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Mahatma Gandhi

By: History.com Editors

Updated: June 6, 2019 | Original: July 30, 2010

Revered the world over for his nonviolent philosophy of passive resistance, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was known to his many followers as Mahatma, or “the great-souled one.” He began his activism as an Indian immigrant in South Africa in the early 1900s, and in the years following World War I became the leading figure in India’s struggle to gain independence from Great Britain. Known for his ascetic lifestyle–he often dressed only in a loincloth and shawl–and devout Hindu faith, Gandhi was imprisoned several times during his pursuit of non-cooperation, and undertook a number of hunger strikes to protest the oppression of India’s poorest classes, among other injustices. After Partition in 1947, he continued to work toward peace between Hindus and Muslims. Gandhi was shot to death in Delhi in January 1948 by a Hindu fundamentalist.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869, at Porbandar, in the present-day Indian state of Gujarat. His father was the dewan (chief minister) of Porbandar; his deeply religious mother was a devoted practitioner of Vaishnavism (worship of the Hindu god Vishnu), influenced by Jainism, an ascetic religion governed by tenets of self-discipline and nonviolence. At the age of 19, Mohandas left home to study law in London at the Inner Temple, one of the city’s four law colleges. Upon returning to India in mid-1891, he set up a law practice in Bombay, but met with little success. He soon accepted a position with an Indian firm that sent him to its office in South Africa. Along with his wife, Kasturbai, and their children, Gandhi remained in South Africa for nearly 20 years.

Did you know? In the famous Salt March of April-May 1930, thousands of Indians followed Gandhi from Ahmadabad to the Arabian Sea. The march resulted in the arrest of nearly 60,000 people, including Gandhi himself.

Gandhi was appalled by the discrimination he experienced as an Indian immigrant in South Africa. When a European magistrate in Durban asked him to take off his turban, he refused and left the courtroom. On a train voyage to Pretoria, he was thrown out of a first-class railway compartment and beaten up by a white stagecoach driver after refusing to give up his seat for a European passenger. That train journey served as a turning point for Gandhi, and he soon began developing and teaching the concept of satyagraha (“truth and firmness”), or passive resistance, as a way of non-cooperation with authorities.

The Birth of Passive Resistance

In 1906, after the Transvaal government passed an ordinance regarding the registration of its Indian population, Gandhi led a campaign of civil disobedience that would last for the next eight years. During its final phase in 1913, hundreds of Indians living in South Africa, including women, went to jail, and thousands of striking Indian miners were imprisoned, flogged and even shot. Finally, under pressure from the British and Indian governments, the government of South Africa accepted a compromise negotiated by Gandhi and General Jan Christian Smuts, which included important concessions such as the recognition of Indian marriages and the abolition of the existing poll tax for Indians.

In July 1914, Gandhi left South Africa to return to India. He supported the British war effort in World War I but remained critical of colonial authorities for measures he felt were unjust. In 1919, Gandhi launched an organized campaign of passive resistance in response to Parliament’s passage of the Rowlatt Acts, which gave colonial authorities emergency powers to suppress subversive activities. He backed off after violence broke out–including the massacre by British-led soldiers of some 400 Indians attending a meeting at Amritsar–but only temporarily, and by 1920 he was the most visible figure in the movement for Indian independence.

Leader of a Movement

As part of his nonviolent non-cooperation campaign for home rule, Gandhi stressed the importance of economic independence for India. He particularly advocated the manufacture of khaddar, or homespun cloth, in order to replace imported textiles from Britain. Gandhi’s eloquence and embrace of an ascetic lifestyle based on prayer, fasting and meditation earned him the reverence of his followers, who called him Mahatma (Sanskrit for “the great-souled one”). Invested with all the authority of the Indian National Congress (INC or Congress Party), Gandhi turned the independence movement into a massive organization, leading boycotts of British manufacturers and institutions representing British influence in India, including legislatures and schools.

After sporadic violence broke out, Gandhi announced the end of the resistance movement, to the dismay of his followers. British authorities arrested Gandhi in March 1922 and tried him for sedition; he was sentenced to six years in prison but was released in 1924 after undergoing an operation for appendicitis. He refrained from active participation in politics for the next several years, but in 1930 launched a new civil disobedience campaign against the colonial government’s tax on salt, which greatly affected Indian’s poorest citizens.

A Divided Movement

In 1931, after British authorities made some concessions, Gandhi again called off the resistance movement and agreed to represent the Congress Party at the Round Table Conference in London. Meanwhile, some of his party colleagues–particularly Mohammed Ali Jinnah, a leading voice for India’s Muslim minority–grew frustrated with Gandhi’s methods, and what they saw as a lack of concrete gains. Arrested upon his return by a newly aggressive colonial government, Gandhi began a series of hunger strikes in protest of the treatment of India’s so-called “untouchables” (the poorer classes), whom he renamed Harijans, or “children of God.” The fasting caused an uproar among his followers and resulted in swift reforms by the Hindu community and the government.

In 1934, Gandhi announced his retirement from politics in, as well as his resignation from the Congress Party, in order to concentrate his efforts on working within rural communities. Drawn back into the political fray by the outbreak of World War II , Gandhi again took control of the INC, demanding a British withdrawal from India in return for Indian cooperation with the war effort. Instead, British forces imprisoned the entire Congress leadership, bringing Anglo-Indian relations to a new low point.

Partition and Death of Gandhi

After the Labor Party took power in Britain in 1947, negotiations over Indian home rule began between the British, the Congress Party and the Muslim League (now led by Jinnah). Later that year, Britain granted India its independence but split the country into two dominions: India and Pakistan. Gandhi strongly opposed Partition, but he agreed to it in hopes that after independence Hindus and Muslims could achieve peace internally. Amid the massive riots that followed Partition, Gandhi urged Hindus and Muslims to live peacefully together, and undertook a hunger strike until riots in Calcutta ceased.

In January 1948, Gandhi carried out yet another fast, this time to bring about peace in the city of Delhi. On January 30, 12 days after that fast ended, Gandhi was on his way to an evening prayer meeting in Delhi when he was shot to death by Nathuram Godse, a Hindu fanatic enraged by Mahatma’s efforts to negotiate with Jinnah and other Muslims. The next day, roughly 1 million people followed the procession as Gandhi’s body was carried in state through the streets of the city and cremated on the banks of the holy Jumna River.

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Mahatma Gandhi

Mahatma Gandhi was the primary leader of India’s independence movement and also the architect of a form of non-violent civil disobedience that would influence the world. He was assassinated by Hindu extremist Nathuram Godse.

(1869-1948)

Who Was Mahatma Gandhi?

Mahatma Gandhi was the leader of India’s non-violent independence movement against British rule and in South Africa who advocated for the civil rights of Indians. Born in Porbandar, India, Gandhi studied law and organized boycotts against British institutions in peaceful forms of civil disobedience. He was killed by a fanatic in 1948.

Early Life and Education

Indian nationalist leader Gandhi (born Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi) was born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, Kathiawar, India, which was then part of the British Empire.

Gandhi’s father, Karamchand Gandhi, served as a chief minister in Porbandar and other states in western India. His mother, Putlibai, was a deeply religious woman who fasted regularly.

Young Gandhi was a shy, unremarkable student who was so timid that he slept with the lights on even as a teenager. In the ensuing years, the teenager rebelled by smoking, eating meat and stealing change from household servants.

Although Gandhi was interested in becoming a doctor, his father hoped he would also become a government minister and steered him to enter the legal profession. In 1888, 18-year-old Gandhi sailed for London, England, to study law. The young Indian struggled with the transition to Western culture.

Upon returning to India in 1891, Gandhi learned that his mother had died just weeks earlier. He struggled to gain his footing as a lawyer. In his first courtroom case, a nervous Gandhi blanked when the time came to cross-examine a witness. He immediately fled the courtroom after reimbursing his client for his legal fees.

Gandhi’s Religion and Beliefs

Gandhi grew up worshiping the Hindu god Vishnu and following Jainism, a morally rigorous ancient Indian religion that espoused non-violence, fasting, meditation and vegetarianism.

During Gandhi’s first stay in London, from 1888 to 1891, he became more committed to a meatless diet, joining the executive committee of the London Vegetarian Society, and started to read a variety of sacred texts to learn more about world religions.

Living in South Africa, Gandhi continued to study world religions. “The religious spirit within me became a living force,” he wrote of his time there. He immersed himself in sacred Hindu spiritual texts and adopted a life of simplicity, austerity, fasting and celibacy that was free of material goods.

Gandhi in South Africa

After struggling to find work as a lawyer in India, Gandhi obtained a one-year contract to perform legal services in South Africa. In April 1893, he sailed for Durban in the South African state of Natal.

When Gandhi arrived in South Africa, he was quickly appalled by the discrimination and racial segregation faced by Indian immigrants at the hands of white British and Boer authorities. Upon his first appearance in a Durban courtroom, Gandhi was asked to remove his turban. He refused and left the court instead. The Natal Advertiser mocked him in print as “an unwelcome visitor.”

Nonviolent Civil Disobedience

A seminal moment occurred on June 7, 1893, during a train trip to Pretoria, South Africa, when a white man objected to Gandhi’s presence in the first-class railway compartment, although he had a ticket. Refusing to move to the back of the train, Gandhi was forcibly removed and thrown off the train at a station in Pietermaritzburg.

Gandhi’s act of civil disobedience awoke in him a determination to devote himself to fighting the “deep disease of color prejudice.” He vowed that night to “try, if possible, to root out the disease and suffer hardships in the process.”

From that night forward, the small, unassuming man would grow into a giant force for civil rights. Gandhi formed the Natal Indian Congress in 1894 to fight discrimination.

Gandhi prepared to return to India at the end of his year-long contract until he learned, at his farewell party, of a bill before the Natal Legislative Assembly that would deprive Indians of the right to vote. Fellow immigrants convinced Gandhi to stay and lead the fight against the legislation. Although Gandhi could not prevent the law’s passage, he drew international attention to the injustice.

After a brief trip to India in late 1896 and early 1897, Gandhi returned to South Africa with his wife and children. Gandhi ran a thriving legal practice, and at the outbreak of the Boer War, he raised an all-Indian ambulance corps of 1,100 volunteers to support the British cause, arguing that if Indians expected to have full rights of citizenship in the British Empire, they also needed to shoulder their responsibilities.

In 1906, Gandhi organized his first mass civil-disobedience campaign, which he called “Satyagraha” (“truth and firmness”), in reaction to the South African Transvaal government’s new restrictions on the rights of Indians, including the refusal to recognize Hindu marriages.

After years of protests, the government imprisoned hundreds of Indians in 1913, including Gandhi. Under pressure, the South African government accepted a compromise negotiated by Gandhi and General Jan Christian Smuts that included recognition of Hindu marriages and the abolition of a poll tax for Indians.

Return to India

In 1915 Gandhi founded an ashram in Ahmedabad, India, that was open to all castes. Wearing a simple loincloth and shawl, Gandhi lived an austere life devoted to prayer, fasting and meditation. He became known as “Mahatma,” which means “great soul.”

Opposition to British Rule in India

In 1919, with India still under the firm control of the British, Gandhi had a political reawakening when the newly enacted Rowlatt Act authorized British authorities to imprison people suspected of sedition without trial. In response, Gandhi called for a Satyagraha campaign of peaceful protests and strikes.

Violence broke out instead, which culminated on April 13, 1919, in the Massacre of Amritsar. Troops led by British Brigadier General Reginald Dyer fired machine guns into a crowd of unarmed demonstrators and killed nearly 400 people.

No longer able to pledge allegiance to the British government, Gandhi returned the medals he earned for his military service in South Africa and opposed Britain’s mandatory military draft of Indians to serve in World War I.

Gandhi became a leading figure in the Indian home-rule movement. Calling for mass boycotts, he urged government officials to stop working for the Crown, students to stop attending government schools, soldiers to leave their posts and citizens to stop paying taxes and purchasing British goods.

Rather than buy British-manufactured clothes, he began to use a portable spinning wheel to produce his own cloth. The spinning wheel soon became a symbol of Indian independence and self-reliance.

Gandhi assumed the leadership of the Indian National Congress and advocated a policy of non-violence and non-cooperation to achieve home rule.

After British authorities arrested Gandhi in 1922, he pleaded guilty to three counts of sedition. Although sentenced to a six-year imprisonment, Gandhi was released in February 1924 after appendicitis surgery.

He discovered upon his release that relations between India’s Hindus and Muslims devolved during his time in jail. When violence between the two religious groups flared again, Gandhi began a three-week fast in the autumn of 1924 to urge unity. He remained away from active politics during much of the latter 1920s.

Gandhi and the Salt March

Gandhi returned to active politics in 1930 to protest Britain’s Salt Acts, which not only prohibited Indians from collecting or selling salt—a dietary staple—but imposed a heavy tax that hit the country’s poorest particularly hard. Gandhi planned a new Satyagraha campaign, The Salt March , that entailed a 390-kilometer/240-mile march to the Arabian Sea, where he would collect salt in symbolic defiance of the government monopoly.

“My ambition is no less than to convert the British people through non-violence and thus make them see the wrong they have done to India,” he wrote days before the march to the British viceroy, Lord Irwin.

Wearing a homespun white shawl and sandals and carrying a walking stick, Gandhi set out from his religious retreat in Sabarmati on March 12, 1930, with a few dozen followers. By the time he arrived 24 days later in the coastal town of Dandi, the ranks of the marchers swelled, and Gandhi broke the law by making salt from evaporated seawater.

The Salt March sparked similar protests, and mass civil disobedience swept across India. Approximately 60,000 Indians were jailed for breaking the Salt Acts, including Gandhi, who was imprisoned in May 1930.

Still, the protests against the Salt Acts elevated Gandhi into a transcendent figure around the world. He was named Time magazine’s “Man of the Year” for 1930.

Gandhi was released from prison in January 1931, and two months later he made an agreement with Lord Irwin to end the Salt Satyagraha in exchange for concessions that included the release of thousands of political prisoners. The agreement, however, largely kept the Salt Acts intact. But it did give those who lived on the coasts the right to harvest salt from the sea.

Hoping that the agreement would be a stepping-stone to home rule, Gandhi attended the London Round Table Conference on Indian constitutional reform in August 1931 as the sole representative of the Indian National Congress. The conference, however, proved fruitless.

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Protesting "Untouchables" Segregation

Gandhi returned to India to find himself imprisoned once again in January 1932 during a crackdown by India’s new viceroy, Lord Willingdon. He embarked on a six-day fast to protest the British decision to segregate the “untouchables,” those on the lowest rung of India’s caste system, by allotting them separate electorates. The public outcry forced the British to amend the proposal.

After his eventual release, Gandhi left the Indian National Congress in 1934, and leadership passed to his protégé Jawaharlal Nehru . He again stepped away from politics to focus on education, poverty and the problems afflicting India’s rural areas.

India’s Independence from Great Britain

As Great Britain found itself engulfed in World War II in 1942, Gandhi launched the “Quit India” movement that called for the immediate British withdrawal from the country. In August 1942, the British arrested Gandhi, his wife and other leaders of the Indian National Congress and detained them in the Aga Khan Palace in present-day Pune.

“I have not become the King’s First Minister in order to preside at the liquidation of the British Empire,” Prime Minister Winston Churchill told Parliament in support of the crackdown.

With his health failing, Gandhi was released after a 19-month detainment in 1944.

After the Labour Party defeated Churchill’s Conservatives in the British general election of 1945, it began negotiations for Indian independence with the Indian National Congress and Mohammad Ali Jinnah’s Muslim League. Gandhi played an active role in the negotiations, but he could not prevail in his hope for a unified India. Instead, the final plan called for the partition of the subcontinent along religious lines into two independent states—predominantly Hindu India and predominantly Muslim Pakistan.

Violence between Hindus and Muslims flared even before independence took effect on August 15, 1947. Afterwards, the killings multiplied. Gandhi toured riot-torn areas in an appeal for peace and fasted in an attempt to end the bloodshed. Some Hindus, however, increasingly viewed Gandhi as a traitor for expressing sympathy toward Muslims.

Gandhi’s Wife and Kids

At the age of 13, Gandhi wed Kasturba Makanji, a merchant’s daughter, in an arranged marriage. She died in Gandhi’s arms in February 1944 at the age of 74.

In 1885, Gandhi endured the passing of his father and shortly after that the death of his young baby.

In 1888, Gandhi’s wife gave birth to the first of four surviving sons. A second son was born in India 1893. Kasturba gave birth to two more sons while living in South Africa, one in 1897 and one in 1900.

Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi

On January 30, 1948, 78-year-old Gandhi was shot and killed by Hindu extremist Nathuram Godse, who was upset at Gandhi’s tolerance of Muslims.

Weakened from repeated hunger strikes, Gandhi clung to his two grandnieces as they led him from his living quarters in New Delhi’s Birla House to a late-afternoon prayer meeting. Godse knelt before the Mahatma before pulling out a semiautomatic pistol and shooting him three times at point-blank range. The violent act took the life of a pacifist who spent his life preaching nonviolence.

Godse and a co-conspirator were executed by hanging in November 1949. Additional conspirators were sentenced to life in prison.

Even after Gandhi’s assassination, his commitment to nonviolence and his belief in simple living — making his own clothes, eating a vegetarian diet and using fasts for self-purification as well as a means of protest — have been a beacon of hope for oppressed and marginalized people throughout the world.

Satyagraha remains one of the most potent philosophies in freedom struggles throughout the world today. Gandhi’s actions inspired future human rights movements around the globe, including those of civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. in the United States and Nelson Mandela in South Africa.

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QUICK FACTS

• Name: Mahatma Gandhi
• Birth Year: 1869
• Birth date: October 2, 1869
• Birth City: Porbandar, Kathiawar
• Birth Country: India
• Gender: Male
• Best Known For: Mahatma Gandhi was the primary leader of India’s independence movement and also the architect of a form of non-violent civil disobedience that would influence the world. Until Gandhi was assassinated in 1948, his life and teachings inspired activists including Martin Luther King Jr. and Nelson Mandela.
• Civil Rights
• Astrological Sign: Libra
• University College London
• Samaldas College at Bhavnagar, Gujarat
• Nacionalities
• Interesting Facts
• As a young man, Mahatma Gandhi was a poor student and was terrified of public speaking.
• Gandhi formed the Natal Indian Congress in 1894 to fight discrimination.
• Gandhi was assassinated by Hindu extremist Nathuram Godse, who was upset at Gandhi’s tolerance of Muslims.
• Gandhi's non-violent civil disobedience inspired future world leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. and Nelson Mandela.
• Death Year: 1948
• Death date: January 30, 1948
• Death City: New Delhi
• Death Country: India

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CITATION INFORMATION

• Article Title: Mahatma Gandhi Biography
• Author: Biography.com Editors
• Website Name: The Biography.com website
• Url: https://www.biography.com/political-figures/mahatma-gandhi
• Access Date:
• Publisher: A&E; Television Networks
• Last Updated: September 4, 2019
• Original Published Date: April 3, 2014
• An eye for an eye only ends up making the whole world blind.
• Victory attained by violence is tantamount to a defeat, for it is momentary.
• Religions are different roads converging to the same point. What does it matter that we take different roads, so long as we reach the same goal? In reality, there are as many religions as there are individuals.
• The weak can never forgive. Forgiveness is the attribute of the strong.
• To call woman the weaker sex is a libel; it is man's injustice to woman.
• Truth alone will endure, all the rest will be swept away before the tide of time.
• A man is but the product of his thoughts. What he thinks, he becomes.
• There are many things to do. Let each one of us choose our task and stick to it through thick and thin. Let us not think of the vastness. But let us pick up that portion which we can handle best.
• An error does not become truth by reason of multiplied propagation, nor does truth become error because nobody sees it.
• For one man cannot do right in one department of life whilst he is occupied in doing wrong in any other department. Life is one indivisible whole.
• If we are to reach real peace in this world and if we are to carry on a real war against war, we shall have to begin with children.

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Mahatma Gandhi: Biography, Beliefs, Religion

The biography of Mahatma Gandhi presents an intricate journey of a man deeply rooted in his beliefs and principles. His life story showcases a blend of spiritual, philosophical, and political endeavors that had profound impacts within and beyond religion. Across diverse contexts, Gandhi’s name resonates with notions of peace, nonviolence, and resilience. Dive into the comprehensive narrative of this influential figure and understand the ethos that defined his path.

Table of Contents

Biography Summary

Early Life and Education Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, better known as Mahatma Gandhi, was born on October 2, 1869, and tragically died on January 30, 1948. A beacon of peace and nonviolence, Gandhi was an exemplary figure who battled colonial subjugation and heralded India’s independence from oppressive British rule. His unwavering dedication to nonviolent resistance was instrumental in inspiring movements for civil rights and freedom on a global scale.

South African Sojourn

In the coastal state of Gujarat, within a devout Hindu family, Gandhi’s roots were planted. His legal proficiency was honed at the Inner Temple, London, where he achieved his accolade of being called to the bar in June 1891 at the age of 22. Struggling to cultivate a successful law practice in India, Gandhi sought opportunities in South Africa in 1893, representing an Indian merchant in legal matters. South Africa became his home for 21 years, where he not only nurtured a family but also cultivated the strategy of nonviolent resistance as a weapon against injustice and discrimination.

Return to India and National Leadership

1915 marked his return to India, and at 45, Gandhi embarked on a mission to consolidate peasants, farmers, and laborers, championing causes against discrimination and excessive land tax. Steering the Indian National Congress in 1921, his leadership illuminated paths toward mitigating poverty, broadening women’s rights, fostering religious and ethnic harmony, and terminating untouchability. With the embodiment of swaraj or self-rule as his objective, Gandhi became a paragon of simplicity, adopting a lifestyle resonating with the underprivileged.

Defiance Against British Rule

In a defining moment of defiance against British rule, Gandhi spearheaded the 400 km Dandi Salt March in 1930, challenging the stringent British salt tax. His clarion call for the British to “Quit India” echoed through the nation in 1942. Despite numerous incarcerations in South Africa and India, Gandhi’s spirit remained unyielding.

Partition and the Struggle for Peace

As the winds of freedom began to blow across the Indian subcontinent in the early 1940s, they carried with them the storms of partition, driven by the burgeoning demand for a separate Muslim homeland. The twilight of British rule in August 1947 unfurled the dawn of independence, heralding the birth of India and Pakistan. A crucible of turbulence, upheaval, and religious animosity ensued, marring the euphoria of emancipation with the stains of violence and bloodshed.

Gandhi, who envisioned an India resonating with religious pluralism, became a crucible of solace and peace, endeavoring tirelessly to assuage the tempests of violence and discord. Embarking on several hunger strikes, his life became an epitome of sacrifice aimed at halting the horrific religious carnage. His journey, however, was tragically ended by the bullets of Nathuram Godse, a militant Hindu nationalist, on January 30, 1948.

Remembered and revered as the Father of the Nation in the tapestry of post-colonial India, Gandhi’s legacy is enshrined in his unyielding devotion to peace and nonviolence. The global canvas commemorates his birth on October 2 as Gandhi Jayanti and the International Day of Nonviolence, celebrating the luminary who illuminated pathways towards peace, tolerance, and harmony.

Early Life and Background

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, a coastal town on the Kathiawar Peninsula in the then princely state of Porbandar, part of the Kathiawar Agency of the British Raj. He was born into a Gujarati Hindu Modh Bania family with a prominent status in the region. His father, Karamchand Uttamchand Gandhi (1822–1885), held the esteemed Porbandar state’s dewan (chief minister) position, contributing actively to the governance and administration despite having a modest educational background.

The familial lineage of the Gandhis originated from Kutiana village in what was then the Junagadh State. Karamchand, Gandhi’s father, was particularly experienced in state administration, and his influential tenure included a remarriage with Putlibai (1844–1891), who became an essential figure in the family and Gandhi’s life. This union produced several children, with Mohandas being the youngest, born in a rather humble setting within the Gandhi family residence.

Childhood Influences and Education

Gandhi’s early years were marked by a blend of traditional Indian stories and diverse religious exposure, pivotal in shaping his moral compass and philosophical standings. His internalization of truth and love as supreme virtues was profoundly influenced by epic Indian classics, leaving an indelible mark on his conscience and thought processes. A salient feature of Gandhi’s upbringing was the eclectic religious atmosphere at home, rooted in Hindu traditions, enriched with teachings from various texts like the Bhagavad Gita, the Bhagavata Purana, and several others, offering him a well-rounded spiritual foundation.

A strategic relocation occurred in 1874 when Karamchand moved to Rajkot, assuming the role of a counselor to its ruler, ensuring a degree of security and prestige despite its lesser stature than Porbandar. Gandhi commenced his formal education in Rajkot, engaging in fundamental studies, including arithmetic, history, and the Gujarati language, at a school close to his residence. Furthering his education, he joined Alfred High School, where his academic journey was characterized as average, marked by a noticeable reservation and lack of interest in physical games and activities.

Personal Life and Marriage

Aligning with the prevailing customs of the region, Gandhi, at the age of 13, entered into an arranged marriage in May 1883 with Kasturbai Gokuldas Kapadia, commonly referred to as Kasturba or Ba. Traditional practices marked this marital union, and the initial phases saw Gandhi battling internal feelings of jealousy and possessiveness alongside navigating the typical aspirations and challenges faced by adolescents.

The demise of Karamchand in late 1885 and the death of Gandhi’s firstborn in the same period marked a phase of profound sorrow and loss for Gandhi. Overcoming these personal challenges, Gandhi and Kasturba went on to have four more sons: Harilal (born in 1888), Manilal (born in 1892), Ramdas (born in 1897), and Devdas (born in 1900).

Gandhi’s pursuit of higher education saw him graduate from high school in Ahmedabad in November 1887 and enroll at Samaldas College in Bhavnagar State in January 1888. However, his stint at Samaldas College was short-lived, resulting in a return to his family in Porbandar, marking a temporary pause in his educational journey.

Education: Law Student in London

The pivotal chapter of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi’s life unfolded when he embarked on a journey to London to delve into legal studies. Driven by advice from Mavji Dave Joshiji, a close Brahmin priest and confidant of the Gandhi family, the voyage was set into motion amidst familial uncertainties and emotional deliberations. Kasturba, Gandhi’s wife, had recently given birth to their first surviving son, Harilal, in July 1888, and the familial reservations, primarily from his mother Putlibai and uncle Tulsidas, weighed heavily against the backdrop of traditional and ethical considerations.

On August 10, 1888, an 18-year-old Gandhi embarked on his journey from Porbandar to Mumbai (then known as Bombay), facing a storm of warnings and skepticism from his community, which fervently questioned the moral implications of his travel to the West. Despite assurances of his unwavering adherence to his vows and cultural norms, Gandhi faced social repercussions, culminating in his excommunication from his caste. Undeterred, Gandhi sailed from Mumbai to London on September 4, 1888, entering a new phase of his life marked by exploration and academic pursuits.

In London, Gandhi’s academic journey found its path in illustrious institutions like the University College, London, where, under the tutelage of scholars like Henry Morley, he immersed himself in studies involving English literature from 1888 to 1889. His legal aspirations were channeled through his enrollment at the Inns of Court School of Law at Inner Temple, fostering his aim of becoming a barrister. London presented a tableau of challenges and avenues, resurrecting his childhood traits of shyness and introversion. His inclination towards personal improvement saw him engage in public speaking forums, which significantly aided in diminishing his reticence, cultivating a foundation crucial for his future legal practices.

Gandhi’s London sojourn was also marked by a conscientious engagement with the societal canvas of the city, particularly the impoverished communities in London’s Docklands. His empathetic involvement became notably evident during a trade dispute in 1889, where dockworkers spearheaded a movement demanding equitable pay and improved working conditions, eliciting solidarity from various sectors, including seamen, shipbuilders, and factory workers. This convergence of collective voices found resolution through successful negotiations, facilitated notably by the mediation efforts of Cardinal Manning. This instance found Gandhi, accompanied by an Indian acquaintance, expressing gratitude towards the cardinal, reflecting his appreciation and respect for efforts fostering justice and welfare in society.

Vegetarianism and Committee Work

During his period of residence in London, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi’s lifestyle and commitments were profoundly molded by a vow of ethical and cultural fidelity to his mother. In an attempt to assimilate into the English societal fabric, Gandhi adopted local customs of the period, engaging in activities such as dancing lessons. However, his initial experiences, particularly concerning dietary habits, were marred by a struggle with the limited vegetarian options available, leaving him often in discomfort and hunger.

His culinary explorations eventually led him to some of London’s vegetarian establishments, where his ideological perspective was further enriched by literary influences such as the works of Henry Salt. Such exposures paved the way for Gandhi’s active involvement in the London Vegetarian Society (LVS), where he was elected to its executive committee, serving under the leadership of Arnold Hills, a prominent industrialist and the society’s president.

In the sociocultural spheres of society, Gandhi played a pivotal role in extending its influence, contributing to establishing a new chapter in Bayswater. His interactions within the society were characterized by diverse intellectual engagements, including associations with members of the Theosophical Society, an organization founded in 1875 dedicated to promoting universal brotherhood and an in-depth exploration of Buddhist and Hindu literature. This confluence of ideas and philosophies prompted Gandhi towards an enhanced engagement with sacred texts like the Bhagavad Gita, fostering a nuanced understanding and appreciation of its teachings both in original and translated forms.

Ethical Debates within the Society

Gandhi’s tenure at the LVS was also marked by notable disagreements, symbolizing his early forays into challenging authoritative perspectives despite an innate shyness and a general disposition to avoid confrontations. A significant episode of difference emerged between Gandhi and Hills concerning the LVS membership of Thomas Allinson, who was at the center of a debate due to his advocacies related to newly emerging birth control methodologies.

Gandhi’s interactions with Hills, characterized by mutual respect and productivity, faced divergent views regarding the ethical considerations surrounding vegetarianism and broader moral paradigms. Hills, a figure of significant societal standing, marked by accomplishments in industrial enterprises and sports, and a benefactor of LVS, upheld a perspective linking vegetarianism closely with broader moral constructs, positioning it as a movement reflecting Puritan societal values.

The deliberations reached a point of formal discussions and voting within the committee, testing Gandhi’s capacities to articulate and defend his viewpoints amidst personal reservations and shyness. Despite personal ideological differences, Gandhi’s defense of Allinson reflected a nuanced appreciation of individual rights to differing opinions within the collective organizational framework.

A documented reflection of this episode is captured in Gandhi’s autobiographical work, An Autobiography, Vol. I , where he articulated a strong advocacy for allowing diverse viewpoints within society, even if they did not necessarily align with commonly upheld moral perspectives. The culmination of these debates saw the exclusion of Allinson from society after a voting process. Still, the episode unfolded without animosities, maintaining the ethos of respect and dignified disagreements within the society’s operational dynamics.

Admittance to the Bar

In the legal progression of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi’s life, a pivotal milestone was achieved when he was called to the bar at 22 in June 1891. Gandhi embarked on his journey back to India from London after this significant professional attainment. Upon his return, he was confronted with the sad news of his mother’s demise during his stay in London, a fact his family had kept concealed.

Seeking to establish his professional foothold, Gandhi initially ventured into setting up a law practice in Bombay. However, these attempts did not fructify successfully, owing to psychological barriers that hindered his ability to cross-examine witnesses effectively. Consequently, Gandhi transitioned back to Rajkot, where he engaged in drafting petitions for litigants as a means of earning a living. This career phase was challenged when confrontations with a British officer, Sam Sunny, interrupted his professional pursuits.

Professional Opportunity in South Africa

The year 1893 marked a turning point in Gandhi’s career when a business proposition from Dada Abdullah, a Muslim merchant rooted in Kathiawar, was presented to him. Abdullah, well-established in the shipping industry in South Africa, was searching for a lawyer to represent his distant cousin in Johannesburg, expressing a preference for an individual sharing a Kathiawari heritage.

Negotiations regarding the professional compensation for the proposed assignment resulted in an offer of a total salary amounting to £105. When adjusted for inflation and currency valuation of the period, this would be approximately equivalent to $17,200 in 2019. In addition to the salary, provisions were made for covering travel expenses associated with the assignment. Gandhi’s acceptance of this offer was marked by the understanding that it would entail a commitment of at least a year in the Colony of Natal, South Africa, which was also under the dominion of the British Empire.

This professional opportunity signified a transformative phase in Gandhi’s legal career, marking the initiation of his impactful journey in South Africa, where his experiences and contributions would profoundly shape his ideological and activist orientations.

Civil Rights Journey in South Africa (1893–1914)

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi’s odyssey as a civil rights activist unfolded in South Africa, a journey that spanned 21 years, commencing in April 1893, when a 23-year-old Gandhi set sail to represent Abdullah’s cousin in a legal case. His initial arrival in South Africa was marred by discrimination and racial prejudice due to his ethnic origin and skin color.

This phase of history was notably marked by the unveiling of a bronze statue commemorating Gandhi’s centenary at the Pietermaritzburg Railway Station by Archbishop Desmond Tutu in June 1993. The location had historical significance as the site where Gandhi was ousted from a train due to his refusal to vacate the first-class compartment, a space designated exclusively for Europeans. This incident was instrumental in propelling Gandhi to commit to civil rights activism, catalyzing his resolve to challenge and protest against racial injustices.

His initial perception was of self-identification primarily as a Briton, with his Indian identity being secondary. However, the extensive and entrenched discriminatory practices he experienced and witnessed were pivotal in reshaping his self-perception and ideological orientations. His advocacy extended beyond personal experiences, propelling initiatives aimed at confronting and challenging legislative and systemic manifestations of discrimination against the Indian community in South Africa.

A significant landmark in his South African journey was the conclusion of the Abdullah case in May 1894. However, Gandhi’s intent to return to India was altered by emergent political developments, specifically discriminatory legislative proposals. This prompted an extension of his stay, marking an enhanced engagement in organized activism, notably through the founding of the Natal Indian Congress in 1894. His strategic advocacy included petitions to British officials, such as Joseph Chamberlain, the British Colonial Secretary, seeking to reconsider discriminatory legislative provisions.

Gandhi’s journey also featured participation in the Boer War (1899–1902), where he played a role in forming the Natal Indian Ambulance Corps, engaging in humanitarian services in the conflict zones. This participation was emblematic of Gandhi’s multifaceted activism, integrating pursuits of civil rights advocacy with humanitarian contributions, seeking to challenge prevailing stereotypes and prejudices against the Indian community.

The evolution of his unique methodological approach to civil rights activism culminated in the conceptualization of Satyagraha, or devotion to truth, a form of nonviolent protest. This philosophy was first formally deployed in mass demonstrations against the Transvaal government’s discriminatory registration laws in 1906. The strategic evolution of Gandhi’s activism, characterized by nonviolent protests and civil disobedience, was further informed by cross-cultural intellectual engagements, such as correspondences with Leo Tolstoy.

The legacy of Gandhi’s South African sojourn constituted a transformative impact on his philosophical and strategic approaches to civil rights activism, contributing foundational elements to his subsequent influential role in India’s struggle for independence upon his return in 1915.

European, Indian, and African Intersectionality

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi’s transformative journey as a civil rights activist in South Africa evolved over the critical years from 1893 to 1914. During these defining decades, Gandhi navigated the tumultuous waters of racial discrimination, political awakening, and profound personal and ideological evolution.

Initially, Gandhi’s primary focus was directed towards the racial injustices faced by the Indian community. The formation of the Natal Indian Congress marked his entrance into the political arena. This political emergence was fueled by personal experiences of racial discrimination and victimization, driving him to channel his energies toward resisting and combating the prevalent racial prejudices and violations of rights. Gandhi’s experiences were characterized by overt racism, reflected in societal attitudes and systemic practices, where he was subjected to derogatory labels and overt expressions of racial hate.

Complexities and evolving perspectives marked the trajectory of Gandhi’s activism. His initial outlook exhibited racial bias, as illustrated in his initial speeches and legal advocacies where distinctions were made between the Indian and African communities. An exemplification of this is visible in his legal briefs prepared in 1895 and speeches made in September 1896, where he delineated the Indian society from the African population in the context of civil rights and societal positioning.

However, a transformative shift became apparent in Gandhi’s perspectives and actions as history unfolded. His activism began to encompass broader horizons, embodying a more inclusive approach toward resisting racial discrimination faced by Africans and Indians. Notable instances of this evolving solidarity included his participation in the Bambatha Rebellion in 1906, where, despite initial reservations, he contributed by forming a volunteer stretcher-bearer unit comprising both Indian and African individuals.

In a reflection of his expanding vision and activism, by 1910, Gandhi’s Indian Opinion newspaper began to address and highlight the racial injustices faced by the African community under the colonial regime inclusively. This period also saw the establishment of Tolstoy Farm near Johannesburg in 1910, a commune that symbolized Gandhi’s commitment to peaceful resistance and his developing philosophies of nonviolent activism.

Prominent figures such as Nelson Mandela have subsequently recognized and admired Gandhi’s contributions to fighting racism in Africa. His legacy in South Africa has been commemorated post-1994 by recognitions and monuments heralding him as a national hero, symbolizing his significant role in the broader struggles against racial discrimination and apartheid.

Through historical lenses, Gandhi’s journey in South Africa emerges as a tapestry woven with threads of complexities, transformative evolutions, and pivotal contributions towards resisting racial prejudices and promoting civil rights, leaving behind a legacy interlinked with the multifaceted histories of European, Indian, and African communities in the country.

Indian Independence Movement (1915–1947)

In 1915, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi returned to India, answering a patriotic call from Gopal Krishna Gokhale, as communicated through C.F. Andrews. This period marked the beginning of Gandhi’s intensive involvement in India’s fight for independence, bringing him a global stature as a profound nationalist, theorist, and formidable community organizer.

In the formative years of his involvement, Gandhi became affiliated with the Indian National Congress (INC). This monumental partnership was orchestrated primarily through the guidance of Gokhale, a distinguished Congress leader renowned for his tempered and measured approach toward political activism. Gokhale’s strategy was rooted in the principles of moderation and adherence to working within the confines of the existing political structures and systems.

Gandhi’s leadership emerged as transformative, recalibrating the liberal foundations laid by Gokhale within the spectrum of British Whiggish traditions to resonate more profoundly with the Indian context. In asserting his growing prominence and leadership, Gandhi spearheaded the Congress with escalating fervor post-1920. His stewardship reached a pivotal milestone on January 26, 1930, when the INC proclaimed India’s independence, marking an audacious stance in their struggle.

Despite the British authority’s non-recognition of this proclamation, it ushered in an era of negotiations and incremental recognitions, wherein the INC began participating in provincial governments by the late 1930s. However, the political landscape was marked by tumult and evolving complexities. In September 1939, a unilateral declaration of war against Germany by the Viceroy exacerbated tensions, prompting Gandhi and the INC to withdraw their support from the Raj.

The historical juncture of 1942 was marked by Gandhi’s vigorous demand for immediate independence, which was met with stringent British repression, resulting in the incarceration of Gandhi and many INC leaders. Concurrently, diverging pathways were being carved by the Muslim League, who, in contrast to Gandhi’s vision, collaborated with the British and championed the establishment of a distinct Muslim state of Pakistan.

The culmination of these struggles and negotiations came to a head in August 1947, witnessing the partitioning of the Indian subcontinent into India and Pakistan. This partition unfolded under conditions and terms that Gandhi found profoundly disagreeable, marking a significant historical distinction in India’s arduous journey toward independence.

Throughout these pivotal decades (1915–1947), Gandhi’s leadership, principles, and strategies remained at the epicenter of India’s unwavering quest for independence, shaping the historical and political trajectories of the nation’s liberation movements.

Role in World War I

In the crucial phases of World War I, particularly in April 1918, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi found himself amidst a crucial historical conundrum. Invited by the Viceroy to partake in a War Conference held in Delhi, Gandhi embarked on a path distinctly divergent from his prior pacifist positions. In this period, unlike his previous involvements, such as during the Zulu War of 1906 and the initial stages of World War I in 1914—where his contributions were chiefly aligned with non-combatant roles, primarily recruiting volunteers for the Ambulance Corps—Gandhi sought to mobilize Indian individuals for active combat roles.

Through a leaflet disseminated in June 1918, titled “Appeal for Enlistment,” Gandhi elucidated his perspective, emphasizing the necessity for Indians to be adept in martial self-defense and bear arms if needed. He asserted that such preparedness was integral to the broader objectives of national strength and autonomy. However, a nuanced aspect of his position was elucidated in a letter addressed to the Viceroy’s private secretary, where Gandhi clarified his adherence to non-violence, stating unequivocally that he would abstain from harming any individual, irrespective of their alignment as a friend or foe.

The internal complexities and ethical inquiries surrounding Gandhi’s involvement in war recruitment processes surfaced prominently. Critical discussions and deliberations emerged, particularly concerning the unity of Gandhi’s proactive war recruitment strategies with his philosophical underpinning of ‘Ahimsa’ or non-violence. Such reviews underscored substantial discussions, reflecting the coherence and consistency of Gandhi’s principles and practical enactments.

By July 1918, a discerning admission emanated from Gandhi, illuminating the challenges and reluctances encountered in the recruitment endeavors. His written reflections documented a palpable absence of successful recruitments, attributing the hesitations to the prevailing fears of mortality and harm amongst the individuals approached for enlistment in the war efforts.

Gandhi’s involvement in the World War I recruitment spheres delineates a significant facet of historical examinations, delineating the intersections of ethical philosophies and the pragmatic difficulties of political and wartime landscapes. Throughout this period, the dynamism and debates surrounding Gandhi’s roles and stances remained imbued with multifaceted considerations and evolving strategic adaptations.

Champaran Agitations: Nonviolent Protests

1917, a significant chapter in the Indian independence movement unfolded in Bihar, with Mahatma Gandhi at the forefront – the Champaran agitation. This initiative marked Gandhi’s profound intervention in aligning with the local peasantry against the predominant Anglo-Indian plantation proprietors supported by the regional administrative mechanisms. The agrarian communities were subjected to compulsions predominantly geared towards cultivating indigo (Indigofera sp.), a crop integral to producing indigo dye. The essence of the conflict resonated with the imposition of fixed price mechanisms and the declining commercial viability of the indigo crops over the preceding two decades.

This scenario spurred discontent among the peasants, culminating in a collective appeal to Gandhi, who was stationed at his ashram in Ahmedabad then. With a strategic inclination towards nonviolent resistance, Gandhi orchestrated movements that took the administrative echelons by surprise, effectively garnering substantial concessions and alleviations in favor of the aggrieved agrarian communities.

Kheda Agitations: Mobilization and Advocacy

The subsequent year, 1918, witnessed another significant manifestation of resistance, this time in Kheda, which was beleaguered by the adversities of floods and famine. In this context, demands surfaced from the peasantry, advocating for tangible relief from incumbent tax impositions. Gandhi, channeling the ethos of non-cooperation, transitioned his operational base to Nadiad. A synergistic amalgamation of established supporters and newly recruited volunteers marked this phase, with notable personalities such as Vallabhbhai Patel contributing to the momentum.

A multifaceted approach characterized the agitation, with strategies such as signature campaigns gaining prominence. The central ethos resonated with a commitment to non-payment of revenue, underscored by the plausible threats of consequent land confiscations, and this period also witnessed the emergence of social boycotts targeting revenue-associated administrative officials such as mamlatdars and talatdars within the district spheres.

A period extending over five months marked consistent administrative reluctance to accommodate the demands of the agitation. However, a transformative shift occurred towards the end of May 1918, marking significant governmental concessions. Key adaptations included the suspension of revenue collections and facilitating conditions conducive to alleviating the tax burden, persisting until the resolution of the famine adversities. In this nuanced negotiation landscape, figures such as Vallabhbhai Patel emerged as pivotal representatives of the farmer communities, contributing to the advocacy and negotiation processes that led to the release of prisoners and the realization of crucial concessions.

Khilafat Movement: The Interplay of Politics and Communal Harmony

The Khilafat Movement emerged as a formidable political force post-World War I in 1919, positioning Gandhi, then 49, at the intersection of an intricate matrix involving British imperialism and the multifaceted dynamics of Hindu-Muslim relations in India. Gandhi embarked on an endeavor to solicit political cooperation from the Muslim community, an initiative contextualized within the broader resistance against British colonial rule. The strategy included aligning with the Ottomans, who had faced defeat in World War I.

Before this phase, the subcontinent was marred by communal tensions and disturbances, with religiously motivated riots, such as those witnessed between 1917-1918, illustrating the volatile Hindu-Muslim relations. Gandhi had previously manifested support for the British during the War, a stance reflective of both material and human resource contributions, including the mobilization of Indian soldiers for the European war fronts.

Motivations underpinning Gandhi’s supportive gestures were significantly influenced by British assurances of conceding Swaraj (self-government) to the Indian populace post-war. However, the actual reciprocations from the British governance structures were marked by minor reformative gestures, falling short of the anticipations for self-government, leading to Gandhi’s disillusionment.

Responding to the evolving political landscape, Gandhi articulated his commitment to a satyagraha (civil disobedience) approach. The British administrative response was characterized by the introduction of the Rowlatt Act, legislation that imbued the colonial apparatus with extensive powers, including provisions for indefinite detentions devoid of judicial oversight or requiring trials.

The Khilafat Movement period witnessed Gandhi navigating the complexities of Hindu-Muslim collaboration. This collaboration was visualized as a pivotal foundation for facilitating collective political advancements against British rule. The movement, spearheaded by Sunni Muslim leadership such as the Ali brothers, positioned the Turkish Caliph as a symbolic fulcrum of Islamic solidarity and advocacy for Islamic legal frameworks after the Ottoman Empire’s decline in World War I.

Gandhi’s association with the Khilafat Movement cultivated varied outcomes, including enhanced support from the Muslim community. However, it also elicited skepticism and reservations from Hindu luminaries, notably figures such as Rabindranath Tagore, who questioned the broader implications of recognizing the Sunni Islamic Caliph in Turkey.

Intermittent phases of communal harmony and political solidarity against the British characterized the trajectory of the movement. The joint participation of diverse communities in the Rowlatt satyagraha is noteworthy, bolstering Gandhi’s stature and political leadership.

However, the unfolding political scenarios also witnessed strategic divergences and contestations, exemplified by figures like Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Jinnah’s perspectives gravitated towards constitutional negotiations with the British, diverging from Gandhi’s mass agitation strategies. This led to the crystallization of independent support bases and evolving political paradigms, contributing to subsequent historical trajectories, including the demands for separate geopolitical entities, notably West and East Pakistan.

The movement culminated in a decline around 1922, coinciding with the cessation of the non-cooperation activity, marked by Gandhi’s arrest. This period also witnessed the resurgence of communal conflicts, evidencing the fragility of the Hindu-Muslim unity fostered during the movement and signaling the complexities and challenges characterizing the political and communal landscapes of the period.

Non-Cooperation Movement: A Paradigm Shift in India’s Struggle for Independence

The Non-Cooperation Movement was a significant chapter in India’s freedom struggle, orchestrated by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Inspired by the ideologies articulated in his book Hind Swaraj (1909), Gandhi, at the age of 40, proclaimed that the sustenance of British rule in India was facilitated through the cooperation of the Indian populace. Gandhi espoused the philosophy that refusing this cooperation would be instrumental in dismantling British rule, heralding the advent of Swaraj (Indian Independence).

A momentous event unfolded in Madurai on September 21, 1921, when Gandhi adopted the loincloth, symbolizing his solidarity with the impoverished masses of India. A crescendo in political activities also marked this period. In February 1919, Gandhi, employing cable communication, cautioned the Viceroy of India against enacting the Rowlatt Act, pledging the initiation of civil disobedience in retaliation. Undeterred by this warning, the British administration proceeded to pass the legislation.

On March 30, 1919, this scenario culminated in a tumultuous episode where British law officers resorted to firing upon an unarmed assemblage of individuals participating in a satyagraha in Delhi peacefully protesting against the Rowlatt Act. This incident catalyzed agitation, culminating in significant unrest and riots.

A profound testament to Gandhi’s philosophy was exhibited on April 6, 1919, when he implored a gathering to embody the principles of non-violence and peace in expressing their opposition to British policies, notwithstanding the violent tendencies of the opposition. His strategic foresight in advocating the boycott of British goods was a nuanced approach aimed at undermining the economic foundations of British rule.

The historic Jallianwala Bagh massacre occurred on April 13, 1919, marking a grim chapter in the struggle, where a multitude, including women and children, faced indiscriminate firing commanded by British Indian Army officer Reginald Dyer. The aftermath of this incident saw Gandhi emphasizing non-violence and love as the cornerstone of the Indian response to British atrocities.

Evolving strategically, Gandhi endeavored to recalibrate the focus towards Swaraj and political independence, catalyzed by the cumulative impact of the ongoing events, notably the massacre and subsequent British responses. By 1921, Gandhi emerged as a pivotal figure in the Indian National Congress, reorganizing the political landscape and intertwining the Non-Cooperation Movement’s objectives with the Khilafat Movement’s aspirations.

Advocating a comprehensive non-cooperation strategy, Gandhi encouraged the boycott of foreign goods, mainly British, promoting instead the adoption of Swadeshi products such as khadi. He encouraged widespread participation in spinning khadi as an expression of support for the independence movement. His broader vision also encompassed the boycott of British institutions, urging a collective renunciation of governmental employment and British honors and titles.

The resonance of the Non-Cooperation Movement traversed various strata of Indian society, manifesting in a groundswell of support and participation. This phase saw Gandhi facing arrest on March 10, 1922, and subsequent imprisonment following a sedition trial. His imprisonment marked a period of factional divisions within the Indian National Congress, signifying variances in strategic approaches towards the British.

Post 1922, the movement encountered challenges, including the dissipation of Hindu-Muslim unity, epitomized by the decline of the Khilafat Movement and the emergence of divergent political factions. Gandhi was released from imprisonment in February 1924, having served a portion of his sentence, signifying the conclusion of this chapter of the freedom struggle.

Salt Satyagraha (Salt March)

Pursuit of swaraj.

Following his premature release from incarceration for political dissent in 1924, Mahatma Gandhi remained resolute in his quest for Swaraj or self-rule. He orchestrated a pivotal resolution in December 1928 at the Calcutta Congress, demanding the British government to endow India with dominion status. Gandhi warned that failure to consent to this demand would usher in a new epoch of non-cooperation, with the ultimate goal of absolute independence for India.

His prior endorsements, such as the support for World War I and the unsuccessful Khilafat Movement—which sought to safeguard the Ottoman Caliphate—did foster some internal criticisms and skepticism from contemporaries like Subhas Chandra Bose and Bhagat Singh. These individuals questioned his commitment to non-violence and his broader ideological framework.

Manifestation of Resistance: The Unfurling of the Flag and the Ultimatum

The British government’s reluctance and subsequent lack of a favorable response to Gandhi’s demands culminated in symbolic acts of defiance. On December 31, 1929, the Indian flag was proudly unfurled in Lahore, symbolizing a collective yearning for autonomy. Furthermore, Gandhi spearheaded a grand commemoration on January 26, 1930, in Lahore, marking it as India’s Independence Day—a day echoed by many Indian organizations in a symphony of solidarity.

The saga of resistance further unfolded as Gandhi embarked on the Salt Satyagraha in March 1930—a profound manifestation of civil disobedience against the oppressive British salt tax. He ceremoniously dispatched a poignant letter to Lord Irwin, the then Viceroy of India, on March 2, 1930. The letter, a tapestry of condemnation, depicted British rule as an economic and political scourge that had subjugated and impoverished millions.

The Odyssey of Defiance: March to Dandi

In a defiant odyssey from March 12 to April 6, 1930, Gandhi, accompanied by a cadre of 78 volunteers, embarked on a 388-kilometer march from Ahmedabad to Dandi, Gujarat. This monumental march, which spanned 25 days and covered 240 miles, was punctuated by Gandhi’s interactions with colossal crowds, wherein he sowed the seeds of resistance and non-cooperation.

Gandhi’s journey culminated in a symbolic act of making salt, thereby transgressing the draconian salt laws imposed by the British. The aftermath saw his internment on May 5, 1930, invoking regulations established in 1827.

The Echo of Non-violence: The Dharasana Satyagraha

Even in Gandhi’s absence, the flame of resistance continued to blaze. On May 21, 1930, protestors assembled at the Dharasana salt works. A hallowed silence marked the scene as the protestors, armed with the armor of non-violence, advanced towards the enclosure. They were met with a storm of violence as British officials unleashed a torrent of brutality, leaving many battered and bruised.

This spectacle of peaceful protest juxtaposed against the brutality of authority marked a pivotal moment in the struggle, capturing global attention and shaking the foundations of British dominion.

Women in the Satyagraha: An Unfurling Feminine Force

Gandhi’s call for resistance also echoed within the corridors of feminine solidarity. Despite initial reservations and conditional participation based on familial consent and logistical considerations, women surged forward in defiance. Their participation, marked by courage and conviction, carved spaces of protest and resistance within India’s broader spectrum of public life.

The fabric of the Satyagraha was thus woven with threads of diverse participation, embodying a collective spirit of resistance against the yoke of imperial oppression. This tapestry of non-cooperation and defiance underscored the Indian struggle, leaving an indelible mark on the historical chronicle of India’s journey to independence.

The Embodiment of a Folk Hero

Cultural resonance in andhra pradesh.

In the intricate tapestry of India’s struggle for independence, Mahatma Gandhi emerged as a seminal figure, weaving threads of cultural and mythological relevance into the fabric of political activism. In the 1920s, the Indian National Congress ingeniously harnessed the vernacular potency of Telugu language plays in Andhra Pradesh, infusing them with narratives intertwined with Indian mythology and legends, which were then seamlessly interlaced with Gandhi’s transformative ideologies. Such creative endeavors portrayed Gandhi as a divine messenger, akin to revered nationalist leaders and saints from India’s illustrious past. This portrayal resonated profoundly with the peasants, who were deeply entrenched in the rich soils of traditional Hindu culture. Consequently, Gandhi metamorphosed into a folk hero, an ethereal figure bathed in the aura of sacrality, particularly in the Telugu-speaking villages.

The Philosophical Foundations: Soul Force vs. Brute Force

The global appeal of Gandhi’s philosophies was pivotal in sculpting his widespread following. According to scholars like Dennis Dalton, Gandhi’s criticisms of Western civilization, which he depicted as marinated in “brute force and immorality,” instead of his portrayal of Indian civilization as a beacon of “soul force and morality,” struck a powerful chord. These profound ideas, curated with notions of vanquishing hate with the weaponry of love, found expression in his pamphlets, dating back to the 1890s in South Africa. Here, amidst the Indian indentured workers, Gandhi’s ideologies found fertile ground, resulting in a blooming popularity.

Geographic Overtures: Connecting Rural India

The topographic canvas of Gandhi’s activism was vast and vividly rural. His journeys, an odyssey through the diverse rural landscapes of the Indian subcontinent, were marked by a strategic utilization of cultural symbols and terminologies. Employing phrases imbued with cultural and religious resonance, such as Rama-rajya from the epic Ramayana, and evoking paradigmatic icons like Prahlada, Gandhi enriched his concepts of Swaraj and Satyagraha with a potent cultural ethos. These ideological seeds, though seemingly esoteric beyond the Indian landscapes, found deep roots within the native soils of Indian cultural and historical values.

A Confluence of Ideas and Tradition

Gandhi’s inaugural visit to Odisha on an unrecorded date in 1921 was marked by a significant congregation alongside the Kathajodi River, symbolizing his outreach and deep connections with diverse regional identities. Through the harmonization of cultural symbols, traditional ethos, and innovative political philosophies, Gandhi became not just a political leader but a reflection of the people’s values and aspirations, metamorphosing into an embodiment of a collective conscience and a resonating folk hero in the annals of Indian history.

Negotiations and Opposition

The gandhi-irwin pact.

In a pivotal negotiation moment in India’s freedom struggle, the British government, represented by Lord Irwin, engaged in talks with Mahatma Gandhi. The consequential Gandhi-Irwin Pact was formalized in March 1931. A cornerstone of this agreement was the British government’s commitment to release all incarcerated political activists. This decision was counterbalanced by Gandhi’s pledge to suspend the civil disobedience movement temporarily.

Following the pact, Gandhi, embodying the sole representation of the Indian National Congress, was extended an invitation to the Round Table Conference in London. This gathering, however, did not meet the expectations of the Indian nationalists. Rather than pivoting towards discussions on the transfer of power and the realization of India’s independence, the conference seemed to be nestled in deliberations focused on the Indian princes and minorities.

Transition in British Stance

Following Lord Irwin, his successor, Lord Willingdon, espoused a rigorous position, acting with renewed vigor against the aspirations of an independent India. This phase saw a strategic tightening of control over the nationalist movements, marked by repressive measures aimed at subduing the voices clamoring for freedom. Gandhi, symbolic of the freedom struggle, was trapped in the web of arrest again as the authorities sought to diminish his influence by severing his connections with the masses.

Churchill’s Perspective

Winston Churchill, who would later ascend as the Prime Minister of Britain, emerged as a vociferous critic of Gandhi and his vision for India’s future. Positioned outside the corridors of power during this period, Churchill articulated his criticisms with striking vigor and candidness. His speeches reverberated with a distinctive aversion towards Gandhi, whom he dismissed as a “seditious Middle Temple lawyer,” metamorphosing into a fakir. Churchill’s rhetoric, infused with scathing comments, portrayed Gandhi as a nefarious figure, orchestrating movements with “seditious aims” and labeled him as a “Hindu Mussolini.”

Churchill’s adversarial stance against Gandhi was not confined to the British Isles but found resonance in international arenas, including the European and American press. His efforts to politically isolate Gandhi were met with a spectrum of responses. While his critiques found sympathetic ears, they also inadvertently bolstered support for Gandhi, creating a nuanced global perspective on the Indian freedom struggle.

The unfolding political sagas of negotiations, marked by the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, and opposition, epitomized by Churchill’s critiques, painted a complex canvas of the struggle for India’s independence. Each stroke, whether diplomatic engagements or the enthusiasm of opposition, shaped the contours of this historical journey toward freedom.

Round Table Conferences: 1931-1932

Deliberations and disagreements.

Between 1931 and 1932, pivotal discussions unfolded at the Round Table Conferences, engaging key figures such as Mahatma Gandhi in dialogues with the British government. Gandhi, aged around 62 at that time, carried the mantle of aspirations for constitutional reforms, visualizing them as foundational steps towards the cessation of British colonial rule and the inception of Indian self-governance.

The British delegates, however, navigated the discussions with a vision anchored in retaining the colonial grip over the Indian subcontinent. Their proposition involved constitutional refinements modeled after the British Dominion, advocating for establishing separate electorates delineated by religious and societal stratification.

Diverging visions surfaced as the British questioned the Indian National Congress and Gandhi’s capacity to be the comprehensive voice of India’s multifaceted society. In a strategic maneuver, they incorporated diverse religious leaders, including representatives from Muslim and Sikh communities, and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar as the spokesperson for the Dalits or the “untouchables,” encouraging a discourse enriched by diverse societal and religious nuances.

Steadfast in his principles, Gandhi countered proposals advocating constitutional provisions delineated by communal identities. He envisaged the potential repercussions of such provisions as detrimental, fostering divisions and hindering the unifying spirit essential for a collective struggle against colonial rule.

Residing Amongst the Common People

An illustrative episode during these deliberations was Gandhi’s solitary voyage outside India between 1914 and his demise in 1948. Opting against the allure of luxurious accommodations in London’s West End, Gandhi chose proximity to the working-class populace residing in East End’s Kingsley Hall. This decision mirrored his intrinsic alignment with the grassroots, reflecting his life and struggles in India.

Protests and The Poona Pact

After his return to India, after the Second Round Table Conference, Gandhi spearheaded a renewed wave of Satyagraha. Following his arrest, his unwavering spirit was confined within the walls of Yerwada Jail, Pune.

A significant constitutional development during his incarceration was the British government’s enactment of legislation ushering in separate electorates for the “untouchables,” famously termed the Communal Award. Propelled by a spirit of protest, Gandhi embraced a fast-unto-death in prison, catalyzing a potent wave of public outcry. This led to consultative resolutions involving Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, resulting in the transformative Poona Pact, which replaced the initial Communal Award.

The Round Table Conferences emerged as crucibles of intense deliberations and diverging visions, navigating the turbulent terrains of constitutional reforms amidst India’s freedom struggle. Key protagonists such as Gandhi, embodying the spirit of nonviolent resistance, navigated these discussions with a vision of a united struggle against colonial rule, leading to significant historical milestones like the Poona Pact.

The Dynamics of Congress Politics: 1934-1938

Gandhi’s resignation and its implications.

In a strategic repositioning, Mahatma Gandhi resigned from the membership of the Indian National Congress in 1934. This was not a manifestation of dissent against the party’s stances. Instead, Gandhi’s resignation was imbued with a vision of revitalizing the party’s internal dynamics. He envisioned that his absence would dismantle the overshadowing influence of his immense popularity, facilitating a more vibrant and pluralistic participation from diverse factions within the Congress. These factions encapsulated a spectrum of ideological orientations, including communists, socialists, trade unionists, students, religious conservatives, and proponents of pro-business philosophies.

Gandhi also sought to strategically preclude the potential utilization of his leadership status for propagandist objectives by the Raj. This was emblematic of his nuanced approach to ensuring that his leadership did not inadvertently become a conduit for the Raj’s propaganda machinery.

Resurgence in Active Politics

Gandhi’s re-engagement with active politics unfurled in 1936, synchronized with Jawaharlal Nehru’s ascendancy to the Congress presidency and the significant Lucknow session of the Congress. Gandhi’s focus remained unwaveringly anchored on the imperative of attaining independence, prioritizing it over deliberations speculating on India’s prospective future post-independence.

In a paradigm of ideological diversities, Gandhi did not impose constraints on Congress to adopt socialism as an aspirational objective. However, the political landscape was characterized by emergent contentions, most notably with Subhas Chandra Bose. Bose, elected as the president of the Congress in 1938, epitomized a contrasting ideological orientation, reflecting skepticism towards nonviolence as a fundamental instrument of protest.

Ideological Clashes and Resignations

An ideological clash crescendoed between Gandhi and Bose, culminating in the electoral realm, with Bose securing a second presidential term despite Gandhi’s endorsement of Bhogaraju Pattabhi Sitaramayya. In reflecting on the significance of the election, Gandhi interpreted Sitaramayya’s defeat as a personal loss. This period witnessed a tumultuous phase of All-India leaders resigning from a collective dissent against Bose’s deviation from the foundational Gandhian principles. These resignations underscored the profound ideological variances within the Congress, delineating the contours of a complex and dynamic political landscape during this historical juncture.

The period between 1934 and 1938 was emblematic of the multifaceted dynamics and ideological diversities within the Indian National Congress. Gandhi’s strategies, resignations, and ideological disagreements were reflective of a vibrant yet tumultuous phase in the evolution of the Congress and the broader contours of India’s freedom struggle.

World War II and the Evolution of the Quit India Movement

Initial resistance and opposition.

During the crucible of World War II, Mahatma Gandhi emerged as a staunch opponent of extending any form of support to the British war endeavor. Anchoring his resistance was a nuanced political rationale; Gandhi firmly believed that it was incongruous for India to contribute to a war that was ostensibly waged for the preservation of democratic freedoms while such freedoms remained elusive within India itself. This position catalyzed a spectrum of reactions, leading to a robust movement against Indian participation in the war.

The Pinnacle of Non-Cooperation: The Quit India Movement

In a historical address delivered in Bombay in August 1942, Gandhi underscored the urgency of British exit from India, inaugurating the Quit India Movement. This clarion call for liberation resonated with a spectrum of responses. While it orchestrated a symphony of collective action against British imperialism, it also faced opposition from various factions, notably leading to the mass incarceration of Congress leaders and the tragic loss of over 1,000 Indian lives in the tumult of the movement.

Gandhi’s advocacy was articulated with a profound philosophical coherence. He urged the Indian populace to abstain from initiating violence against the British, emphasizing a readiness to endure suffering and embrace martyrdom if confronted with violence from the British regime.

Arrest and Imprisonment

A profound challenge beset the movement with Gandhi’s arrest and subsequent two-year imprisonment in the Aga Khan Palace in Pune. This period was marked by deep personal losses for Gandhi, including the demise of his secretary, Mahadev Desai, and his wife, Kasturba Gandhi, on February 22, 1944. Amidst these tribulations, Gandhi navigated the complexities of political communication, including interactions with British journalists such as Stuart Gelder, leading to various nuances and controversies in representing Gandhi’s positions.

Political Transitions and Dialogues

Gandhi’s release on May 6, 1944, marked his reentry into a dynamically transformed political landscape. A significant feature of this transformation was the ascendency of the Muslim League and the intensification of dialogues around the prospect of partition. Protracted discussions, notably with Muhammad Ali Jinnah, unfolded against this backdrop, with Gandhi advocating for a vision of a united and pluralistic India, encompassing the diversity of its religious communities.

The Aftermath of the War

The terminal phase of World War II heralded shifts in the political configurations, with indications of the impending transfer of power into Indian hands becoming increasingly discernible. Gandhi’s leadership navigated these complexities, eventually leading to the cessation of the movement and the release of approximately 100,000 political prisoners. This epoch in history thus marked a confluence of resistance, negotiation, and the relentless quest for India’s freedom, reflecting the multifaceted dynamics of the Quit India Movement in the broader canvas of the struggle for Indian independence.

Partition and Independence: Gandhi’s Vision and Struggles

Unfolding dialogues and disagreements.

During the epoch of India’s imminent independence, Mahatma Gandhi steadfastly opposed the partitioning of the Indian subcontinent along religious demarcations. A pivotal moment unfolded in September 1944, when Gandhi engaged in dialogues with Muhammad Ali Jinnah, advocating for unity amidst the brewing sectarian divisions. Championing a strategy of cooperation and plebiscite, Gandhi proposed a provisional government comprising the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League, envisioning a subsequent resolution of the partition question through democratic consultations in Muslim-majority districts.

The Onset of Direct Action Day: August 16, 1946

A significant historical juncture was marked by Direct Action Day on August 16, 1946. Championed by Jinnah, this day epitomized the intensification of demands for a partitioned Indian subcontinent. In the historical fabric of these developments, the city of Calcutta became an epicenter of communal conflagrations, witnessing significant upheavals, loss of life, and the unsettling turmoil of communal violence. The enforcement machinery exhibited a considerable lack of intervention, with historical accounts noting the absence of policing mechanisms in managing and mitigating conflict escalations during this period.

Negotiations, Criticisms, and British Perspectives

The political atmosphere was imbued with intricate negotiations and various perspectives, including those of Archibald Wavell, the Viceroy and Governor-General of British India, until February 1947. The interplay of dialogues, criticisms, and apprehensions marked this phase. Wavell’s critiques articulated a portrayal of Gandhi’s intentions and strategies, emphasizing a perception of Gandhi as primarily driven by objectives oriented towards eliminating British influence and establishing a predominantly Hindu governance structure.

The Contours of Partition and Independence

Historical narrations emphasize that tumultuous disagreements, intense violence, and the massive displacement of populations across the reconfigured borders of India and Pakistan marked the unfolding of partition. The magnitude of the humanitarian crisis was enormous, with the migration of 10 to 12 million individuals and significant loss of life keeping the landscapes of partition.

August 15, 1947: A Day of Solemn Reflection

The historic day of India’s independence on August 15, 1947, was marked by Gandhi’s deep reflections, acts of fasting, and appeals for peace amidst the pervasive atmosphere of communal unrest. Gandhi’s presence in Calcutta symbolized a beacon of peace advocacy, channeling efforts towards mitigating the religious violence that had engulfed various regions.

Gandhi’s journeys through the tumultuous pathways of partition and independence embodied a persistent vision for unity, democratic consultations, and peace. His leadership navigated the complexities of negotiations, critiques, and the profound challenges of communal violence, reflecting a multifaceted engagement with the historical transformations of his times.

A historical tragedy unfolded on January 30, 1948, as the sun set, marking an unforgettable loss. At 5:17 pm, within the serene surroundings of the Birla House garden (now Gandhi Smriti), Mahatma Gandhi, accompanied by his grandnieces, was ambushed by an act of violent extremism. Nathuram Godse, propelled by a radical Hindu nationalist ideology, unleashed three bullets into Gandhi’s chest, culminating in the tragic demise of a global apostle of peace and non-violence.

After the act of assassination, a cloud of sorrow and disbelief permeated the national consciousness. The solemn announcements and expressions of grief were epitomized by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru’s poignant address to the nation, communicating the enormity of the loss and the ensuing darkness experienced by millions.

The Assassination

In the aftermath of the tragic event, an immediate process of legal scrutiny and justice was initiated. Prominent among the accused were individuals such as Nathuram Vinayak Godse and Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, whose affiliations were traced to radical Hindu nationalist organizations. The judiciary process commenced on May 27, 1948, under the vigilance of Justice Atma Charan. The legal proceedings were meticulous, involving comprehensive testimonies and evidentiary presentations, culminating on February 10, 1949.

Verdicts and Sentencing

The outcome of the judicial proceedings led to pronounced verdicts, with diverse sentencing outcomes for the accused individuals. Godse and Narayan Apte faced the gravest consequences, receiving capital punishment sentences. Conversely, acquittals and varying degrees of imprisonment were apportioned to other individuals involved in the conspiracy.

The Funeral

An extraordinary display of national and global mourning marked Gandhi’s mortal departure. The funeral procession, a solemn journey spanning five miles, witnessed the participation of over a million individuals, reflecting the profound respect and reverence towards Gandhi’s legacy. Notably, the global diaspora, including communities within London, converged in expressions of grief and remembrance, reflecting the universal impact of Gandhi’s life and principles.

The physical departure of Mahatma Gandhi was marked with a solemn and significant cremation ceremony on January 31, 1948, at Rajghat, New Delhi. The event became a confluence of grief and reverence, attended by distinguished national leaders, including Jawaharlal Nehru, Louis and Edwina Mountbatten, Maulana Azad, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, and Sarojini Naidu. Devdas Gandhi, Gandhi’s son, had the poignant honor of lighting the funeral pyre, signifying a profoundly personal and national farewell.

Distribution and Immersion of Ashes

Following Hindu traditions, the ashes of Mahatma Gandhi were ceremoniously distributed into various urns, which found their resting places across diverse geographies of India and the world. A significant portion of his ashes were immersed at the Sangam in Allahabad on February 12, 1948. Intriguingly, some parts of his ashes embarked on global journeys, finding resting places near the Nile River in Uganda, symbolized with a memorial plaque, and as far away as the Self-Realization Fellowship Lake Shrine in Los Angeles. Various other urns found their sanctified spaces in places significant to Gandhi’s life and struggle, including Pune and Girgaum Chowpatty, where specific immersion ceremonies were conducted in subsequent years, the last of which was conducted on January 30, 2008.

Memorials: Preserving the Legacy

The legacy of Mahatma Gandhi is preserved and commemorated through various memorials established in places intertwined with his life’s journey and sacrifices. Gandhi Smriti, the former Birla House, stands as a poignant tribute to his final moments, preserving the historical significance of his assassination. Raj Ghat, situated near the Yamuna River in New Delhi, has become an enduring place of remembrance, symbolizing the nation’s collective homage. The memorial at Raj Ghat is marked by a simple yet profound black marble platform engraved with the words “Hē Rāma” (हे ! राम), believed to be Gandhi’s last utterances, perpetuating the spiritual essence of his life’s philosophy and eternal departure.

Principles, Practices, and Beliefs

Examination and interpretation.

The principles, practices, and beliefs of Mahatma Gandhi have been the focal point of extensive analysis and interpretation by scholars and political analysts globally. Gandhi’s life, articulated through his profound statements and letters, has woven a tapestry of philosophical insights deeply influenced by cultural, historical, and personal paradigms.

Truth and Satyagraha: Ethical Cornerstones

Central to Gandhi’s philosophy was the pursuit of truth (Satya), which he meticulously cultivated throughout his life. This unwavering commitment evolved into the nonviolent resistance movement known as Satyagraha. This pivotal concept was first politically manifested in September 1920, during a session of the Indian Congress, where Gandhi meticulously articulated the “Resolution on Non-cooperation.”

The concept of Satyagraha reverberated profoundly within the cultural and spiritual ethos of the Indian populace, elevating Gandhi’s stature to that of a Mahatma or a “Great Soul.” Gandhi’s philosophical underpinnings were firmly rooted in ancient Indian traditions, drawing inspiration from Vedantic principles of self-realization, non-violence (ahimsa), and universal love. His convictions were further enriched by elements from Jainism and Buddhism, synthesizing a political philosophy that prioritized moral integrity and ethical action.

Spiritual Synthesis: The Convergence of Divine and Ethical Realms

Gandhi’s spiritual articulation evolved, reflecting a convergence of divine and ethical realms. His philosophical journey culminated in the realization that “Truth is God,” positioning truth (Satya) as the ultimate divine reality. This alignment resonated with the Advaita Vedanta tradition, identifying a non-dual universal essence pervading all life and existence.

Satyagraha: A Nonviolent Crusade

Satyagraha emerged as a universal force, embodying passive resistance and a determined non-cooperation towards oppression. It was characterized by a soul force seeking to eliminate antagonisms, aiming to purify and transform the oppressor spiritually. This ethical architecture, championed by Gandhi, advocated moral ascendance through the endurance of suffering, heralding the progression of individual and societal ethos.

While universally inclusive, Satyagraha’s philosophy also encountered diverging perspectives and criticisms from various quarters. Notably, there were objections from prominent personalities, such as Muslim leaders like Jinnah and socio-political reformers like Ambedkar, who presented alternative viewpoints based on varying political, religious, and social considerations.

Nonviolence: A Philosophical Imperative

While nonviolence (ahimsa) became synonymous with Gandhi’s philosophy, its application was deeply nuanced. While valuing nonviolence as an exemplary virtue, Gandhi also demonstrated a readiness to adopt a stance of valor over submission in the face of dishonor or adversity. This nuanced stance on non-violence was not merely a strategic choice but a reflection of Gandhi’s broader philosophical and ethical convictions.

Historical and Global Resonance

Gandhi’s ideological contributions have left an indelible mark on historical and global landscapes, guiding movements and inspiring leaders across diverse temporal and geographical realms. His teachings, underscored by nonviolence and moral righteousness principles, continue to resonate as guiding beacons in the global discourse on justice, ethics, and humanitarianism.

Legacy and Influence

Mahatma Gandhi holds a preeminent position as a stalwart who led the Indian independence movement against British rule, earning himself a significant place in the annals of modern Indian history. Esteemed American historian Stanley Wolpert lauded Gandhi as “India’s greatest revolutionary nationalist leader,” equating his historical magnitude to that of the Buddha.

Gandhi’s honorific title, “Mahatma,” derived from the Sanskrit words ‘maha’ (Great) and ‘atma’ (Soul), became synonymous with his identity. It was publicly conferred upon him in a farewell meeting at Town Hall, Durban, in July 1914. The esteemed poet Rabindranath Tagore is credited with bestowing this title on him by 1915.

His influence permeates the global landscape, with numerous streets, roads, and localities named in his honor, predominantly in India. Landmarks such as M.G. Road in various Indian cities, Gandhi Market in Mumbai, and Gandhinagar, the capital of Gujarat—his birth state, celebrate his enduring legacy. His impact was further commemorated through the issuance of stamps by over 150 countries as of 2008. Remarkably, in October 2019, approximately 87 countries, including Russia, Iran, and Turkey, released commemorative stamps marking the 150th birth anniversary of Gandhi.

His legacy shaped global history and inspired leaders and movements worldwide. Icons of the civil rights movement in the United States, such as Martin Luther King Jr. and James Lawson, cultivated their philosophies of non-violence from Gandhi’s teachings. Nelson Mandela , the torchbearer against apartheid in South Africa, and other global figures like Steve Biko and Václav Havel also drew profound inspiration from Gandhi’s principles of peaceful resistance.

Prominent personalities like physicist Albert Einstein and political activist Farah Omar from Somaliland were captivated by his philosophy. Notable European philosopher Romain Rolland penned a book titled Mahatma Gandhi in 1924, delineating his admiration and respect for Gandhi’s ideals. The interconnected spheres of environmental and technological philosophies have recently rejuvenated interest in Gandhi’s perspectives in the wake of climate change debates.

Historical landmarks have also immortalized Gandhi’s legacy. For instance, in September 2020, the Florian asteroid 120461 was named in his honor. Subsequent memorials, such as the statues erected in Astana in October 2022 and at the United Nations headquarters in New York on December 15, 2022, underscore his indelible mark on history and global peace movements.

Internationally renowned personalities, ranging from British musician John Lennon to former U.S. President Barack Obama , have voiced their reverence for Gandhi’s ideologies. Obama notably proclaimed Gandhi as a significant source of inspiration in a public interaction in September 2009.

In summary, Mahatma Gandhi’s life, philosophies, and strategies for peaceful resistance remain luminous beacons of inspiration and have been instrumental in sculpting the moral and ethical frameworks of various global leaders and movements. His legacy, interwoven with the principles of non-violence and moral integrity, continues reverberating through contemporary discourses on justice, peace, and humanitarianism.

Mahatma Gandhi’s biography is a remarkable symphony of his beliefs, religion, and unyielding movements for justice and freedom. His enduring legacy, a testament to the power of peaceful resistance, continues to guide and inspire people worldwide toward hope, inspiration, and moral victory.

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Remembering the Longtime New Yorker Writer Ved Mehta

By The New Yorker

Ved Mehta, a writer for The New Yorker for more than thirty years, died at the age of eighty-six, on Saturday morning. Born in Lahore to a well-off Punjabi family, he lost his sight when he was three years old, to meningitis. Sometime after, he was sent to live and study at an institution for the blind in Bombay. His book “ The Ledge Between the Streams ” describes his life as a blind child in the India of the nineteen-forties, as he learned to read Braille and to ride a bicycle and a horse. Throughout his youth and his maturity as a writer, Mehta was determined to apprehend the world around him with maximal accuracy and to describe it as best he could. “I felt that blindness was a terrible impediment, and that if only I exerted myself, and did everything my big sisters and big brother did, I could somehow become exactly like them,” he wrote.

Mehta came to the United States when he was fifteen, and attended the Arkansas School for the Blind, in Little Rock. After studying at Pomona College and Oxford University, he began to flourish in his working life as a writer. He asked David Astor, the editor of The Observer , about writing a fourteen-thousand-word piece about his travels in India. “Something that long and boring,” Astor reportedly said, “only The New Yorker would publish.”

Mehta joined the staff of the magazine when he was twenty-six and, for more than three decades, wrote a stream of pieces, many of them appearing in multipart series. He wrote about Oxford dons, theology, Indian politics, and many other subjects. Some of his most fascinating work includes “ A Battle Against the Bewitchment of Our Intelligence ” (1961), a portrait of British intellectual life and the philosophical debates of the time; “ John Is Easy to Please ” (1971), a piece about the young linguist Noam Chomsky and the critics of his theory of transformational grammar; and, in 1976, a three-part Profile of Mahatma Gandhi . In 1998, he published a highly admiring book about his longtime editor at the magazine, William Shawn, who ran The New Yorker during Mehta’s tenure. Penguin is releasing in e-book form much of Mehta’s work, including his many autobiographical pieces.

Mehta walked the streets of the city without a cane or a seeing-eye dog, and he bristled when someone dared try to assist him. Madhur Jaffrey, the Indian-born actress and cookbook author, once told Maureen Dowd, of the Times , that when she first met Mehta, “I tried to take his arm” to help. “He gave me a shove, and we’ve been friends ever since.”

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By Alex von Tunzelmann

• Oct. 10, 2018

GANDHI The Years That Changed the World, 1914-1948 By Ramachandra Guha Illustrated. 1,083 pp. Alfred A. Knopf. $40.

“The number of books that people write on this old man takes my breath away,” complained the politician B. R. Ambedkar of the proliferation of Gandhiana. That was in 1946. Ramachandra Guha must have smiled when he quoted that line in his new book, the second — and final — volume of his biography of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Few figures in history have been so extensively chronicled, including by himself (Gandhi’s own published collected works run to 100 volumes and over 50,000 pages). The really surprising thing is that there is still so much to say.

“Gandhi: The Years That Changed the World, 1914-1948,” encompassing both world wars and the struggle for Indian independence, is a portrait of a complex man whose remarkable tenacity remained constant, even when his beliefs changed. It is also extraordinarily intimate. Gandhi drew no distinction between his private and public life. He made his own body a symbol, mortifying it through fasting or marching for political and spiritual change. He even went public with his sexual life — and the negation of it through brahmacharya , or chastity.

It is difficult to write about a man who was a revered spiritual leader as well as a keen political operator. Guha, the author of “India After Gandhi” and “Gandhi Before India” (the first volume of the monumental biography that this book concludes), approaches Gandhi on his own terms while trying not to gloss over his flaws. Perhaps inevitably, with one who has been regarded almost as a saint, it is the flaws that will capture many readers’ attention. A key theme that emerges is Gandhi’s effort to control himself and those around him. This extended from his own family to his political allies and opponents.

The most compelling political relationship Guha reveals is the antagonism between Gandhi and the aforementioned B. R. Ambedkar , the pre-eminent politician of outcaste Hindus then known as “untouchables” and now as dalits. Guha’s book charts the two men’s interactions over decades, along with Gandhi’s own changing views on caste.

Even while he still saw some value in the caste system, Gandhi opposed untouchability. Guha is at pains to refute Arundhati Roy’s dismissal of Gandhi as a reactionary on caste. He details Gandhi’s exhaustive campaigns to allow untouchables into temples, and his many attempts to persuade other Hindus of his caste to accept them. Certainly, Gandhi did much brave and important work. Yet he still characterized untouchables as “helpless men and women” who required a savior — namely, him. As Guha says, Gandhi’s rhetoric “sounded patronizing, robbing ‘untouchables’ of agency, of being able to articulate their own demands and grievances.”

Gandhi fought Ambedkar over establishing separate electorates for untouchables, arguing that these would “vivisect” Hinduism. “I want political power for my community,” Ambedkar explained. “That is indispensable for our survival.” Gandhi’s reply, as quoted by Guha, was that “you are born an untouchable but I am an untouchable by adoption. And as a new convert I feel more for the welfare of the community than those who are already there.” Gandhi cared passionately about untouchability: He repeatedly emphasized his willingness to die if that was what it took to end it. What he could not seem to do was let untouchables themselves take the lead.

Some of the most interesting parts of this book concern another group Gandhi sought to instruct: women. Two sections in particular are likely to raise eyebrows. The first is Guha’s account of Gandhi’s relationship with the writer and singer Saraladevi Chaudhurani in 1919-20. Gandhi was, by then, celibate; both he and Sarala were married to other people. Yet their letters speak openly of desire — “You still continue to haunt me even in my sleep,” he wrote to her — and he told friends, “I call her my spiritual wife.” He signed his letters to her Law Giver, which, as Guha observes, was “a self-regarding appellation that reveals his desire to have Sarala conform to his ways.” Gandhi’s friends appear to have talked him out of making this “spiritual marriage” public. Eventually he distanced himself, confessing that he did not have the “infinitely higher purity” in practice “that I possess in thought” to maintain a “marriage” that was perfectly spiritual.

The second section that will provoke controversy tackles an even more sensitive subject: Gandhi’s notorious brahmacharya experiments, beginning in 1946. When Gandhi was involved with Sarala, he was 50 and she was 47, a mature woman exercising her own free will. Nearly three decades later, when he was 77, he made the decision to “test” his vow of chastity by sleeping in a bed with his teenage grandniece, Manu Gandhi .

Manu was vulnerable. She had lost her mother at a young age and had been taken in by Gandhi and his wife (who was deceased by the time the “experiments” started). Manu grew up in an ashram in which everyone was devoted to her great-uncle. She wrote a diary mentioning the “experiments” that Guha quotes, though it is a compromised source: Gandhi read it as Manu wrote it and his own writing appears in the margins.

Guha has found a letter written by Horace Alexander, a close friend of Gandhi’s. Alexander said that Gandhi told him Manu wanted to test her own vow of chastity. Guha suggests that this puts a new light on the “experiments,” and that Manu may have become involved partly to deter another man who was pursuing her romantically: “There may have been, as it were, two sides to the story. Both Gandhi and Manu may have wanted to go through this experiment, or ordeal. To be sure, there was a certain amount of imposition — from his side.”

That caveat is important, for, as Guha allows, there was an enormous power differential between Gandhi and Manu. It is not clear that the letter from Alexander changes how we view the “experiments”: He spoke only to Gandhi, not Manu. In the wake of #MeToo, we know that the powerful may delude themselves about the willingness of those they manipulate, and that their less powerful victims may go along with things they do not want because they are overwhelmed by the status of their abuser.

Lest anyone think this applies modern standards to a historical event, Guha provides extensive evidence of the horrified reaction of many of Gandhi’s friends and followers at the time. Most were appalled that a young woman should be used as an instrument in an “experiment,” and some of his political allies, like Vallabhbhai Patel, feared it would become a scandal. At least one, the stenographer R. P. Parasuram, left Gandhi’s entourage when Gandhi refused to stop sharing a bed with Manu.

Guha does as much as any reasonable biographer could to explain the “experiments” with reference to Gandhi’s 40-year obsession with celibacy. Ultimately, though, the reader is left feeling that Gandhi’s own defenses of his behavior are riddled with self-justification, and Manu’s voice may never truly be heard.

Gandhi posed a huge challenge to his world in his time, and still does. Guha’s admiration for his subject is clear throughout this book. He tries to explain controversial aspects of Gandhi’s life by contextualizing them within Gandhi’s own thinking. Some of Gandhi’s fiercer critics may feel this is soft-pedaling, but it does help build a fair, thorough and nuanced portrait of the man. Gandhi spoke for himself more than most people in history, but even the most controlling people cannot control how history sees them. Guha lets Gandhi appear on his own terms, and allows him to reveal himself in all his contradictions.

There is much truth in a verse Guha quotes, written by Gandhi’s secretary, Mahadev Desai:

To live with the saints in heaven Is a bliss and a glory But to live with a saint on earth Is a different story.

Alex von Tunzelmann is the author of “Indian Summer: The Secret History of the End of an Empire.”

May 12, 2024

Life Story of Famous People

Short Bio » Civil Rights Leader » Mahatma Gandhi

Mahatma Gandhi

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was the preeminent leader of the Indian independence movement in British-ruled India. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on 2 October 1869 to a Hindu Modh Baniya family in Porbandar (also known as Sudamapuri ), a coastal town on the Kathiawar Peninsula and then part of the small princely state of Porbandar in the Kathiawar Agency of the Indian Empire. Employing nonviolent civil disobedience, Gandhi led India to independence and inspired movements for civil rights and freedom across the world.

Gandhi famously led Indians in challenging the British-imposed salt tax with the 400 km (250 mi) Dandi Salt March in 1930, and later in calling for the British to Quit India in 1942. He was imprisoned for many years, upon many occasions, in both South Africa and India. One of Gandhi’s major strategies, first in South Africa and then in India, was uniting Muslims and Hindus to work together in opposition to British imperialism. In 1919–22 he won strong Muslim support for his leadership in the Khilafat Movement to support the historic Ottoman Caliphate. By 1924, that Muslim support had largely evaporated.

Time magazine named Gandhi the Man of the Year in 1930. Gandhi was also the runner-up to Albert Einstein as “Person of the Century” at the end of 1999. The Government of India awarded the annual Gandhi Peace Prize to distinguished social workers, world leaders and citizens. Nelson Mandela, the leader of South Africa’s struggle to eradicate racial discrimination and segregation, was a prominent non-Indian recipient. In 2011, Time magazine named Gandhi as one of the top 25 political icons of all time. Gandhi did not receive the Nobel Peace Prize, although he was nominated five times between 1937 and 1948, including the first-ever nomination by the American Friends Service Committee, though he made the short list only twice, in 1937 and 1947.

Indians widely describe Gandhi as the father of the nation. In 2007, the United Nations General Assembly declared Gandhi’s birthday 2 October as “the International Day of Nonviolence.

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List of Famous Books Written By Mahatma Gandhi [10+ Books]

If are you looking for a List of Famous books written by Mahatma Gandhi , then you are in the correct place. In this post, we discussed the 10 plus + famous books of Gandhiji.

Let’s start with a brief intro to Mahatma Gandhiji. Mahatma Gandhi’s full name was  Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi , he was born on 2 October 1869, and he was an Indian Lawyer by profession. He operated nonviolent resistance to lead the victorious campaign for India’s independence from British rule and inspired campaigns for civil rights and liberty across the globe.

Gandhi Ji was born in a Hindu family in Gujarat India and did his law training from London. Gandhi’s birthday, 2 October, is celebrated in India as Gandhi Jayanti, a national holiday, and universal as the International Day of Nonviolence.

Now, we discuss The Famous Books written by Mahatma Gandhi in the below sections.

You can also read this: Top 5+ Books Written by Jawaharlal Nehru

Page Contents

List of Famous Books Written By Mahatma Gandhi

We made a huge brief review list of famous books written by Mahatma Gandhi below with their Amazon links if you want to read the full book.

Quick View List of Famous Books Written By Mahatma Gandhi

1. An Autobiography (The Story of My Experiments with Truth)

The autobiography of Mahatma Gandhi is a book that guides you through right and wrong. Most importantly, Gandhiji experienced all these in his lifetime.

The original version of this book was first published in Gujarati and later it was translated into English and other Indian languages.

This book is divided into five parts starting from his childhood and going till the year 1921. The autobiography of Gandhiji ends in 1920, right near the time Gandhiji became a universal figure.

This book is about British East India and our freedom struggle, but it is mainly about Gandhiji’s “experiments” in his campaign and it is extraordinary how he sticks to his beliefs.

2. Inspirational Thoughts

This is the second number on the list of famous books written by Mahatma Gandhi. “Inspirational Thoughts” The quotes and lessons you will get from this book of Gandhiji will always be in your mind and heart. Each quote is something deep, important, and meaningful that everyone needs to understand.

Gandhiji has given India not only freedom but, also some excellent guidance  which is recorded in this book.

It’s a must-read book for everyone If you want to learn some valuable things from the books of Gandhiji you have to understand this book and follow his way. you will be mesmerized and shocked at such simplicity of Gandhiji.

3. The Bhagavad Gita According to Gandhi

“Bhagavad Gita according to Gandhi ji” is a very influential and inspiring book, In this, he told us about the “Gita” and its full meaning throughout this book.

This book is for those who are searching for the translational version of the Bhagavad Gita. This book by Gandhiji explains the shlokas of Bhagavad Gita and makes it clear to understand.

I would recommend this book to those who are looking for a brief explanation of the Bhagavad Gita but also I suggest reading it gently with understanding so that you don’t lose any part or essential meaning.

4. Peace (The Words and Inspiration of Mahatma Gandhi)

The book describes his life very well how he began his journey, how his hopes became inspirational, how his words encouraged others to do good, and how others countered his beliefs on nonviolent actions , and how his words inspired others to fight for their freedom.

This short book provides a good summary of the great Mahatma Gandhi and his life and what he had to do to achieve peace in India. This book combines all photographs of Gandhi with quotations from his most inspirational speeches and writings to capture the actual reality of his timeless message of peace, equality, respect, and love

(Scroll down for more famous books written by Mahatma Gandhi)

5. The Essential Gandhi

“An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work & Ideas”  This might be the best biographical book you will ever read, by selecting all the writings of Gandhi, this combination becomes something special.

We admire Gandhiji not only because of his strong statements, his talent to inspire, his active resolve, his ideological perspectives, and his lucid mind but also because he was so humble in accepting his weaknesses or flaws .

This is an interesting book on Gandhi’s perspectives and life’s work, This book is for those who want a quick introduction to Gandhiji’s life and teaching, it is a good starting source to know about Gandhiji.

6. Gandhi on Non-Violence 

“Gandhi on Non-Violence” the book gives a detailed overview of Gandhi’s thoughts, including much in his own words. Several of the quotes are quite great.

The introduction by Merton is also very good and makes the book worth reading.

This book is in the 6th list of Famous Books written by Mahatma Gandhi.

I highly recommend it! It will unlock your mind, and if you are lucky it will help you view people and the world in usual from another perspective.

7. The Power of Nonviolent Resistance, Selected Writings

This is an excellent and good collection that delves deep into the complexity of Gandhi’s systematic thinking about nonviolent resistance and all its components.

The year 2019 regards the 150th anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi’s birth, Penguin Classics presents a compact but wide selection of text by Gandhi that speaks to non-violent .

Taking together excerpts, letters, and essays from some of his most celebrated texts including  Satyagraha in South Africa, Yeravda Mandir, and Hind Swaraj, this all is taken from Mahatma Gandhi’s written books.

This volume gives readers an insightful conclusion of Gandhi’s views on activism and non-violent civil disobedience.

Hope you like the list of famous books written by Mahatma Gandhi now.

8. Mohandas Gandhi: Essential Writings

These books written by Mahatma Gandhi and are created snippets from a wide publication of his work, and organizes these snippets into topics:

Autobiographical Writings, The Pursuit of Truth, The Search for God, The Practice of Nonviolence, The Urgent Need for Nuclear Disarmament, The Life of Steadfast Resistance, Epilogue, and The Discipline of Prayer and Fasting.

The book was published with the sincere hope that Gandhi’s writings might inspire more people to see the endless love for a reason, political power, and commitment to non-violence and spiritual liberation

9. Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule

Gandhi wrote this book in his mother tongue, Gujarati, during his journey from London to South Africa at the SS Kildonan Castle from November 13 to November 22, 1909.

In the book, Gandhi analyzes the problems and causes of humanity in the present day. The Gujarati version of this book was banned by the British and was later translated into English.

His views about the legal profession, doctors, railways, etc. are given in question-answer format. If you want to know about Gandhi’s approach to various subjects in 1908 then this book is worth reading.

10. The Words of Gandhi

In view of our present wars, Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy is equally applicable even today. He was a powerful thinker and you should take the time to read about him.

This bestselling volume includes an introduction by Attenborough and words by Time magazine Senior Foreign Correspondent Johanna McGarry that places Gandhi’s life and work in a historical context of the 20th century.

The book also included 20 striking historical photographs , specially chosen from the archives at the National Gandhi Museum in New Delhi, that capture the important personal, spiritual, and political aspects of Gandhi’s work.

11. What is Hinduism?

This is also on the list of famous books written by Mahatma Gandhi. “What is Hinduism” This book of Gandhiji is a collection of various articles written by Gandhiji in different newspapers about his belief and trust in religion or God.

The book is wonderfully written and the short article’s lessons make it easy to read and understand.

It’s a highly recommended book if you want to think deeper. This is an amalgam where theory meets intelligence.

12. Third Class in Indian Railways

This is a collection of 6 essays by Gandhi, in which Gandhi shares his views on different subjects, this view of Gandhiji is also relevant even today. He shares these experiences in a greatly simple manner so that anyone can understand and correlate to what he recorded.

The first essay is on poverty in India, especially when Gandhi travelled in trains across India. The second essay is about the value of Indian vernacular languages, the next three essays are about Swadeshi, non-violence, and cooperation.

These are the list of Famous Books Written by Mahatma Gandhi hope you like them.

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Gandhi Jayanti Special: 5 Mahatma Gandhi-Approved Diet Tips Gen Z Must Follow

Mahatma Gandhi's Diet: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was a hero, activist, spiritual leader, and advocate of world peace. In 1947, he helped achieve India's independence. Throughout the course of the independence movement, the man fasted a total of 17 times, with his longest fast lasting 21 days. Gandhi was a vegetarian from childhood and separated his meals into three categories: vegetarian, meat, and mixed diet, which included both vegetarian and meat options. He kept to the first basket since he was a vegetarian.

Mahatma Gandhi, also known as Bapu, wrote, 'Food is Life,' in his book Key to Health. He noted, "Whilst it is true that man cannot live without air and water, the thing that nourishes the body is food. Hence the saying, food is life." In order to improve one's entire quality of life, Gandhi advocated a basic, balanced diet rich in proteins, fibre, and important vitamins and minerals, frequent exercise, and abstaining from harmful behaviours like drinking and smoking.

What Did Mahatma Gandhi Eat in a Day?

Mahatma Gandhi experimented with his diet and in the book, Diet and Diet Reform, a chapter carried a sample of his diet. "I take generally: 8 tolas of germinating wheat, 8 tolas of sweet almonds reduced to a paste, 8 tolas of green leaves pounded, 6 sour lemons, and 2 ounces of honey. The food is divided into two parts, the first meal is taken at 11 AM and the second at 6.15 PM The only thing touched by fire is water. I take in the morning and once more during the day boiling water, lemon and honey" - Gandhi wrote in his book, as reported by The Indian Express .

5 Healthy Dietary Tips From Mahatma Gandhi

• Seasonal And Natural Foods: He always encouraged eating locally grown and in-season foods, as well as a variety of fresh and dried fruits, vegetables, and herbs, as well as healthful, simply prepared dishes that didn't lose their natural nutrients and clean water. He encouraged the usage of pure ghee, jaggery, and milk from cows and goats.
• Salt-Free Diet: While we have been often told to cut down on salt intake, Mahatma Gandhi started a salt-free diet in the year 1911, he was a staunch opposer to add additional salt to meals. By the late 1920s, he started consuming salt again as advised by the doctors, he used to have not more than 30 grains per day.
• Fasting: Mahatma Gandhi recognized over a century ago the significance of detoxifying the body and bloodstream following hefty meals. He occasionally ingested fruits and water to enable the system to get rid of any poisonous wastes.
• No Dairy: Gandhiji in his book The Moral Basis of Vegetarianism, said, "I excluded milk from my diet for six years. But in the year 1917, as a result of my own ignorance, I was laid down with severe dysentery. I was reduced to a skeleton, but I stubbornly refused to take milk or buttermilk. I could have had in mind only the milk of the cow and buffalo; why should the vow prevent me from taking goat's milk?" A vegetarian diet must include milk and milk products, he wrote after pursuing his lactose-free experiment. A word of wisdom for today's weight-watchers who stay away from milk products.
• Sugar-Free Diet: By sugar, we mean refined sugar. As per various reports, Gandhiji loved fruits and mango was his favourite. But he stayed away from refined sugar. "Mango is a cursed fruit," Gandhi wrote in 1941. "It attracts attention as no other fruit does. We must get used to not treating it with so much affection but they will all get some as we have three boxes."