic, collect resources, and build your own lessons using our playlist tool, or visit the teaching toolbox to find our lessons and unit outlines. The book is also available in print and PDF.
Scope and Sequence
The journey begins by examining common human behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes students can readily observe in their own lives.
Our scope and sequence promotes studentsâ historical understanding, critical thinking, empathy, and socialâemotional learning.
Learning Goals
Lead your middle and high school students through a thorough examination of the history of the Holocaust. Over the course of the unit, students will learn to:
What's Included
This book supports an exploration of the Holocaust through the lens of human behavior. It includes:
Additional Context & Background
Holocaust and Human Behavior leads students through an examination of the catastrophic period in the twentieth century when Nazi Germany murdered six million Jews and millions of other civilians, in the midst of the most destructive war in human history.
Following Facing Historyâs unique methodology , the book also takes students on a parallel journey through an exploration of the universal themes inherent in a study of the Holocaust that raise profound and difficult questions about human behavior.
By focusing on the choices of individuals who experienced this history as victims, witnesses, collaborators, rescuers, and perpetrators, students come to recognize our shared humanityâwhich, according to historian Doris Bergen, helps us to see the Holocaust not just as part of European or Jewish history but as âan event in human history,â confirming the relevance of this history in our lives and our world today. 1
This approach helps students make connections between history and the consequences of our actions and beliefs todayâbetween history and how we as individuals make distinctions between right and wrong, good and evil. As students examine the steps that led to the Holocaust, they discover that history is not inevitable; it is, rather, the result of both individual and collective decision making.
They come to realize that there are no easy answers to the complex problems of racism, antisemitism, hatred, and violence, no quick fixes for social injustices, and no simple solutions to moral dilemmas. After studying Nazi Germany and the Holocaust, one Facing History student wrote, âIt has made me more awareânot only of what happened in the past but also what is happening today, now, in the world and in me.â
As theologian Eva Fleischner explains, learning about this history can change each of us: âThe more we come to know about the Holocaust, how it came about, how it was carried out . . . the greater the possibility that we will become sensitized to inhumanity and suffering whenever they occur.â 2
This crucial sensitization to inhumanity and suffering can help students develop the patience and commitment that is required for meaningful change. As another Facing History student wrote: âThe more we learn about why and how people behave the way they do, the more likely we are to become involved and find our own solutions.
A note to teachers.
Before you teach this lesson, please review the following guidance to tailor this lesson to your studentsâ contexts and needs.
Using Holocaust and Human Behavior
Holocaust and Human Behavior is the flagship title in Facing Historyâs collection of resources about the Holocaust, and it is part of an even larger collection of resources on genocide and mass violence. It includes a wealth of material, and teachers are encouraged to curate their own selection of readings, videos, and other resources using our new playlist tool. Our Teaching Toolboxes provide unit outlines and other materials to help teachers with this process.
This resource consists of 12 chapters, sequenced to explore the history of the Holocaust through the Facing History scope and sequence . Each chapter contains an Introduction and Essential Questions, which connect the chapterâs specific focus to the big ideas and universal themes that are woven throughout the book. Each chapter ends with a series of Analysis and Reflection questions that reinforce the connections between the chapterâs specific content and universal themes.
The bulk of each chapter consists of a series of readings that either explore a theme, such as the relationship between the individual and society, or present part of the historical narrative of Nazi Germany and the Holocaust. Each reading is followed by a series of Connection Questions that help students comprehend the text, illuminate important themes, and find connections between this history and their lives and the world today. Many readings are also accompanied by links to streaming videos and other Facing History publications that you may use to supplement or deepen studentsâ learning.
Three chapters (Chapters 4, 6, and 11) include visual essays that use a series of images to provide a visual entry point to a key aspect of the history of the Holocaust and how it is remembered today. Each visual essay also includes an introduction and a set of Connection Questions to help guide studentsâ analysis of the images.
Teaching Emotionally Challenging Content
Many teachers want their students to achieve emotional engagement with the history of the Holocaust and therefore teach this history with the goal of fostering empathy. However, Holocaust and Human Behavior , like any examination of the Holocaust, includes historical descriptions and firsthand accounts that some students may find emotionally challenging. Teachers should select components from this resource that are most appropriate for the intellectual and emotional needs of their students.
It is difficult to predict how students will respond to primary and secondary source readings, documents, and films. One student may respond with emotion to a particular reading, while others may not find it powerful in the same way. In addition, different people demonstrate emotion in different ways. Some students will be silent. Some may laugh. Some may not want to talk. Some may take days to process difficult stories. For some, a particular firsthand account may be incomprehensible; for others, it may be familiar.
It is also important to note that our experience suggests that it is often problematic to use graphic images and films or to attempt to use simulations to help students understand aspects of this history. Such resources and activities can traumatize some students, desensitize others, or trivialize the history.
We urge teachers to create space for students to have a range of reactions and emotions. This might include time for silent reflection or writing in journals, as well as structured discussions to help students process content together. Some students will not want to share their reactions to emotionally challenging content in class, and teachers should respect that in class discussions. When teaching emotionally challenging content, it is crucial for educators to allow a variety of responses, or none at all, from students to authentically support their emotional growth and academic development.
Fostering a Reflective Classroom Community
We believe that a Facing History & Ourselves classroom is in many ways a microcosm of democracyâa place where explicit rules and implicit norms protect everyoneâs right to speak; where different perspectives can be heard and valued; where members take responsibility for themselves, each other, and the group as a whole; and where each member has a stake and a voice in collective decisions. You may have already established rules and guidelines with your students to help bring about these characteristics in your classroom. If not, it is essential at the start of your study of Holocaust and Human Behavior to facilitate the beginning of a supportive, reflective classroom community. Once established, both you and your students will need to nurture this reflective community on an ongoing basis through the ways that you participate and respond to each other. We have found that classroom contracts and student journals are invaluable tools for creating and maintaining a reflective classroom community. We recommend considering the following ideas and strategies as you plan your unit or course.
Inside this collection, explore the resources, the individual and society, we and they, world war: choices and consequences, the weimar republic: the fragility of democracy, the national socialist revolution, conformity and consent in the national community, open aggression and world responses, a war for race and space, judgment and justice, legacy and memory, choosing to participate, recommended resources for holocaust and human behavior, spanish translations from holocaust and human behavior, additional resources, related facing history resources & learning opportunities, teaching holocaust and human behavior, the holocaust and jewish communities in wartime north africa, gay life under nazi rule: the legacy of paragraph 175, special thanks.
This new edition of Holocaust and Human Behavior is dedicated to Richard and Susan Smith, with special thanks to the Richard and Susan Smith Family Foundation.
Teaching with video testimony, teaching with testimony, survivors and witnesses: video testimony, teaching holocaust and human behaviour (uk), resources for civic education in california, resources for civic education in massachusetts, explore the partisans, resistance during the holocaust: an exploration of the jewish partisans, pre-war jewish life in north africa, holocaust and human behavior: a facing history & ourselves high school elective course, responses to rising antisemitism and antisemitic legislation in north africa, the holocaust and north africa: resistance in the camps, unlimited access to learning. more added every month..
Facing History & Ourselves is designed for educators who want to help students explore identity, think critically, grow emotionally, act ethically, and participate in civic life. Itâs hard work, so weâve developed some go-to professional learning opportunities to help you along the way.
Working for justice, equity and civic agency in our schools: a conversation with clint smith, centering student voices to build community and agency, inspiration, insights, & ways to get involved.
The Holocaust was the systematic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million Jews by the Nazi regime and its allies and collaborators. Learn more in the Museumâs Holocaust Encyclopedia .
Learn more about why Nazi Germany and its collaborators targeted Jews and other victims of the Holocaust era.
Get an overview of the Holocaust told through historical photographs, maps, images of artifacts, and testimony clips.
Watch a 38-minute film exploring the Nazi rise to power and the path Nazis and their collaborators took to war and the murder of millions of people.
This resource contains more than 850 articles about the Holocaust, antisemitism, and current-day mass atrocities in 19 languages, including:
An Introduction to the Holocaust
Nazi Propaganda
Antisemitism
Documenting Numbers of Victims of the Holocaust and Nazi Persecution
Explore the online versions of current and past exhibitions, such as Americans and the Holocaust  and Some Were Neighbors: Collaboration and Complicity in the Holocaust.
Listen to or read Holocaust survivorsâ experiences, told in their own words through oral histories, written testimony, and public programs.
Learn about key events related to the Holocaust from before 1933 through 1945 and beyond.
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Podcasts and Audio
Online Lectures
Are you an educator looking for resources to use in your classroom?  We can help. Please complete this short form , and Museum staff will connect with you.
Watch videos and read articles about the Holocaust and the conditions that made it possible.
On the occasion of International Holocaust Remembrance Day , commemorated each year on 27 January, UNESCO pays tribute to the memory of the victims of the Holocaust and reaffirms its commitment to counter antisemitism, racism, and other forms of intolerance.
In 2017, UNESCO released a policy guide on Education about the Holocaust and preventing genocide , to provide effective responses and a wealth of recommendations for education stakeholders.
What is education about the Holocaust?
Education about the Holocaust is primarily the historical study of the systematic, bureaucratic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million Jews by Nazi Germany and its collaborators.
It also provides a starting point to examine warning signs that can indicate the potential for mass atrocity. This study raises questions about human behaviour and our capacity to succumb to scapegoating or simple answers to complex problems in the face of vexing societal challenges. The Holocaust illustrates the dangers of prejudice, discrimination, antisemitism and dehumanization. It also reveals the full range of human responses - raising important considerations about societal and individual motivations and pressures that lead people to act as they do - or to not act at all.
Why teach about the Holocaust?
Education stakeholders can build on a series of rationales when engaging with this subject, in ways that can relate to a variety of contexts and histories throughout the world. The guide lists some of the main reasons why it is universally relevant to engage with such education.
Teaching and learning about the Holocaust:
What are the teaching and learning goals?
Understanding how and why the Holocaust occurred can inform broader understandings of mass violence globally, as well as highlight the value of promoting human rights, ethics, and civic engagement that bolsters human solidarity. Studying this history can prompt discussion of the societal contexts that enable exclusionary policies to divide communities and promote environments that make genocide possible. It is a powerful tool to engage learners on discussions pertaining to the emergence and the promotion of human rights; on the nature and dynamics of atrocity crimes and how they can be prevented; as well as on how to deal with traumatic pasts through education.
Such education creates multiple opportunities for learners to reflect on their role as global citizens. The guide explores for example how education about the Holocaust can advance the learning objectives sought by Global Citizenship Education (GCED), a pillar of the Education 2030 Agenda. It proposes topics and activities that can help develop students to be informed and critically literate; socially connected, respectful of diversity; and ethically responsible and engaged.
What are the main areas of implementation?
Every country has a distinct context and different capacities. The guide covers all the areas policy-makers should take into consideration when engaging with education about the Holocaust and, possibly, education about genocide and mass atrocities. It also provides precise guidelines for each of these areas. This comprises for example curricula and textbooks, including how the Holocaust can be integrated across different subjects, for what ages, and how to make sure textbooks and curricula are historically accurate. The guide also covers teacher training, classroom practices and appropriate pedagogies, higher learning institutions. It also provides important recommendations on how to improve interactions with the non-formal sector of education, through adult education, partnerships with museums and memorials, study-trips, and the implementation of international remembrance days.
Learn more about UNESCOâs on Education about the Holocaust .
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“For the dead and the living, we must bear witness.” âElie Wiesel
The Museumâs leading educators and historians have used their renowned collection of primary sources to develop a repository of free instructional resources that support accurate, meaningful and relevant examination of the Holocaust. Start planning your unit here with their Getting Started Guide for Teachers .
Often the most important topics we teach are some of the most challenging and difficult to discuss. Because of this, teaching the Holocaust to students of any grade level is a complex task. It is also a vitally important one.
Above all, we want to make sure we provide students with the most accurate and relevant information. But we also must acknowledge the age level of the students we teach. It is important to open studentsâ eyes to the reality of what was lost while maintaining respect for the lived experiences of so many individuals. Therefore, itâs crucial that we model this respect for our students. Finally, we want to show our students how the events of the Holocaust are still so relevant today.
The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum is dedicated to supporting educators who undertake this important work. The museumâs leading educators and historians have used their renowned collection of primary sources to create historically accurate, relevant resources that support teachers as they encourage students to think critically about the past and their role in the world today. If you are going to be teaching about the Holocaust, these resources will ensure you feel prepared and confident in doing so.
These ready-to-use resources have been grouped together to help teachers in several ways. First, they will help teachers just beginning to plan a unit on the Holocaust. Additionally, they will help teachers who have a limited amount of time to teach this important subject.
These lesson plans introduce key concepts and historical content to students. The lessons utilize primary source materials from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museumâs collections.
Many teachers use novels or memoirs as a window into this topic for students. These resources support lesson plans exploring Elie Wieselâs memoir, Night , Anne Frankâs Diary of a Young Girl , and others.
These resources explore the history of antisemitism, the dangers it poses today, and the history behind Nazi symbols and terms.
These videos and accompanying lesson plans have been produced by museum historians and educators for use in middle and high school classrooms to support accurate and effective teaching about the Holocaust.
These materials examine the motives, pressures, and fears that shaped Americansâ responses to Nazism, war, and genocide. They also provide insight into how much information was available to the American public and the U.S. government about what was happening during this time.
This lesson asks students to examine testimonies of Holocaust survivors via a variety of mediums (videos, diaries, transcripts, and audio). Included activities explore the purpose of oral histories, how testimonies personalize the history and vary from other primary sources, and how we should critically evaluate them as historical sources. This lesson is available in Spanish, including several survivor testimony clips.
The interactive online lessons are compatible with learning management systems or web browsers for students to complete individually or as a class. Perfect for in-person or at-home learning.
Designed to support accurate, meaningful teaching about the Holocaust, the Belfer National Conference for Educators is the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museumâs flagship event for secondary-school educators and invites participants to engage with current historical research and instructional best practices.
The USHMM offers educators several resources for their lessons. Teachers can order hard copies of these resources or download them. Some of the materials available include:
This collection of commonly asked questions was developed with educators in mind. It will help you address student questions about historical content.
The museumâs Holocaust Encyclopedia provides hundreds of articles about how and why the Holocaust happened. It includes access to digitized collections, critical thinking and discussion questions, lesson plans, oral histories, animated maps, artifact and document images, historical film clips, ID cards, photographs, and audio clips. Additionally, there are over 950 articles in English and hundreds of other articles offered in 19 languages, including Spanish, Arabic, Farsi, Russian, and Hindi.
The Museumâs Collections document the fate of Holocaust victims, survivors, rescuers, liberators, and others through artifacts, documents, photos, films, books, personal stories, and more. You will also find collections curated by theme and type . Learn more about Teaching With Primary Sources using this on-demand professional learning video.
These lesson plans explore how propaganda and hate speech were used by the Nazis during the Holocaust. Materials encourage critical analysis of messages and the effects of propaganda on people and society both then and now.
This bibliography provides an extensive list of resources appropriate for the secondary school level and includes diaries, memoirs, secondary sources, literature, graphic novels, and films. In addition, grade and Lexile levels are included whenever possible.
The USHMM provides foundational materials in Spanish such as:
Teaching the Holocaust can be daunting. Because of this, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum is dedicated to providing educators with resources, guidance, and support. To support educators, the museum answers individual questions you might have about resources and instructional strategies.
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The Holocaust is a major part of world history, and over the years it has been analyzed politically, religiously and even in the education systems. Students undertaking history related courses are likely to encounter this type of essay. This guide provides tips on how to select great holocaust topics and also offers some sample topics ideas and questions.
The Holocaust has been broken down and analyzed from various possible angles giving students a range of topics to choose from. What should you consider when selecting holocaust topics?
Choose a topic that you are familiar with and which you have a good level of understanding on the subject.
Selecting topics based on your interest or curiosity in a particular area can fuel your research and discussions in the essay.
Topics can vary in size depending on what they are about. Therefore, pick one that best fulfills the requirements of the word count. Narrow down wide topics and avoid the ones that are too narrow.
Your previous topics or essays can give you an idea of what to write about. Think about a previous topic you wrote about the Holocaust that you could modify to fit the requirements of the essay.
You can adjust a related topic or write about a different aspect of a similar idea. However, be careful with this approach to avoid repeating what you previously wrote since it would be regarded as a lack of creativity. The point is that if you decide to re-use a topic, with a new perspective on the topic, it should be seen as legitimate. Interested in this topic? Hire a pro & get a flawless paper by the deadline. Order
We have gathered some topics that you can use for your essays and even guide you in creating your own.
Take a look at these essay questions we have gathered.
Below are some ideas you can build into good essay topics about the Holocaust.
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Be it history or the sciences, the holocaust has played a key role in shaping theories and ideologies. How do you make your paper on the holocaust standout? What is it that you would be keen to know and research on? If you are finding it hard to put things in perspective, here is a list of topics on concentration camp research paper. It aims to help students and create a resource they can consult for writing research papers on the holocaust.
Classic holocaust topics for research, holocaust argumentative essay topics, holocaust writing prompts for cause and effect, topics for comparison and contrast, art-based research papers on holocaust.
These holocaust research paper topics have inspired many students across the world. Go through these questions or topics to get inspired. They are sure to help you create interesting papers on the event.
To write a holocaust research paper use these topics as a foundation to start with and build upon.
These holocaust research questions present two perspectives of a given topic. They focus on the concentration research camp paper, as well as, the papers on arts and science during the holocaust. The argumentative holocaust paper topics give you a lot of scope for research.
These holocaust research topics look into the massive effects of the Holocaust. Some of these can be felt even today.
These holocaust research topics compare similar events and ideologies that are connected to the holocaust.
These holocaust research questions delve into the artistic representation of the Holocaust.
For more prompts and writing help in various styles, get in touch with our skilled professionals today.
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Mr. Walz, now the Democratsâ vice-presidential nominee, asked his high school students in 1993 which country was most at risk for genocide. Their prediction came to pass: Rwanda.
By Neil Vigdor
The prediction was spot on: Rwanda was barreling toward a devastating genocide.
It did not emanate from a think tank, but from a high school geography class in western Nebraska. The year was 1993. The teacher? Tim Walz, now the Democratic vice-presidential candidate and Minnesota governor.
Thirty-one years later, the class project is drawing new attention. Mr. Walz, a geography teacher at the time, had asked his students to take what they had learned about the Holocaust to predict which nation was most at risk for genocide.
âThey came up with Rwanda,â Mr. Walz said, talking about the project at a conference last month . âTwelve months later, the world witnessed the horrific genocide in Rwanda.â
The project was reported on in a 2008 On Education column for The New York Times that has been widely shared in recent days. Mr. Walz had drawn the attention of the reporter, Samuel G. Freedman, for an earlier column because Mr. Walz was the only K-12 teacher serving in Congress at the time, Mr. Freedman said.
âWhile I was interviewing Walz for the initial column, he told me how the genocide project was one of his proudest moments as an educator,â said Mr. Freedman, who is now a journalism professor at Columbia University . That sparked Mr. Freedman to revisit the story later.
Mr. Walz, when he delivered the lesson plan, had been teaching global geography in Alliance, Neb., and had been chosen for a Belfer fellowship to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum that was opening. Speaking at the conference last month, held by Esri, a company that makes G.I.S. software widely used in mapping, he said the project had a profound effect on his students and bred some cynicism.
âHow could a bunch of students in western Nebraska, in Alliance, use a computer program and some past historical knowledge to come up with this?â he said. âWhy was nobody doing anything about that?â
Several years later, when he was studying for his masterâs degree in experiential education at Minnesota State University, Mankato, Mr. Walz wrote his thesis on Holocaust education, the Jewish Telegraphic Agency reported .
As governor, Mr. Walz signed a bill last year that requires high schools and middle schools to teach about the Holocaust, along with other genocides.
Neil Vigdor covers politics for The Times, focusing on voting rights issues and election disinformation. More about Neil Vigdor
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Organized by theme, these discussion questions examine how and why the Holocaust happened. They are designed to help teachers, students, and all citizens create discussion and encourage reflection about the Holocaust.
What made it possible.
After the war.
Other topics.
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We would like to thank Crown Family Philanthropies, Abe and Ida Cooper Foundation, the Claims Conference, EVZ, and BMF for supporting the ongoing work to create content and resources for the Holocaust Encyclopedia. View the list of donor acknowledgement .
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Select one of the titles to work on. Some of the Holocaust essay topics include: Concentration camps in today's Europe. Lessons from the Holocaust: Fostering tolerance. The consequences of the Holocaust. Present and future of the Holocaust research. The causes of the Holocaust and discrimination against Jewish people.
These essay examples and topics on Holocaust were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you're using them to write your assignment.
The Holocaust. Updated: August 7, 2024 | Original: October 14, 2009. The Holocaust was the state-sponsored persecution and mass murder of millions of European Jews, Romani people, the ...
01. When speaking about the "Holocaust," what time period are we referring to? 02. How many Jews were murdered during the Holocaust? 03. How many non-Jewish civilians were murdered during World War II? 04. Which Jewish communities suffered losses during the Holocaust? 05.
This resource provides writing prompts and strategies that align Holocaust and Human Behavior with the ... writing prompts and teaching strategies in this guide ask students to use evidence as they craft a formal argumentative essay. This guide also features effective writing strategies for general use in the social studies or English classroom ...
Holocaust and Human Behavior, 2017 edition Facing History and Ourselves uses lessons of history to challenge teachers and their students ... Argumentative essays typically have one central argument (the thesis or central claim) and multiple smaller arguments in which the author presents a claim or reason, cites evidence, and
Following Facing History's unique methodology, Holocaust and Human Behavior uses readings, primary source material, and short documentary films to examine the challenging history of the Holocaust and prompt reflection on our world today. This website is designed to let you skip around or read the book from cover to cover. You can easily browse by reading or topic, collect resources, and ...
Holocaust and its aftermath. This is a simple tool to help fill in context for the narrative presented in . The Path to Nazi Genocide. For teachers and students seeking a more concise overview of the Holocaust than that presented in The Path to Nazi Genocide, consider the animated map, "World War II and the Holocaust." It is one of
The Holocaust was the systematic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million Jews by the Nazi regime and its allies and collaborators. ... Teaching Materials by Topic; Holocaust Lesson Plans; Professional Learning for Educators; Connect with the Museum. Facebook. X. YouTube. Instagram. 100 Raoul Wallenberg Place, SW Washington, DC ...
Holocaust history reminds us of the vulnerabilities of human societies in times of rapid change. We face an ever-accelerating rate of change that we cannot begin to comprehend. In 2001, futurist Ray
The U.S. and the Holocaust is a production of Florentine Films and WETA Washington, D.C. FUNDING PROVIDED BY. Corporate funding provided by Bank of America.
Education about the Holocaust is primarily the historical study of the systematic, bureaucratic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million Jews by Nazi Germany and its collaborators. It also provides a starting point to examine warning signs that can indicate the potential for mass atrocity. This study raises questions about human ...
Topics include Americans' response to the Holocaust, how propaganda was utilized by the Nazis during the Holocaust, and more. 3. Teaching Materials Using Books and Literature: Anne Frank, Elie Wiesel, and Holocaust-era Diaries. Many teachers use novels or memoirs as a window into this topic for students.
Below are some ideas you can build into good essay topics about the Holocaust. Final solution. Hitler's background. Nuremberg trials. The Allies response. The resistance. Holocaust children. Concentration camps for Jews. The concept of the master race.
Holocaust Argumentative Essay Topics. These holocaust research questions present two perspectives of a given topic. They focus on the concentration research camp paper, as well as, the papers on arts and science during the holocaust. The argumentative holocaust paper topics give you a lot of scope for research.
Between 1939 and 1945, approximately six million Jews and five million non-Jews died in the Holocaust as Adolph Hitler sought to create a "perfect nation." All of these deaths were premeditated mass executions. In September 1939, Hitler started World War II with a rapid air and land attack on an unprepared Poland.
10 Holocaust Essay Topics for Middle School Students. Anne Frank: A Young Voice in the Holocaust - Discuss the life and impact of Anne Frank and her diary. The Rise of Nazi Germany: Causes and Consequences - Explore the factors that led to the rise of the Nazi regime and its impact on the Holocaust.
The Path to Nazi Genocide provides general background information on the Holocaust for the instructor and for classroom use. This 38-minute film examines the Nazis' rise and consolidation of power in Germany. Using rare footage, the film explores their ideology, propaganda, and persecution of Jews and other victims.
The Holocaust, one of humanities most horrendous acts and a large topic in the history of World War II. Led by the German National Socialists, the Holocaust was an attack on innocent people for reasons of race, sexuality, nationality, and religion with their main target being the millions of European Jews who they saw as an 'inferior race'.
Organized by theme, this learning site presents an overview of the Holocaust through historical photographs, maps, images of artifacts, and testimony clips. It is a resource for middle and secondary level students and teachers, with content that reflects the history as it is presented in the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum's Permanent ...
The Holocaust (1933-1945) was the systematic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million European Jews by the Nazi German regime and its allies and collaborators.1 Footnote 11 In addition to perpetrating the Holocaust, Nazi Germany also persecuted and murdered millions of other victims.
The fruit of their ration, The Holocaust and The Crisis of Human Behavior, is a. toward a psycho-social understanding of the Holocaust. What is novel about their effort is their attempt to. various insights arrived at by certain of the preceding scholars, those of Arendt and Rubenstein.
Night Elie Wiesel Essay Questions Writing an essay on the topic "Night" by Elie Wiesel can be quite challenging due to the complex and emotionally charged nature of the subject matter. This memoir, recounting Wiesel's experiences during the Holocaust, delves into profound themes such as suffering, loss, faith, and the human capacity for cruelty. . Crafting an essay that captures the essence of ...
Mr. Walz, now the Democrats' vice-presidential nominee, asked his high school students in 1993 which country was most at risk for genocide. Their prediction came to pass: Rwanda.
Find topics of interest and explore encyclopedia content related to those topics. Browse A-Z. Find articles, photos, maps, films, and more listed alphabetically ... Media Essay Oral History Photo Series Song ... these discussion questions examine how and why the Holocaust happened. They are designed to help teachers, students, and all citizens ...
Date Discussion and Lecture Topics Week 1 - Introducion 08/23/2024 Introducion to Course and Digital History Week 2 - The Legacy of the First World War ... 09/30/2024 German War Crimes and the Holocaust Essay on Large Language Models Due 10/02/2024 Japanese War Crimes and Medical Experimentaion; Soviet and Allied Crimes
My Holocaust problems; a primer for beginners. This is one man's journey from "Holocaust" believer to "Holocaust denier." He asks the questions any intelligent investigator or student would ask. Share and enjoy the feeling of freedom and liberation! (And get yourself a copy of the definitive work on the topic, The Holocaust Encyclopedia.)