essay on health psychology

How Much Do Our Thoughts Shape Our Health?

The way we think about time, aging and sickness may influence our health, behavior and general well-being in surprising ways

By Ellen Langer & Peter Aungle

Jorm Sangsorn/Getty Images

Time heals all wounds, as the saying goes. But any medical professional can tell you that the hours required for recovery after an injury can vary widely. A person’s age, lifestyle and level of social support, for example, are all known influences on how quickly their body heals.

Their thoughts can play a remarkably powerful role as well. In a recent experiment, we tested whether expectations about the time it takes to heal can affect how long it actually takes to recover. We found that people’s perception of the passage of time influenced how quickly their wounds healed . The work is just the latest in a larger collection of evidence—documented in a new book written by one of us (Langer), The Mindful Body —that underscores the unity of mind and body, an idea with profound implications for health and well-being.

For the past 45 years, members of the Langer Lab have studied the ways in which the mind shapes the physiology of the body, or what our lab refers to as mind-body unity. The basic idea is simple: when people conceive of the mind and the body as a single entity rather than separable units, they can see how the mind has enormous control over health and well-being. Wherever we put our mind, so too will be our body.

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The first test of this concept was the counterclockwise experiment , which one of us (Langer) designed and ran in 1979. In that study, elderly men lived in a retreat that was retrofitted to appear as if it had existed 20 years earlier and had vintage furniture, appliances and magazines. We asked the men to live as their younger self. They discussed past events in the present tense as if they were currently unfolding. The results were astonishing. Without any medical intervention, their hearing, vision, memory and strength improved. They also were perceived to look noticeably younger in photographs by the end of the week.

Since that time the Langer Lab has found further confirmation of mind-body unity. We have discovered that expecting fatigue can cause people to feel more tired and that thinking you will catch a cold is associated with an increased likelihood of doing so . In another study, people who anticipated certain benefits such as weight loss from daily exercise did see those benefits , even as other people doing the same activities without those expectations saw no such changes.

In the recent study of wound healing, we looked closely at how expectations could affect recovery from a physical injury. We recruited 33 participants to undergo a controlled procedure three times that left mild bruising on the skin. In each case, there was a 28-minute healing observation period, and during that time frame, we asked people to fill out a survey at specific intervals.

In two conditions, we manipulated the experience of time. For example, in a “fast time” condition, we told participants to respond to the survey every eight minutes, and we gave them a timer that—unbeknownst to them—ran at double speed. As a result, every actual minute corresponded to two minutes on the timer, such that the 28-minute total felt like a quick 56 minutes. In a “slow time” condition, the survey occurred every two minutes, and we set the timer to run at half its normal speed. In this setup, the 28-minute period felt like a glacial 14 minutes.

We found that wounds healed faster when participants believed more time had passed and slower when they believed less time had passed—even though the actual elapsed time was the same in every case. We are now in the process of replicating and extending this finding to people recovering from hernia surgery, cataract surgery and dental surgery.

Our implicit beliefs about time are not the only thing we can change to improve our health—our research suggests we should also think more mindfully about categories and diagnostic labels. For example, when we spoke with endocrinologists, they agreed that there was no relevant difference between someone who measured a 5.6 percent or 5.7 percent on a hemoglobin test called A1C, which measures blood sugar levels. But a line must be drawn somewhere, and standard medical protocol is to consider anyone with an A1C level below 5.7 percent as having “normal” levels and anyone above that point as “prediabetic.” In a study that was recently accepted for publication, we compared data from 3,984 people who scored a 5.6 percent or 5.7 percent and found a significant difference in their ensuing medical trajectory. Those who got the prediabetic label experienced significantly greater increases in A1C results over the ensuing 10 yearsand had a significantly higher tendency to develop diabetes. Because the two groups were essentially the same at the start, the most reasonable conclusion is that subsequent differences were the result of the diagnostic label.

While it’s worth noting that doctors may have treated these people differently once they received the prediabetic label, many endocrinologists told us that they generally give patients with either a 5.6 or 5.7 percent score the same advice: they note that the patient’s blood glucose level is a little high and suggest that lifestyle changes could help. We therefore suspect people with this classification tended to have different expectations for themselves—even though, initially, people in both groups had comparable blood sugar levels on the high side of normal. We dubbed this tendency for otherwise comparable people to fall victim to the diagnostic label they are given “the borderline effect”: when we set a threshold for a specific medical condition, people immediately above that borderline and those immediately below it may be essentially the same, but after the label is applied, they leave with very different impressions of their health.

Taken together, this work suggests that people can think themselves sick when they could otherwise be healthy and that they can also think themselves well. Each person goes through life acquiring various beliefs about how their body works and what it means to be healthy. Often these ideas reflect our core assumptions about the world and affect us with little conscious awareness. Much as someone can develop preferences or biases based on past experience, our research suggests that people also develop implicit beliefs that affect their health. For instance, a person may think they can spot the signs that they are getting sick or older. Their expectations, which structure how they feel, what they think and what they do, shape what happens next.

Going a step further, healthy living, which is undoubtedly a function of healthy choices, such as wearing sunscreen and brushing our teeth, is also a function of healthy thinking. As one of us (Langer) has argued for decades, most people act mindlessly most of the time because they are preoccupied with their past thoughts, which blinds them to the present. But we can notice and question our thoughts and implicit beliefs, especially when they’re counterproductive—such as expecting to heal slowly or thinking we are just too frail to cope.

We can ask ourselves questions such as: How do we know that these ideas are accurate? What past experiences and situational factors might be unduly influencing our beliefs? Are there equally valid alternative beliefs to consider? And when we encounter a more constructive alternative that resonates, we can embrace it. Thoughts, feelings, and actions will then change accordingly. Just like that, better health is often only a thought away.

Are you a scientist who specializes in neuroscience, cognitive science or psychology? And have you read a recent peer-reviewed paper that you would like to write about for Mind Matters? Please send suggestions to Scientific American ’s Mind Matters editor Daisy Yuhas at [email protected] .

This is an opinion and analysis article, and the views expressed by the author or authors are not necessarily those of Scientific American .

How to Write a Psychology Essay

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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Before you write your essay, it’s important to analyse the task and understand exactly what the essay question is asking. Your lecturer may give you some advice – pay attention to this as it will help you plan your answer.

Next conduct preliminary reading based on your lecture notes. At this stage, it’s not crucial to have a robust understanding of key theories or studies, but you should at least have a general “gist” of the literature.

After reading, plan a response to the task. This plan could be in the form of a mind map, a summary table, or by writing a core statement (which encompasses the entire argument of your essay in just a few sentences).

After writing your plan, conduct supplementary reading, refine your plan, and make it more detailed.

It is tempting to skip these preliminary steps and write the first draft while reading at the same time. However, reading and planning will make the essay writing process easier, quicker, and ensure a higher quality essay is produced.

Components of a Good Essay

Now, let us look at what constitutes a good essay in psychology. There are a number of important features.

• Global Structure – structure the material to allow for a logical sequence of ideas. Each paragraph / statement should follow sensibly from its predecessor. The essay should “flow”. The introduction, main body and conclusion should all be linked.
• Each paragraph should comprise a main theme, which is illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).
• Knowledge and Understanding – recognize, recall, and show understanding of a range of scientific material that accurately reflects the main theoretical perspectives.
• Critical Evaluation – arguments should be supported by appropriate evidence and/or theory from the literature. Evidence of independent thinking, insight, and evaluation of the evidence.
• Quality of Written Communication – writing clearly and succinctly with appropriate use of paragraphs, spelling, and grammar. All sources are referenced accurately and in line with APA guidelines.

In the main body of the essay, every paragraph should demonstrate both knowledge and critical evaluation.

There should also be an appropriate balance between these two essay components. Try to aim for about a 60/40 split if possible.

Most students make the mistake of writing too much knowledge and not enough evaluation (which is the difficult bit).

It is best to structure your essay according to key themes. Themes are illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).

Choose relevant points only, ones that most reveal the theme or help to make a convincing and interesting argument.

Knowledge and Understanding

Remember that an essay is simply a discussion / argument on paper. Don’t make the mistake of writing all the information you know regarding a particular topic.

You need to be concise, and clearly articulate your argument. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences.

Each paragraph should have a purpose / theme, and make a number of points – which need to be support by high quality evidence. Be clear why each point is is relevant to the argument. It would be useful at the beginning of each paragraph if you explicitly outlined the theme being discussed (.e.g. cognitive development, social development etc.).

Try not to overuse quotations in your essays. It is more appropriate to use original content to demonstrate your understanding.

Psychology is a science so you must support your ideas with evidence (not your own personal opinion). If you are discussing a theory or research study make sure you cite the source of the information.

Note this is not the author of a textbook you have read – but the original source / author(s) of the theory or research study.

For example:

Bowlby (1951) claimed that mothering is almost useless if delayed until after two and a half to three years and, for most children, if delayed till after 12 months, i.e. there is a critical period.

Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs. When one need is fulfilled a person seeks to fullfil the next one, and so on.

As a general rule, make sure there is at least one citation (i.e. name of psychologist and date of publication) in each paragraph.

Remember to answer the essay question. Underline the keywords in the essay title. Don’t make the mistake of simply writing everything you know of a particular topic, be selective. Each paragraph in your essay should contribute to answering the essay question.

Critical Evaluation

In simple terms, this means outlining the strengths and limitations of a theory or research study.

There are many ways you can critically evaluate:

Methodological evaluation of research

Is the study valid / reliable ? Is the sample biased, or can we generalize the findings to other populations? What are the strengths and limitations of the method used and data obtained?

Be careful to ensure that any methodological criticisms are justified and not trite.

Rather than hunting for weaknesses in every study; only highlight limitations that make you doubt the conclusions that the authors have drawn – e.g., where an alternative explanation might be equally likely because something hasn’t been adequately controlled.

Compare or contrast different theories

Outline how the theories are similar and how they differ. This could be two (or more) theories of personality / memory / child development etc. Also try to communicate the value of the theory / study.

Debates or perspectives

Refer to debates such as nature or nurture, reductionism vs. holism, or the perspectives in psychology . For example, would they agree or disagree with a theory or the findings of the study?

What are the ethical issues of the research?

Does a study involve ethical issues such as deception, privacy, psychological or physical harm?

Gender bias

If research is biased towards men or women it does not provide a clear view of the behavior that has been studied. A dominantly male perspective is known as an androcentric bias.

Cultural bias

Is the theory / study ethnocentric? Psychology is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise. In some texts, over 90% of studies have US participants, who are predominantly white and middle class.

Does the theory or study being discussed judge other cultures by Western standards?

Animal Research

This raises the issue of whether it’s morally and/or scientifically right to use animals. The main criterion is that benefits must outweigh costs. But benefits are almost always to humans and costs to animals.

Animal research also raises the issue of extrapolation. Can we generalize from studies on animals to humans as their anatomy & physiology is different from humans?

The PEC System

It is very important to elaborate on your evaluation. Don’t just write a shopping list of brief (one or two sentence) evaluation points.

Instead, make sure you expand on your points, remember, quality of evaluation is most important than quantity.

When you are writing an evaluation paragraph, use the PEC system.

• Make your P oint.
• E xplain how and why the point is relevant.
• Discuss the C onsequences / implications of the theory or study. Are they positive or negative?

For Example

• Point: It is argued that psychoanalytic therapy is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority.
• Explain: Because psychoanalytic therapy involves talking and gaining insight, and is costly and time-consuming, it is argued that it is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority. Evidence suggests psychoanalytic therapy works best if the client is motivated and has a positive attitude.
• Consequences: A depressed client’s apathy, flat emotional state, and lack of motivation limit the appropriateness of psychoanalytic therapy for depression.

Furthermore, the levels of dependency of depressed clients mean that transference is more likely to develop.

Using Research Studies in your Essays

Research studies can either be knowledge or evaluation.

• If you refer to the procedures and findings of a study, this shows knowledge and understanding.
• If you comment on what the studies shows, and what it supports and challenges about the theory in question, this shows evaluation.

Writing an Introduction

It is often best to write your introduction when you have finished the main body of the essay, so that you have a good understanding of the topic area.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your introduction.

Ideally, the introduction should;

Identify the subject of the essay and define the key terms. Highlight the major issues which “lie behind” the question. Let the reader know how you will focus your essay by identifying the main themes to be discussed. “Signpost” the essay’s key argument, (and, if possible, how this argument is structured).

Introductions are very important as first impressions count and they can create a h alo effect in the mind of the lecturer grading your essay. If you start off well then you are more likely to be forgiven for the odd mistake later one.

Writing a Conclusion

So many students either forget to write a conclusion or fail to give it the attention it deserves.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your conclusion.

Ideally the conclusion should summarize the key themes / arguments of your essay. State the take home message – don’t sit on the fence, instead weigh up the evidence presented in the essay and make a decision which side of the argument has more support.

Also, you might like to suggest what future research may need to be conducted and why (read the discussion section of journal articles for this).

Don”t include new information / arguments (only information discussed in the main body of the essay).

If you are unsure of what to write read the essay question and answer it in one paragraph.

Points that unite or embrace several themes can be used to great effect as part of your conclusion.

The Importance of Flow

Obviously, what you write is important, but how you communicate your ideas / arguments has a significant influence on your overall grade. Most students may have similar information / content in their essays, but the better students communicate this information concisely and articulately.

When you have finished the first draft of your essay you must check if it “flows”. This is an important feature of quality of communication (along with spelling and grammar).

This means that the paragraphs follow a logical order (like the chapters in a novel). Have a global structure with themes arranged in a way that allows for a logical sequence of ideas. You might want to rearrange (cut and paste) paragraphs to a different position in your essay if they don”t appear to fit in with the essay structure.

To improve the flow of your essay make sure the last sentence of one paragraph links to first sentence of the next paragraph. This will help the essay flow and make it easier to read.

Finally, only repeat citations when it is unclear which study / theory you are discussing. Repeating citations unnecessarily disrupts the flow of an essay.

Referencing

The reference section is the list of all the sources cited in the essay (in alphabetical order). It is not a bibliography (a list of the books you used).

In simple terms every time you cite/refer to a name (and date) of a psychologist you need to reference the original source of the information.

If you have been using textbooks this is easy as the references are usually at the back of the book and you can just copy them down. If you have been using websites, then you may have a problem as they might not provide a reference section for you to copy.

References need to be set out APA style :

Author, A. A. (year). Title of work . Location: Publisher.

Journal Articles

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title, volume number (issue number), page numbers

A simple way to write your reference section is use Google scholar . Just type the name and date of the psychologist in the search box and click on the “cite” link.

Next, copy and paste the APA reference into the reference section of your essay.

Once again, remember that references need to be in alphabetical order according to surname.

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50+ Research Topics for Psychology Papers

How to Find Psychology Research Topics for Your Student Paper

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital.

• Specific Branches of Psychology
• Topics Involving a Disorder or Type of Therapy
• Human Cognition
• Human Development
• Critique of Publications
• Famous Experiments
• Historical Figures
• Specific Careers
• Case Studies
• Literature Reviews
• Your Own Study/Experiment

Are you searching for a great topic for your psychology paper ? Sometimes it seems like coming up with topics of psychology research is more challenging than the actual research and writing. Fortunately, there are plenty of great places to find inspiration and the following list contains just a few ideas to help get you started.

Finding a solid topic is one of the most important steps when writing any type of paper. It can be particularly important when you are writing a psychology research paper or essay. Psychology is such a broad topic, so you want to find a topic that allows you to adequately cover the subject without becoming overwhelmed with information.

I can always tell when a student really cares about the topic they chose; it comes through in the writing. My advice is to choose a topic that genuinely interests you, so you’ll be more motivated to do thorough research.

In some cases, such as in a general psychology class, you might have the option to select any topic from within psychology's broad reach. Other instances, such as in an  abnormal psychology  course, might require you to write your paper on a specific subject such as a psychological disorder.

As you begin your search for a topic for your psychology paper, it is first important to consider the guidelines established by your instructor.

Research Topics Within Specific Branches of Psychology

The key to selecting a good topic for your psychology paper is to select something that is narrow enough to allow you to really focus on the subject, but not so narrow that it is difficult to find sources or information to write about.

One approach is to narrow your focus down to a subject within a specific branch of psychology. For example, you might start by deciding that you want to write a paper on some sort of social psychology topic. Next, you might narrow your focus down to how persuasion can be used to influence behavior .

Other social psychology topics you might consider include:

• Prejudice and discrimination (i.e., homophobia, sexism, racism)
• Social cognition
• Person perception
• Social control and cults
• Persuasion, propaganda, and marketing
• Attraction, romance, and love
• Nonverbal communication
• Prosocial behavior

Psychology Research Topics Involving a Disorder or Type of Therapy

Exploring a psychological disorder or a specific treatment modality can also be a good topic for a psychology paper. Some potential abnormal psychology topics include specific psychological disorders or particular treatment modalities, including:

• Eating disorders
• Borderline personality disorder
• Seasonal affective disorder
• Schizophrenia
• Antisocial personality disorder
• Profile a  type of therapy  (i.e., cognitive-behavioral therapy, group therapy, psychoanalytic therapy)

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Human Cognition

Some of the possible topics you might explore in this area include thinking, language, intelligence, and decision-making. Other ideas might include:

• False memories
• Speech disorders
• Problem-solving

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Human Development

In this area, you might opt to focus on issues pertinent to  early childhood  such as language development, social learning, or childhood attachment or you might instead opt to concentrate on issues that affect older adults such as dementia or Alzheimer's disease.

Some other topics you might consider include:

• Language acquisition
• Media violence and children
• Learning disabilities
• Gender roles
• Child abuse
• Prenatal development
• Parenting styles
• Aspects of the aging process

Do a Critique of Publications Involving Psychology Research Topics

One option is to consider writing a critique paper of a published psychology book or academic journal article. For example, you might write a critical analysis of Sigmund Freud's Interpretation of Dreams or you might evaluate a more recent book such as Philip Zimbardo's  The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil .

Professional and academic journals are also great places to find materials for a critique paper. Browse through the collection at your university library to find titles devoted to the subject that you are most interested in, then look through recent articles until you find one that grabs your attention.

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Famous Experiments

There have been many fascinating and groundbreaking experiments throughout the history of psychology, providing ample material for students looking for an interesting term paper topic. In your paper, you might choose to summarize the experiment, analyze the ethics of the research, or evaluate the implications of the study. Possible experiments that you might consider include:

• The Milgram Obedience Experiment
• The Stanford Prison Experiment
• The Little Albert Experiment
• Pavlov's Conditioning Experiments
• The Asch Conformity Experiment
• Harlow's Rhesus Monkey Experiments

Topics of Psychology Research About Historical Figures

One of the simplest ways to find a great topic is to choose an interesting person in the  history of psychology  and write a paper about them. Your paper might focus on many different elements of the individual's life, such as their biography, professional history, theories, or influence on psychology.

While this type of paper may be historical in nature, there is no need for this assignment to be dry or boring. Psychology is full of fascinating figures rife with intriguing stories and anecdotes. Consider such famous individuals as Sigmund Freud, B.F. Skinner, Harry Harlow, or one of the many other  eminent psychologists .

Psychology Research Topics About a Specific Career

​Another possible topic, depending on the course in which you are enrolled, is to write about specific career paths within the  field of psychology . This type of paper is especially appropriate if you are exploring different subtopics or considering which area interests you the most.

In your paper, you might opt to explore the typical duties of a psychologist, how much people working in these fields typically earn, and the different employment options that are available.

Topics of Psychology Research Involving Case Studies

One potentially interesting idea is to write a  psychology case study  of a particular individual or group of people. In this type of paper, you will provide an in-depth analysis of your subject, including a thorough biography.

Generally, you will also assess the person, often using a major psychological theory such as  Piaget's stages of cognitive development  or  Erikson's eight-stage theory of human development . It is also important to note that your paper doesn't necessarily have to be about someone you know personally.

In fact, many professors encourage students to write case studies on historical figures or fictional characters from books, television programs, or films.

Psychology Research Topics Involving Literature Reviews

Another possibility that would work well for a number of psychology courses is to do a literature review of a specific topic within psychology. A literature review involves finding a variety of sources on a particular subject, then summarizing and reporting on what these sources have to say about the topic.

Literature reviews are generally found in the  introduction  of journal articles and other  psychology papers , but this type of analysis also works well for a full-scale psychology term paper.

Topics of Psychology Research Based on Your Own Study or Experiment

Many psychology courses require students to design an actual psychological study or perform some type of experiment. In some cases, students simply devise the study and then imagine the possible results that might occur. In other situations, you may actually have the opportunity to collect data, analyze your findings, and write up your results.

Finding a topic for your study can be difficult, but there are plenty of great ways to come up with intriguing ideas. Start by considering your own interests as well as subjects you have studied in the past.

Online sources, newspaper articles, books , journal articles, and even your own class textbook are all great places to start searching for topics for your experiments and psychology term papers. Before you begin, learn more about  how to conduct a psychology experiment .

What This Means For You

After looking at this brief list of possible topics for psychology papers, it is easy to see that psychology is a very broad and diverse subject. While this variety makes it possible to find a topic that really catches your interest, it can sometimes make it very difficult for some students to select a good topic.

If you are still stumped by your assignment, ask your instructor for suggestions and consider a few from this list for inspiration.

• Hockenbury, SE & Nolan, SA. Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers; 2014.
• Santrock, JW. A Topical Approach to Lifespan Development. New York: McGraw-Hill Education; 2016.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Health Psychology: Going Through a Breast Cancer Diagnosis

Helen’s recent decline in well-being, non-adherence to medical advice.

Health psychology theory asserts that illness has more than one cause with various factors combining to bring about illness. The biomedicine model commonly applied in the health system is that disease has a single causal factor. The approach used in health psychology is a reflection of the biopsychosocial model of health and illness which is an attempt to integrate the psychological aspects of health (these include fear of treatment, health expectations, behavior like diet, smoking, exercise, and the social aspect such as social status, ethnicity, the value that are placed on health, pressures for behavior change (Ogden, 2004).

Various factors play a role in increasing risk factors for depression. Loss of a loved one, work stress, financial setbacks, and unwelcome life change are some issues that can trigger a depressive episode (Psychology Information online, 2007). Helen has multiple issues like this to deal with. They include the going away of her daughter to Australia who she is very close. Her wish that it had been her daughter or husband accompanying her to get the results for her test to indicate that they are her significant social supports. Helen’s social supports have also been reduced by the fact that her husband has to work more hours at their shop. This means that he is not available for her to provide support and encouragement. He is unaware that she has been diagnosed with depression and that she is going for breast screening

Stress from work is also a contributing factor to her condition. This is tied in with the financial setback that they may have to experience due to the downturn in the retail business. Even with reduced hours at work, Helen still has a lot on her plate because she still needs to take care of her ailing mother who has a chronic illness, another significant issue that is likely to cause her a lot of stress.

Separation from someone important, giving up a hobby and few social growth events are some of the issues identified by a group of scientists as predictive for the incidence of dependence in women. (Kivela et al, 2005). These are features characteristic of Helen’s life. She has not been attending her book club meetings. This has reduced her social support system further contributing to the decline in her condition.

The process of going through a breast cancer diagnosis is also stressful for Helen. Depression is common among patients undergoing breast cancer diagnosis (www.breastcancer.org/). The stress levels associated with the anticipation of the results may contribute to a client deteriorating faster when they have depression. Helen had feelings of fear and she is also overwhelmed by the potential outcome of the biopsy results. These feelings of anxiety coupled with the fact that she does not have adequate social support are vulnerability factors for the decline in her condition. A pending potential diagnosis of cancer is a significantly stressful event. Research indicates that negative life events are more predominant among depressed patients than those people who are not depressed (Jenway and Paykel, 1997 Real Age Depression).

Another factor that has contributed to the decline in Helen’s condition is her non-adherence to the treatment she was given. Helen’s belief that she was not depressed led her to stop taking the anti-depressant medication given to her. Helen appears to have a self-sacrificing personality. Though she receives a diagnosis of mild depression from her general practitioner she does not tell her husband because she does not want to burden him with her problems. Her view is that he would not be able to do anything. David, her husband also does not know about her attendance of breast screening even though it causes her great anxiety causing her to sleep poorly. Helen needs support from her husband and loving daughter because she wishes either one was present when she was going to take her biopsy result.

Her self-sacrificing attitude is also evident from her failure to take prescribed medicine and follow the doctor’s advice because she feels her mother requires a lot of supervision which she would be unable to do well due to the side effects of the drugs. She is willing to neglect her condition so that she can take care of her mother who has Alzheimer’s.

Research shows that depression is associated with some personality traits with self-sacrifice being one of them (Joiner, Coyne and Blalock, 1994, Real Age Depression). This means that Helen due to her self-sacrificing nature is already predisposed to depression and in continuing to do so she denies herself important support from her family and opportunities to manage her condition leading to her decline to clinical depression.

The failure of the doctor to consider the psychological factors at work in Helen’s condition has also contributed to the decline of her condition. When Helen had the needle biopsy done she felt violated and very frightened. She would have liked to ask many questions but being unable to verbalize them she drove home badly shaken. The diagnosis process made her more anxious increasing the probability of deterioration of her condition.

The correlation between anxiety and depression cannot be ignored. In a study, about 85 percent of patients diagnosed with major depression also had a diagnosis of generalized anxiety disorder while approximately 35 percent of the patients had a panic disorder. (www.healthyplace.com/). Increased anxiety levels lead to a feeling of loss of control in one’s life which contributes to depression as is evident in Helen’s case where the two weeks of waiting for her biopsy results made her sleep poorly indicating that her depression was becoming worse.

Health psychology maintains that the body and mind interact to influence an individual’s health (Ogden, 2004). This then means that a situation that results in the agitation of an individual will likely manifest physically, either by making one’s condition worse or causing their health to be impaired. This explains Helen’s inability to sleep due to her anxiety.

The Health Belief Model has been used for intervention in illness health screening; precautionary behavior has four main components, susceptibility, severity, effectiveness, and cost. The concept of perceived susceptibility predicts whether an individual thinks they are susceptible to a certain condition. Generally, people underestimate how vulnerable they are to a condition. (Redding et al, 2000). Helen does not believe that she could have depression, as she considers herself to have a comfortable life and that were her problems were not worse than those of other people. In her evaluation, she could cope just as well as other people.

Perceived cost refers to an individual’s evaluation of the barriers or losses associated with a particular action to achieve an expected outcome. It has to do with a relationship between benefits and barriers such that benefits are greater than barriers. Perceived benefits refer to an individual’s evaluation of how following some advised action will lower risk or cause a moderation in the impact caused by a condition (Redding et al, 2000). Helen was not very keen on taking the antidepressants us she did not feel any better for taking them. As far as she was concerned the medications were ineffective in managing her condition. Perceived barriers make it difficult for an individual to follow a recommended action (Redding et al, 2000). The lightheadedness and peculiar affect the antidepressant medication had on Helen are a perceived barrier in her case. In addition, the doctor’s advice that she be involved in some form of exercise daily and she does something enjoyable daily seemed impractical to her because she felt her mother required more supervision which would take her time. For her the barriers to the advised actions outweigh any benefits that may come from following the doctor’s advice, causing her lack of adherence. These factors acted in concert to cause Helen to disregard her doctor’s advice thus contributing greatly to the decline in her condition.

Health psychology argues that the whole person should be treated; since it is not just physical changes that occur when someone is unwell. Some of the treatments may involve behavior change such as encouragement of beliefs, coping, and strategies that are compliant with medical recommendations (Ogden, 2004). Part of the reason that Helen has not adhered to her treatment is that the doctors have only been trying to treat what is biologically and physically wrong with her.

Her general practitioner prescribed antidepressants for her; recommended exercise and involvement in enjoyable activities without seeking to find out what factors could have led to the development of the depression. He is not aware of her lack of social support, that even though she has family and friends none of them are aware that she has been to see the doctor apart from her friend, Gillian who would have otherwise not known if she had not met her at the post office. Helen felt that his approach was impersonal.

It is important to note that if psychological factors have a role in the etiology of a condition, then they may also have a role in treatment (Ogden, 2004). Consequently the failure of the general practitioner and another doctor, who should have allowed her to ask questions and also counseled her to increase her sense of control despite the illness.

An attempt at understanding the beliefs of Helen would have promoted greater adherence to treatment. By understanding these beliefs the general practitioner would have targeted them and attempted to change her belief that she cannot be suffering from mild depression.

The social cognitive theory includes environmental and social factors in addressing issues of behavior change (Redding et al 2006). Using it, the doctor can achieve a more comprehensive approach in managing Helen’s depression. Helen compares herself with other people using the logic that her problems are not worse than other people’s and if other people could manage their situations, she figured she should also be able to do so.

The social cognitive theory involves various concepts; the concept of person is associated with personal characteristics, coping, emotional arousing, and behavioral capacity among others. The concept of environment is important in showing the relationship between the person and environment. Helen’s environment is a highly stressful one because of the presence of her elderly sick mother and the business that is experiencing difficulty. Helen being a self-sacrificing individual that she is unlikely to perform risk reduction behavior (stress management, exercise, taking part in enjoyable activities).

In SCT the individual’s view of the environment is referred to as situations. They can help to enhance or inhibit behavior. In Helen’s case, her situations inhibit adherence to her treatment regime.

Further demonstration of the effect of Helen’s environment on her health behavior is her postponement of attendance of a mammogram clinic even when she had received a letter to attend. Her decision was influenced by her friend’s description of the process that it was embarrassing and uncomfortable.

According to social cognitive theory, influence on behavior that involves the environment may be physical, cultural, social, economic, or political (Redding et al, 2000). In Helen’s case, the influences are mainly social as they involve her friends and family.

Poor communication between the doctor and Helen has also contributed to her lack of adherence to medical advice. Most consultations are doctor-centered where the doctor directs the patient and the patient answers questions. The problem with this is that it creates a sense of hierarchy and inspires ignorance in the patient. As a result, many patients dislike it but show a preference for consultations centered on the patient because their primary focus is the needs of the patient. This approach is more acceptable because it means that the doctor will listen to the patient completely and will include the patient in choosing the treatment plan and also finding a diagnosis (Banyard 2002). A patient is more likely to stick to medical advice when he or she understands how their diagnosis was reached and is well informed about their condition. Helen’s consultation with her general practitioner was unsatisfactory as far as she was concerned and she felt that he was impersonal hence her poor understanding of her condition and the importance of sticking to the medication regime and following the advice to exercise and be involved in enjoyable characteristics. While there has been evidence that a patient-centered approach may not always result in the best clinical outcomes, on the other hand, several studies prove the benefits of a positive experience during consultations which result in better health of the patient (Weineman and Petrie, 2000).

A patient’s perception of their illness will determine how they respond to the treatment program developed for them. Research shows that patients’ ideas concerning their illness are centered on 5 major components which are identity, cause, timeline, consequences, and cure or control. These components interrelate logically to determine treatment adherence (Weinman and Petrie, 2000). For instance when a patient believes that an illness can be cured they associate the illness with a short duration and minor consequences’ (Weinman and Petrie, 2000). When a patient’s perception of their illness is dysfunctional they are likely to fail to adhere to their treatment or medical advice. Helen decided not to attend a breast cancer clinic despite getting the letter a year before. She did not see any urgency in getting the screening done because she did not think she was at risk since there was no history of cancer in her family. Upon screening, however, she was discovered to have a cyst.

The self-regulatory model developed by Leventhal et al shows that illness perceptions are important when assessing and helping the client to cope with the condition and the patient’s outcome (Weinman and Petrie, 2000).

Weinman and Petrie argue that there’s a close relationship between adherence to treatment and the beliefs the patient has about how necessary the medication is and also the concern about specific tablets (Weinman and Petrie, 2000). This explains Helen’s failure to adhere to medication because she did not feel that the antidepressants were necessary. In addition, the drugs made her feel light-headed and strange, showing that she had not been warned about the side effects inadequately. Her concerns about their effectiveness and their side effects made her stop taking drugs.

Helen’s non-adherence to medical advice can also be attributed to a lack of understanding of the information discussed during the consultation. Her perception that she did not have depression but her willingness to buy anti-depressant medication indicates that she does not fully understand her condition. Her dissatisfaction with the consultation further indicates this.

Though the relationship between non-adherence and poor understanding may be obvious, it is not very clear since some studies show a positive association while others fail to demonstrate how they two are linked (Weinman and Petrie, 2000). Satisfaction with medical consultation and medical care does not necessarily guarantee adherence but where there is dissatisfaction with medical care adherence is lowered as the patient has decreased motivation for treatment (Weinman and Petrie, 2000).

Health psychology, through the study of the psychological processes that occur in health, illness, and health care has helped in the development of many interventions to improve healthcare. The discipline however still requires more insights so that it can provide truly comprehensive models that explain health and illness behavior.

The long-term effect of the discipline will be increased effectiveness in health care delivery as a result of using psychological intervention for the prevention and management of health problems.

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IvyPanda. (2023, November 22). Health Psychology: Going Through a Breast Cancer Diagnosis. https://ivypanda.com/essays/health-psychology-a-case-study/

"Health Psychology: Going Through a Breast Cancer Diagnosis." IvyPanda , 22 Nov. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/health-psychology-a-case-study/.

IvyPanda . (2023) 'Health Psychology: Going Through a Breast Cancer Diagnosis'. 22 November.

IvyPanda . 2023. "Health Psychology: Going Through a Breast Cancer Diagnosis." November 22, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/health-psychology-a-case-study/.

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Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Health Psychology: Going Through a Breast Cancer Diagnosis." November 22, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/health-psychology-a-case-study/.

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